BCA-403

Computer Networks
Unit-5
Topic: Modulations & demodulations, Comparison of channel
access protocols

Modulations: Modulation can be digital or analog, the input wave of the

analog signal varies continuously like a sine wave. Modulation can be defined
as the process of converting data into waves by adding information to a carrier
signal. Such a signal can be transmitted electronically or optically, but it must
have a consistent waveform.

What is Modulation?
The process by which data is converted into electrical/digital signals for
transferring that signal over a medium is called modulation. It increases strength
for maximum reach of the signals. The process of extracting data from the
transmitted signal is called demodulation. A Modem is a device that performs
both modulation and demodulation processes. The various forms of modulation
are designed to alter the characteristics of carrier waves. The most commonly
altered characteristics of modulation include amplitude, frequency, and phase.
 Carrier signal: The signals that contain no information but have a
certain phase, frequency, and amplitude are called carrier signals.
 Modulated signals: The signals which are the combination of the carrier
signals and modulation signals are modulated signals. The modulated
signal is obtained after the modulation of the signals.
Types of Modulation:
Amplitude Modulation: It is a type of modulation in which only
the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to represent the data being added to
the signals whereas the phase and the frequency of the signal are kept
unchanged..

For ex:
 Think of amplitude modulation like adjusting the volume of your voice
to convey information. When you speak louder, it represents a higher
value, and when you speak softer, it represents a lower value. But you're
not changing the speed or pitch of your voice, just how loud it is. That's
how amplitude modulation works—it changes the "loudness" of the signal
while keeping everything else the same.
 Phase Modulation: It is a type of modulation in which the phase of the
carrier signal is varied to represent the data being added to the signal.
Different information values are represented by different phases. For
example: ‘1’ may be represented by 0° while ‘0’ by 180°.
Imagine you're playing catch with a friend using a ball. With phase
modulation, you'd decide whether to start throwing the ball from your left
hand or your right hand to represent different messages. So, starting from
your left hand could mean '1', while starting from your right-hand means
'0'. You're not changing how hard you throw or how fast you throw the
ball—just where you start throwing it from. That's phase
modulation—changing the starting point to convey different information.

What is the Need of Modulation?

1. Size of Antenna: Think of your TV antenna. If it were as big as a
skyscraper, it would be impractical, right? That's because the size of the
antenna is linked to the frequency of the signal it receives. So, instead of
building massive antennas for high-frequency signals, like those used for
Wi-Fi or Bluetooth, we use modulation to shrink the antennas down to
manageable sizes, just like how a tiny microphone can pick up your voice
and transmit it wirelessly.
2. Wireless Communication: Imagine you're sending a message to a friend.
Before, you had to use a long wire to connect to them, like a string tying
you together. But with modulation, it's like you're using a magic spell to
send your message through the air, reaching your friend instantly, no
 strings attached. It's like upgrading from a landline phone to a
smartphone with Wi-Fi—suddenly, you can talk to anyone, anywhere,
without being tied down.

 Comparison of channel access protocols:

1. 1TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access):

a. Imagine a playground where kids take turns using the swings. Each child
gets a specific time slot to swing before the next one takes their turn.
TDMA works similarly, dividing time into slots, and different users get
their own time slot to transmit data. It's like giving everyone their
designated playtime on the swings.
2. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access):
a. Picture a radio station where each station broadcasts on a different frequency. You tune your radio to a
specific frequency to listen to your favourite station. FDMA works like this, dividing the frequency
spectrum into channels, and each user gets assigned a different channel to transmit their data. It's like
each radio station having its own frequency for broadcasting.
3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access):
a. Think of a crowded room where everyone is talking at the same time, but each person
speaks a different language. Even though it's noisy, you can focus on the language you
understand. CDMA is like this, where multiple users transmit data simultaneously
using unique codes, and the receiver can pick out the intended signal by deciphering
the code. It's like being able to understand your friend's conversation in a noisy room
because you both speak the same language.
Frame Format:
An Ethernet frame is a piece of data along with the information that is required to transport
and deliver that piece of data. In networking reference models, such as; OSI Seven Layers
model and TCP/IP, the Ethernet frame is defined in the Data link layer.
Ethernet format:
Basic frame format which is required for all MAC implementation is defined in IEEE 802.3 standard.
Though several optional formats are being used to extend the protocol’s basic capability. Ethernet
frame starts with Preamble and SFD, both work at the physical layer. Ethernet header contains both
the Source and Destination MAC address, after which the payload of the frame is present. The last
field is CRC which is used to detect the error
1. PREAMBLE – Ethernet frame starts with a 7-Bytes Preamble. This is a pattern of
alternative 0’s and 1’s which indicates starting of the frame and allow sender and receiver
to establish bit synchronization. Initially, PRE (Preamble) was introduced to allow for the
loss of a few bits due to signal delays. But today’s high-speed Ethernet doesn’t need
Preamble to protect the frame bits. PRE (Preamble) indicates the receiver that frame is
coming and allow the receiver to lock onto the data stream before the actual frame begins.
2. Start of frame delimiter (SFD) – This is a 1-Byte field that is always set to 10101011.
SFD indicates that upcoming bits are starting the frame, which is the destination address.
Sometimes SFD is considered part of PRE, this is the reason Preamble is described as 8
Bytes in many places. The SFD warns station or stations that this is the last chance for
synchronization.
3. Destination Address – This is a 6-Byte field that contains the MAC address of the
machine for which data is destined.
4. Source Address – This is a 6-Byte field that contains the MAC address of the source
machine. As Source Address is always an individual address (Unicast), the least
significant bit of the first byte is always 0.
5. Length – Length is a 2-Byte field, which indicates the length of the entire Ethernet frame.
This 16-bit field can hold a length value between 0 to 65534, but length cannot be larger
than 1500 Bytes because of some own limitations of Ethernet.
6. Data – This is the place where actual data is inserted, also known as Payload. Both IP
header and data will be inserted here if Internet Protocol is used over Ethernet. The
maximum data present may be as long as 1500 Bytes. In case data length is less than
minimum length i.e. 46 bytes, then padding 0’s is added to meet the minimum possible
length.
7. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) - CRC is a field of 4 bytes. The data in this field is a
32-bit hash code created using the fields for the destination address, source address,
length, and data. Data is damaged if the checksum calculated by the destination differs
from the checksum value supplied.
SA [Source MAC Address]: 6 bytes

Type [0x8870 (Ethertype)]: 2 bytes

DSAP [802.2 Destination Service Access Point]: 1 byte

SSAP [802.2 Source Service Access Point]: 1 byte

Ctrl [802.2 Control Field]: 1 byte

Data [Protocol Data]: > 46 bytes

FCS [Frame Checksum]: 4 bytes

Advantages of using Ethernet:

1. Simple to implement
2. Maintenance is Easy
3. Less cost

Flaws of Ethernet:
1. It can't be applied in real-time situations. Data delivery within a certain time frame is
necessary for real-time applications. Due to the high likelihood of collisions, Ethernet is
unreliable. The delivery of the data to its destination may be delayed due to an increased
number of collisions.
2. Applications requiring interaction cannot be utilized with it. Even extremely little amounts
of data must be delivered for interactive apps like chatting. The minimum data length
required by Ethernet is 46 bytes.
3. It is incompatible with client-server applications. Applications that use client-server
architecture demand that the server is prioritised over the client. Priorities cannot be set
in Ethernet.
4. DEFINITION

5. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a network protocol for transmitting files between computers over
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) connections. Within the TCP/IP suite, FTP is
considered an application layer protocol.

an FTP transaction, the end user's computer is typically called the local host. The second computer
involved in FTP is a remote host, which is usually a server. Both computers need to be connected via
a network and configured properly to transfer files via FTP. Servers must be set up to run FTP
services, and the client must have FTP software installed to access these services.

Although many file transfers can be conducted using Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) -- another
protocol in the TCP/IP suite -- FTP is still commonly used to transfer files behind the scenes for other
applications, such as banking services. It is also sometimes used to download new applications via
web browsers.

How does FTP work?

FTP is a client-server protocol that relies on two communications channels between the client and
server: a command channel for controlling the conversation and a data channel for transmitting file
content.

Here is how a typical FTP transfer works:

1. A user typically needs to log on to the FTP server, although some servers make some or all of
their content available without a login, a model known as anonymous FTP.

2. The client initiates a conversation with the server when the user requests to download a file.

3. Using FTP, a client can upload, download, delete, rename, move and copy files on a server.

Why is FTP important and what is it used for?

FTP is a standard network protocol that can enable expansive file transfer
capabilities across IP networks. Without FTP, file and data transfer can be
managed with other mechanisms -- such as email or an HTTP web service
-- but those other options lack the clarity of focus, precision and control that
FTP enables.

FTP is used for file transfers between one system and another, and it has
several common use cases, including the following:

 Backup. FTP can be used by backup services or individual users

to backup data from one location to a secured backup server
running FTP services.
  Replication. Similar to backup, replication involves duplication of
data from one system to another but takes a more comprehensive
approach to provide higher availability and resilience. FTP can
also be used to facilitate this.

 Access and data loading. FTP is also commonly used to access

shared web hosting and cloud services as a mechanism to load
data onto a remote system.
FTP types
There are several different ways an FTP server and client software can
conduct a file transfer using FTP:

 Anonymous FTP. This is the most basic form of FTP. It provides

support for data transfers without encrypting data or using a
username and password. It's most commonly used for download
of material that is allowed for unrestricted distribution. It works
on port

 Password-protected FTP. This is also a basic FTP service, but it

requires the use of a username and password, though the service
might not be encrypted or secure. It also works on port 21.

UDP Protocol:
UDP is a short form for User Datagram protocol. It is one of the
simplest transport layer protocol. It is a connectionless and
unreliable transport protocol.
 This protocol is mainly designed in order to data send data packets over the
Internet.
 This protocol does not add anything to the services of IP(Internet protocol)
except that UDP provides process-to-process communication rather than
host-to-host communication.
 UDP performs a very limited amount of error checking.
 This protocol uses the minimum number of overhead. Suppose if a process
wants to send a small message with no concern of reliability then it can make
the use of UDP.
 This protocol simply takes the datagram from the network layer, attaches its
own header, and then sends it back to the user.
  User Datagram
 The UDP packets are commonly known as User Datagram and the size of the
header is fixed that is 8 bytes.
 Let us now take a look at the format of User Datagram;

1.Source Port Number

This port number is mainly used by the process that is running on the source host.
Its length is 16 bits which means that the port number can range from 0 to 65,535. It
is mainly used to identify the port of the sending or source application.
In case if the source host is a client (that mainly sends a request), then in most
cases the ephemeral port number is requested by the process and also chosen by
UDP software that runs on the source host.
But in the case of the server as a source host(mainly a server sending a response)
then the port number is a well-known port number in such cases.

2.Destination Port Number

This port number is mainly used by the process that is running on the destination
host. Its length is 16 bits.
If the destination host is the server ( a client sending the request), then the port
number is a well-known port number.
3.Length

This field of the datagram header is mainly used to identify the combined length of
UDP Header and Encapsulated data. It is a 16-bit field.

4.Checksum

This field is mainly used to detect errors. It is a 16-bit field.

 The checksum calculation is although not mandatory in the User datagram protocol.

Characteristics of UDP
 UDP is an unreliable and connectionless protocol.
 It is almost a Null Protocol.
 If the flow of data is in one direction, then it is a good protocol.
 This protocol does not guarantee the delivery of the data.
 No congestion control mechanism is provided by this protocol.
 UDP offers Minimal transport services.
 It is a stateless protocol.

1.Connectionless Services

The User datagram protocol offers Connectionless Services which simply means
that each user datagram that is sent by the UDP is an independent datagram. In
different datagrams, there is no relationship, even if they are coming from the same
source process and also going to the same destination program.
User datagrams are not numbered, there is no connection establishment and no
connection termination.
Each datagram mainly travels through different paths.

2.Flow Control and Error Control

User datagram is a very simple and unreliable transport protocol. It does not provide
any flow control mechanism and hence there is no window mechanism. Due to which
the receiver may overflow with the incoming messages.
No error control mechanism is provided by UDP except checksum. Due to which the
sender does not know if any message is has been lost or duplicated.
As there is a lack of flow control and error control it means that the process that uses
the UDP should provide these mechanisms.

3.Encapsulation and decapsulation

In order to send the message from one process to another, the user datagram
protocol encapsulates and decapsulates the message in the form of an IP datagram.

Applications of UDP
Given below are some applications of the User datagram protocol:
 UDP is used by those applications that require one response for one request.
 It is used by broadcasting and multicasting applications.
 Management processes such as SNMP make use of UDP.
 Route updating protocols like Routing Information Protocol(RIP) make use
of User Datagram Protocol.
 The process that has an error and flows control mechanism makes use of
UDP. One Application for the same is Trivial File Transfer Protocol(TFTP).

Well-known UDP Ports

Now its time to take a look at some well know port numbers used by User datagram
protocol:

Port Protocol Description

7 Echo This port echoes a received datagram back to the sender.

9 Discard It is used to discard any datagram that is received.

11 Users Indicates Active Users

13 Daytime Used to return the date and time

17 Quote Used to return the Quote of the day

19 Chargen Used to return a string of Characters.

53 Nameserver Indicates the Domain name service

67 BOOTPs Server port used to download the bootstrap information.

68 BOOTPc Client port used to download the bootstrap information.

69 TFTP Trivial file transfer protocol

111 RPC Remote Procedure call

123 NTP Network time protocol

161 SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol

162 SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol(trap)

Queuing concept in User Datagram Protocol

In User datagram protocol, generally, queues are associated with ports:
Advantages of UDP
Given below are some advantages of UDP:

1. With UDP, broadcast and multicast transmission is possible.

2. UDP uses the bandwidth efficiently, as there is a small packet overhead.
3. As there is no need for connection establishment, hence UDP is very fast.
4. There is no buffering and numbering of packets.
5. There is no need for handshaking.
6. There is no congestion control so it is used for real-time applications.

Disadvantages of UDP
Now its time to take a look at UDP:

1.There is a lack of guaranteed delivery.

2.There is no flow control.

3.There is no congestion control mechanism.