Journal of Advertising

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Multifaceted Influencers: Toward a New Typology

for Influencer Roles in Advertising

Ksenia Rundin & Jonas Colliander

To cite this article: Ksenia Rundin & Jonas Colliander (2021) Multifaceted Influencers: Toward
a New Typology for Influencer Roles in Advertising, Journal of Advertising, 50:5, 548-564, DOI:
10.1080/00913367.2021.1980471

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2021.1980471

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JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING
2021, VOL. 50, NO. 5, 548–564
https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2021.1980471

Multifaceted Influencers: Toward a New Typology for Influencer Roles in

Advertising
Ksenia Rundin and Jonas Colliander
Stockholm School of Economics, Stockholm, Sweden

ABSTRACT
Social media influencers (SMIs) have become an efficient advertising tool. However, their
roles vis-
a-vis the brands for which they advertise are changing. Far from being just simple
promoters anymore they now take active part in both the product and communications
development of firms. Yet in advertising research, a discussion of these new roles is absent.
This article, therefore, seeks to categorize the roles influencers play in advertising collabora-
tions by means of an empirical typology. In a netnographic study, we investigate the posts
of 21 fashion influencers over a period of three years and find three main roles (spokesper-
son, cocreator, or co-owner) and eight subroles (for spokesperson: billboard, stylist, and
ambassador; for cocreator: consultant and codesigner; for co-owner: sole proprietor, facilita-
tor, and partner) that influencers take on in relation to brands. We contribute to theory on
influencer marketing by conceptualizing influencer roles in advertising collaborations as well
as categorizing these roles, thus allowing future researchers to use our typology as a con-
ceptual foundation. Another contribution is the insight into how the dynamics of control
over product and communication creation is evolving in influencer collaborations.

Now, in a crowded and competitive market, . . . a (Winch 1947) of the various roles SMIs assume in
new wave of retailers is leaning on celebrities and advertising collaborations.
tastemakers to not only promote products but to Lou and Yuan (2019, 59) define SMIs as “first and
curate them, too. (Sherman 2021)
foremost a content generator: one who has a status of
To many, the celebrities and tastemakers of 2021 are expertise in a specific area, who has cultivated a sizable
synonymous with social media influencers (SMIs). number of captive followers—who are of marketing
Taking the word-of-mouth marketing phenomenon value to brands—by regularly producing valuable con-
(Kozinets et al. 2010) to new heights and emerging out tent via social media.” Previous research has shown that
of concepts like “opinion leaders” (Katz and Lazarsfeld SMIs have a substantial impact on their target audience
1955) or “market mavens” (Feick and Price 1987), SMIs (De Veirman, Cauberghe, and Hudders 2017) and that
the field is a growing one. Influencer marketing is esti-
are now influencing people worldwide. However, as the
mated to become a $15 billion industry by 2022
previous quote illustrates, the role of the influencer in
(Business Insider 2019). In fact, strategic use of influ-
advertising collaborations is changing. Whereas before
encers has been identified as a key to the success of
SMIs were seen as mere promoters, they are now in many of the fastest-growing brands of the past decade,
many cases cast in new roles. The question central to ranging from fashion retailers Revolve and NA-KD to
this article is a simple one: What are those roles? In other accessories brands such as Daniel Wellington. In
attempting to answer that question, we study the adver- the past few years, established brands such as Amazon
tising collaborations of 21 fashion influencers over a and Sephora have also been increasing their invest-
period of three years and develop an empirical typology ments in influencer marketing.

CONTACT Ksenia Rundin [email protected] Center for Retailing, Stockholm School of Economics, P.O. Box 6501, SE-113 83
Stockholm, Sweden.
Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2021.1980471.
Ksenia Rundin (MS, Stockholm University) is a doctoral student, Center for Retailing, Stockholm School of Economics.
Jonas Colliander (PhD, Stockholm School of Economics) is an associate professor, Center for Retailing, Stockholm School of Economics.
ß 2021 The Author(s). Published with license by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed,
or built upon in any way.
 JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING 549

However, looking at these modern influencer col- and Griffin 2014). The present research demonstrates
laborations reveals complex and changing influencer how companies release or maintain control in modern
roles. In many instances, SMIs promote brands over influencer advertising collaborations and the commu-
longer time periods. In others, they take part in the nication that results from it. The typology might thus
product development of these organizations. also serve as an inspiration to advertising practitioners
Furthermore, several influencers have started their for how they can expand and advance their work with
own brands and product lines, transforming the way influencers moving forward.
brands are sold and distributed (Fernandez 2020).
Meanwhile, that development is quite absent from
Theoretical Background
advertising literature. Advertising researchers have
studied influencers’ interactions with consumers Influencers
closely over the past decades (cf. Ye et al. 2021). SMIs are online personalities who influence their fol-
However, despite having added many new perspec- lowers across one or more social media platforms. They
tives on influencers, much of existing research seems are individuals who have either become “online celebri-
to treat the influencer role in advertising collabora- ties” by creating and posting content on social media or
tions as remarkably static. In most studies, influencers traditional celebrities who have gained their popularity
are viewed essentially as billboards—an area where in an institutional setting like entertainment or sports
companies pay to have their product displayed. Yet a and have subsequently developed a large social media
more thorough conceptualization of influencer roles following (McQuarrie, Miller, and Phillips 2013).
would impact advertisers and researchers alike. For Generally, influencers possess some expertise in specific
advertisers, a mapping of influencer roles allows for areas, such as travel, food, beauty, fashion (Lou and
different and potentially more impactful collabora- Yuan 2019, Lawson 2021), LGBTQ issues (Duguay
tions. For researchers, a typology can provide more 2019), or religion (Beta 2019), and communicate to a
insight into underlying dimensions, thus strengthening mass audience of people they generally have never met
and advancing research on SMIs. (McQuarrie, Miller, and Phillips 2013).
Thus, in developing an empirical typology of the Previous research into influencers has, for example,
various roles SMIs have assumed in advertising collab- investigated the authenticity and relatability of influ-
orations in recent years, and in describing how those encers as a reason for their influence (e.g., Djafarova and
roles manifest in the digital context, we shine a light Rushworth 2017), as well as effects on consumers of vari-
on the SMI as a multifaceted actor in advertising and ous message contents (e.g., De Veirman, Cauberghe, and
product innovation. We find that SMIs can assume Hudders 2017; Lou and Yuan 2019). Other researchers
three main roles in advertising collaborations (spokes- have examined how norms in individual communities
person, cocreator, or co-owner) further subdivided affect the reception of messages (e.g., Kozinets et al.
into eight subroles (for spokesperson: billboard, stylist, 2010). Studies have been conducted on the underlying
ambassador; for cocreator: consultant, codesigner; for psychological mechanisms behind the connection con-
co-owner: sole proprietor, facilitator, partner). Our sumers feel with influencers (e.g., Colliander and Dahlen
typology contributes theoretically to the concept for- 2011; Knoll and Matthes 2017) and on how the use of
mation surrounding SMI roles. It allows researchers sponsorship disclaimers affects influencer messages
to conceptualize constructs more accurately and sub- (e.g., Hughes, Swaminathan, and Brooks 2019; Stubb,
sequently produce better measures and model specifi- Nystr€ om, and Colliander 2019). More recently, studies
cations, leading to studies with higher internal validity on different types of influencers, such as macro-, micro-,
(MacKenzie 2003). Another contribution is the cat- meso- and mega-influencers (e.g., G omez 2019;
egorization produced by our typology, which might Campbell and Farrell 2020), are surfacing.
serve as a conceptual starting point for future studies More interdisciplinary studies have highlighted
investigating influencers in various roles (Collier, other facets of the influencer experience. Researchers
LaPorte, and Seawright 2012). Furthermore, our study have emphasized financial inequalities in the business
elucidates the issue of control over product and com- (Mangan 2020; Terranova 2000) as well as inequities
munications development when it is shared between among gender (Drenten, Gurrieri, and Tyler 2020),
organizations and outside collaborators. Previous race (Lawson 2021), and class (Iqani 2019). Research
research has studied the effects of firms ceding control has also underscored how these issues are being com-
to outside collaborators in advertising mostly in the pounded by the structure of platforms as well as the
context of traditional creatives (Phillips, McQuarrie, algorithms they use (Noble 2018). Studies have thus
550 K. RUNDIN AND J. COLLIANDER

Table 1. Characteristics of the influencers.

Influencer account Gender (F/M) Number of followers Context

@ada_oguntodu F 67,500 United Kingdom

@pernilleteisbaek F 1 million Denmark
@susiebubble F 509,000 Hong Kong/United Kingdom
@desertmannequin F 71,900 United Arab Emirates
@monikh F 221,000 United Kingdom
@charlottekuhrt F 179,000 Germany
@camillecharriere F 1 million France/United Kingdom
@galagonzalez F 1,2 million Spain/United States
@pandorasykes F 329,000 United Kingdom
@jeannedamas F 1,4 million France
@slipintostyle F 105,000 France
@alexandra.stedman F 253,000 United Kingdom
@leandramcohen F 1 million United States
@aimeesong F 5,6 million United States/Korea
@sarabrowndesign F 14,500 United Kingdom
@alwaysjudging F 348,000 United States
@lucywilliams02 F 501,000 United Kingdom
@tamumcpherson F 330,000 Jamaica/Italy
@wethepeoplestyle F 533,000 New Zealand/United Kingdom
@natashandlovu F 120,000 United Kingdom
@veronikaheilbrunner F 227,000 Germany

highlighted the influencer phenomenon both from a infotainers. As indicated by these classifications,
follower and an influencer perspective, the latter being though, the existing conceptualizations of the influen-
far from constantly glamorous. Given the increasing cer role seems to be based on the traditional consum-
complexities surrounding the influencer, attempts er–influencer relationship. A look at current
have also been made to dig deeper into the influencer influencer practices, however, indicates that the influ-
concept and the role that influencers play. encer role has expanded not in relation to consumers
but rather in relation to the advertised brands. This
Categorizing an Influencer (Role) development creates a gap in the academic literature.
It requires more contextual research on SMIs and
With a combination of wide reach and a feeling of their evolving role regarding engagement in the pro-
personal contact with followers (Colliander and moting, cocreation, and creation of products vis-
a-vis
Dahlen 2011), SMIs are a compelling advertising tool brands. Thus, our intention here is to look at SMIs in
for brands. Nevertheless, identifying appropriate influ- their collaborations with brands, trying to understand
encers with a strong impact on their target audience
their various roles in the advertising context related to
still constitutes one of the biggest challenges for com-
the product innovation process of companies.
panies (De Veirman, Cauberghe, and Hudders 2017).
As a result, several tools for practitioners exist to cat-
egorize SMIs. The number of followers is often used Methodology
as a starting point in the search for the right influen-
cer (Kay, Mulcahy, and Parkinson 2020). Number of We examine SMI roles using Instagram. Predicted to
followers is thought to reflect the network size, indi- reach 988 million monthly users by 2023 (Statista
cate the popularity of an influencer (e.g., Romero 2021), Instagram is one of the most popular social
et al. 2011), or reveal opinion leadership (Feng 2016). media platforms worldwide. We take an inductive,
There are several media-driven numerical classifica- qualitative approach and employ netnography
tions of influencers, most of which are based on num- (Kozinets 2002). In general, we follow netnography
ber of followers (Kay, Mulcahy, and Parkinson 2020). guidelines set by Kozinets (2019) that cover the rules
Regarding the classification of the influencer role, of ethics, investigation and data collection, interaction
researchers have created some typologies (Gross and and immersive engagement (cultural participation),
Wangenheim 2018; Marwick 2015). Marwick (2015) data analysis and interpretation, and presentation of
categorizes SMIs based on the “micro-celebrity” tech- the results.
niques they use to achieve attention (such as Following Kozinets’s (2019) five criteria for data-
Instagram famous, pseudo-celebrity, or luxury enthu- selection operations—relevance, activity, interactivity,
siast). Gross and Wangenheim (2018) classify influ- diversity, and richness—we deemed Instagram suit-
encers as either snoopers, informers, entertainers, or able, because influencers there constantly generate
 JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING 551

visual and textual content, some of which consists of thus entirely possible that some are either not
advertising messages. required to or do not see the need to disclose adver-
Fashion is the largest business-to-customer (B2C) e- tising collaborations. Thus, we adapted a looser stand-
commerce market segment where SMIs operate (Statista ard for which posts to include in the study. We fully
2020). Therefore, we study 21 fashion influencers recognize that this might be a controversial choice,
(Table 1) who in 2019 were listed as “Top Fashion given the likelihood that some posts included in the
Influencers” by the international fashion platform Who study might not be paid-for advertising. However, to
What Wear (whowhatwear.com), whose vision is “to fully capture and describe the phenomenon at hand,
change the way women feel about fashion and beauty we determined that including embedded ads provides
by continuing to champion the idea that style is inclu- valuable insights and makes the data richer.
sive and attainable by all.” As a result, the list includes The saved posts (N ¼ 1,960), consisting of ads
a relatively diverse range of influencers in terms of (n ¼ 589) and embedded ads (n ¼ 1,371), constitute
nationality, body type, and fashion careers (such as the data for this study. Aiming to preserve the integ-
models, journalists, designers). Furthermore, the diver- rity of the discussions within the accounts (commun-
sity in both content and number of followers contrib- ities), we immersed ourselves in the images and
utes to creating an empirical variety, thus allowing us messages of each of the Instagram accounts without
to capture more facets of the phenomenon at hand. any further interaction with the influencers or their
We started our data collecting process by creating followers. Following the conversations over time
an account on Instagram, resembling the follower allowed us to better understand the culture of the
approach. We initiated an observation of each influ- communities and the nuances of the influencers’
encer’s personal account over a period of three years, changing roles. Next, we categorized the posts, par-
between 2017 and 2019. This engagement gives us a ticularly looking for content where the influencers col-
detailed appreciation of the research field. In total, laborate with brands in ways that would differentiate
34,153 posts are observed. During the initial observa- from the pure product introduction. It could concern
tion stage, we saved the posts that fit into one of the cocreation of new products, collaboration with other
two following categories: “ad” and “embedded ad” influencers, or design of own products.
(Cain 2011). By ad, we mean sponsored influencer We base our analysis on an a priori belief that influ-
posts, the commercial nature of which is clearly mani- encers shoulder different roles for different marketing
fested through the usage of such words as purposes. Furthermore, we believe that these roles are
“sponsored,” “paid partnership,” “ad,” and so on. shaped by the produced content itself. Thus, we analyze
Such posts let the audience understand that the idea the post as such, the image(s) and video(s), the message
of the post is to feature a concrete product for a fee. contained, and the consumer interactions, such as likes
By embedded advertising, we mean posts that feature and comments. We employ an empirical typology
an influencer wearing a branded product that is deriving from the data and aiming to summarize obser-
“tagged” (the brand’s clickable label is digitally vations, describe modal characteristics, and stand logic-
attached to the post), allowing consumers to identify ally between observation and reformulation of theory
the brand in the post and/or mentioned in the influ- (Winch 1947). Because the purpose of this research is
encer’s comment (e.g., “Enjoying little revelry in to better understand how the role of influencers has
Bossville this holiday season with #BOSSxJeremyville”) developed in their communicative narratives, we con-
and/or hashtagged (preceded by the # symbol; e.g., sider the content of the collected data retrieved to be
#BOSS, placed in the comment field), making it pos- sufficient to address the following guiding questions
sible to search for posts with this specific name. (Schuman, Lawrence, and Pope 2019):
We decided to include embedded ads, which are
ads in all but labels, in this study for two reasons. 1. How does the influencer portray himself or her-
First, regulatory agencies in countries requiring dis- self as having affected the final form of the com-
closure of commercial content acknowledge that a munication (post)?
great number of collaborations are still not labeled 2. How does the influencer portray himself or her-
appropriately (Federal Trade Commission 2020). self as having affected the final form of the prod-
Second, as the influencers in our study are active in uct displayed?
different countries around the globe, each adheres to
different rules and is subjected to various levels of Basing our coding on these questions will illumin-
enforcement of regulations regarding advertising. It is ate the influencer’s part in crafting both the products
552 K. RUNDIN AND J. COLLIANDER

and the message and thus shed light on the various previously mentioned, the success of these collabora-
roles that the influencers could play vis-
a-vis the com- tions may hinge on the degree of creative control
panies involved. When applying these questions to the bestowed upon the influencer.
empirical material, we seek to understand what the By analyzing the degree of control that SMIs are
Instagram posts are attempting to convey about the seemingly able to assert in brand collaborations, we
featured brands to the audience and what is transmit- identified three overarching roles that an influencer
ted beyond the images and words used. Through this can assume in brand collaborations: (1) spokesperson,
process, we group together the posts that explicitly (2) cocreator, and (3) co-owner. Furthermore, we also
and implicitly convey similar roles as influencer identified subroles to these main roles. The spokesper-
role themes. son subroles are (a) billboard, (b) stylist, and (c)
As a result of this process, we create concepts that ambassador. The cocreator subroles are (a) consultant
grasp the commonalities of influencer roles and use and (b) codesigner. The co-owner subroles are (a)
an iterative process (Spiggle 1994) to refine these con- sole proprietor, (b) facilitator, and (c) partner. All of
cepts through each round of analysis. As the catego- these roles are described in detail in the sections that
ries and subcategories emerge, we review them for follow. Moreover, our findings show that influencers
consistency with the literature and illuminate even might migrate between these roles, such as from co-
further in the light of existing studies. The analysis designer to co-owner, as well as from billboard to styl-
results in a clear set of coding procedures, and we ist or codesigner. An influencer can also assume a
perform subsequent work using an iterative style number of different roles in different collaborations
focused on preserving the authenticity of the posts with brands. In one collaboration, an influencer can
(Glaser and Strauss 1967). act as a billboard; in another, she could become a
facilitator.
Results
Collaboration Main Role: Spokesperson
Our findings support the idea that SMIs assume mul-
tiple roles when promoting brands. Using our coding Based on our observation, we define a spokesperson
criteria, we determine that what separates these differ- as an influencer with no or a minimal level of creative
ent roles is the degree of control the influencers seem- control in the product creation process. The contribu-
ingly assert over (1) the product creation process (to tion consists of the influencer’s interpretation of a
what extent he or she seemingly contributed to the product by showing and wearing it or in any other
development of the product being promoted) and (2) way putting it into use, thereby giving consumers an
the communicative process (to what extent he or she experience of the product usage. Thus, the focus con-
seemingly contributed to the way the product is dis- cerns product exposure as such. Having a particular
played in the social media post). Inversely, one could social role, such as a plus-size model, a mother, or an
say the roles that influencers take in brand promo- entrepreneur, spokespersons demonstrate similarity,
tions are largely determined by the degree of formal attractiveness, and likeability components while
control that organizations seemingly claim in these appealing to their audience on an interpersonal level:
collaborations. When controls are purposefully Rainbow jumper series, this has probably been my
designed by managers and involve the specification main obsession this season, all I want is more
and evaluation (and official sanctioning) of desirable rainbow fashion colorful joy for Christmas week this
behaviors or outcomes, they are referred to as formal jumper is from @asos_loves_curve and I made
the earrings.
controls (Cardinal, Sitkin, and Long 2004). Research
highlights such factors as autonomy, nonconformity, @sarabrowndesign, December 27, 2017 (see Picture 1
in the Supplemental Online Appendix)
and intrinsic motivation, suggesting that organizations
whose competitive advantage relies heavily on the cre- The post indicates that an influencer in a spokes-
ativity of their employees can benefit from establish- person role appears as a consumer and is perceived
ing an environment with a low level of formal by the followers to be sharing her own preferences
controls (Amabile 2018). Adding to this research, our related to the product and brand. Bringing tangible
study thus suggests that creative collaborations, and elements of the product into the spotlight, the influen-
the roles that various actors take within them, are also cer points out certain elements of the product, such as
affected by the formal controls asserted by various belonging to the plus-size assortment, creating a dis-
stakeholders. As suggested by the research stream tinctive endorsement for the audience.
 JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING 553

Moreover, a spokesperson role can also derive from could be achieved through participation in an adver-
influencers’ professional profiles as writers, fashion tising film or campaign and/or acting as a “face” of an
editors, stylists, models, or designer interns. By mani- advertising campaign. Thus, in a billboard role, the
festing the professional role, influencers create their influencer has very limited control over the product
posts to be considered by the audience as expert creation and limited control over the communica-
recommendations: tive process:
It’s been absolutely incredible experience participating If you can’t beat em, join em [. . .] #FloraforSpring
in the @zalando Italian Premium Campaign. I #Mayday  @ToryBurch “Jaqueline Bag” exclusively
wholehearted agree that true luxury lies in your at new Regent Street store #ToryBurchSS17
PERSONAL style. Embrace it, love it, own it. And #ToryPartner.
thank you so much for putting me on the Duomo!!
@camillecharriere, May 1, 2017. (Photo:
@tamumcpherson, September 10, 2019 (see Picture 2 @nothannahbrinberg; see Picture 3 in the
in the Supplemental Online Appendix) Supplemental Online Appendix)
Emphasizing the professional role as a fashion This post illustrates a short-term collaboration with
model, the influencer shares her experience of a par- a premium brand. A billboard collaboration connects
ticular retailer and thereby rationally provides per- the influencer’s consumer experience with the brand
sonal support to her audience. Through her personal depicted by the influencer in a less abstract and cre-
experience, which makes the evaluation of a particular ative way. The post provides the latest information
offer more specific and understandable, the influencer about the brand. The influencer demonstrates her
directly connects her followers to the retailer. awareness concerning the brand and thereby forwards
As a spokesperson, an influencer might provide the brand image to her audience while adding her
tangible and differentiating components to the mar- concrete experience and knowledge to it.
keting of services and products as a source of credibil- A billboard-type collaboration gives brands an
ity (Lane and Russell 2000). Credibility is defined as opportunity to determine the format, to control the
“a communicator’s positive characteristics that affect campaign, and to directly observe and analyze the
the receiver’s acceptance of a message” (Ohanian outcome by using the analytics of the digital platform
1990, p. 41). The previous posts illustrate similarity, employed. An effective advertising campaign requires
attractiveness, and likeability components (McGuire the right spokesperson to deliver a persuasive message
1968). They seem to help influencers connect adver- through appropriate media (Stafford, Stafford, and
tised products with their audiences on an interper- Day 2002). The challenging task lies in creating such
sonal level. They do so by using either a role of a persuasive message, matching it with the brand
consumer fellow (Hill and Gandhi 1992) or a satisfied image, the target group, and the influencer’s charac-
user to “provide tangible documentation of that sat- teristics. However, the celebrity endorsement literature
isfaction” (Stafford, Stafford, and Day 2002, p. 20). has demonstrated there is a risk that consumers might
However, in matching brands and consumers and remember the celebrity more than the product being
helping brands become reciprocating relational part- advertised (Hsu 2009). Similarly, there is a risk that
ners (Fournier 1998), spokespersons have little control an influencer overshadows the brand in
over product creation compared to cocreators and some instances.
co-owners.
Thus, spokespersons offer useful and aspirational Spokesperson Subrole: Stylist
content, which together with their fellow-consumer Stylist appears as a form of episodic collaboration,
status help brands avoid brand parity (Folse, where influencers apply their aesthetic skills to a
Netemeyer, and Burton 2012). Spokespersons promote product featured through styling the latter in a per-
brand differentiation by means of product exposure sonal way. SMIs thereby add creative touches and
and by relying on such source credibility components appeal to their own target groups. The essential idea
as attractiveness, trustworthiness, and expertise (Lou is to bestow an influencer with a certain degree of cre-
and Yuan 2019). ative control not over the product creation but over
the form of communication. Thus, as opposed to bill-
Spokesperson Subrole: Billboard board-type collaborations, stylists possess the freedom
The billboard role of SMIs concerns the presentation to rely on their own aesthetic skills and thereby inter-
of a product by an influencer in a manner seemingly pret a given product by adding or amplifying elements
created and/or extensively controlled by a brand. It in the communication:
554 K. RUNDIN AND J. COLLIANDER

I put together a #London travel diary for [Rule. 1: Always wea flats to a mannequin party]
@harpersbazaararabia. Read all about my action Thanks for following me yesterday as I took over
packed week, from breakfasts in Covent Garden to @bulgariofficial Instagram for the launch of
dancing with @jessglynne. Here’s a glimpse of my @alexanderwangny exclusive bag collection in NYC
#summer styling collaboration with @harrods. #alexanderwangxbvlgari #bvlgariaccessories #ad.
@galagonzalez, September 8, 2019 (see Picture 7 in
@desertmannequin, July 13, 2017 (see Picture 4 in the
the Supplemental Online Appendix)
Supplemental Online Appendix)
These posts are extracted from one influencer’s
In this post, the influencer promotes a famous
fashion and lifestyle magazine by telling her story cov- Instagram account during different time periods. The
ered in the latter and showing a glimpse of her style posts have a similar style of communication, referring
commission for it. This styling job is a communica- to the brand and to the influencer’s personal experi-
tion tool next to an illustration of a number of ence with the products but with the influencer’s
branded garments put into an outfit and tagged dir- highly distinctive touch. The product is in the central
ectly in the post. The influencer establishes a personal place but wrapped by the sharing of her personal
connection with her readers through her digital narra- experience or interpretation of the product. As such,
tive and, by using her stylist skills as a trigger, the ambassador role and the stylist role overlap some-
increases the personal attachment to the magazine as what. The difference, however, is that the lengthy
such. The brand keeps main control over the cam- engagement of the ambassador seemingly bestows her
paign, conceiving a clearly framed free space where with a higher degree of control over message content.
the influencer may add her value, balancing practical As the posts indicate, the collaboration covers a one-
and sybaritic elements. and-a-half-year period but might consist of short
Previous research on advertising has shown that commitments. However, these commitments together
when clients provide fewer visual mandatories, out- create a long-lasting story for audiences, which con-
comes for both creatives and brands tend to be posi- nects the product to the influencer that they follow.
tive (Phillips, McQuarrie, and Griffin 2014). By giving By following the influencer’s frequent posts for the
an influencer a stylist role, this could potentially be brand, the audience links the influencer to the brand
the effect that brands try to accomplish. This to a greater degree. It provides visibility for the brand
approach is supported by more recent influencer and makes people aware of its news and products
research that shows in giving influencers more control through the influencer’s storytelling.
over content creation, brands can achieve higher cred- Social media has enabled unprecedented consumer
ibility as well as increased follower interest (Martınez- input into brand-related discourse, shifting the focus
Lopez et al. 2020). of brand creation from brands to consumers and
other stakeholders (Teichmann, Scholl-Grissemann,
Spokesperson Subrole: Ambassador and Stokburger-Sauer 2016). Hence, by sharing their
As opposed to billboards and stylists, ambassadors brand experience and emotions in their social net-
engage in long-term collaborations that might last a works, influencers appear as like-minded individuals
year or longer. This form of deeper collaboration (Habibi, Laroche, and Richard 2014). They contribute
oftentimes gives ambassadors a higher degree of cre- to both the content of the brand narrative and the
ative freedom over the communication than what is process of brand storytelling (Singh and Sonnenburg
afforded to either billboards or stylists: 2012). Thereby, they effectively create brand meaning
alongside brands and other brand stakeholders (Von
As @bulgariofficial official brand ambassador couldn’t
be happier to be celebrating tonight in Los Angeles a Wallpach, Hemetsberger, and Espersen 2017).
very special date #justdarebulgari #omniapinksapphire Ambassadors, to a higher degree than billboards and
(also, make up by me). stylists, contribute to this process. By being passionate
@galagonzalez, April 7, 2018 (see Picture 5 in the about a brand, engaging in its activities, and sharing
Supplemental Online Appendix) experiences and emotions with its audiences on social
media for a longer period of time, ambassadors pro-
First time in Lago Di Como celebrating with
@bulgariparfumes the launch of #TubereuseMystique vide meaning for consumers.
#BvlgariParfumes [Wearing a vintage Donna Karan
dress was a total unplanned effortless match to
#BvlgariSplendinda] #ad. Collaboration Main Role: Cocreator
@galagonzalez, July 10, 2019 (see Picture 6 in the Based on our observation, we conceptualize a cocrea-
Supplemental Online Appendix) tor as an influencer whose degree of creative control
 JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING 555

in the product creation process seemingly exceeds that spokespersons, they have a higher degree of creative
of spokespersons in relation to the brands with which control over product creation. However, they might
they collaborate. In their level of creative control, coc- have a varying degree of control over the form of
reators might equal that of the collaborating brand or communication. Codesigner collaborations could be
even exceed it. However, and critically, the level of seen as a manifestation, where a brand shares its cre-
creative control over product creation that cocreators ative control with influencers. This might mean differ-
retain in their collaborations is defined and controlled ent things, depending on the popularity of the
by the partnering brand. Cocreators collaborate with influencer and the power of the brand’s own identity.
brands through a deeper synergetic process than do Through the process of codesigning, the influencer is
spokespersons, however. given various degrees of freedom to create a product,
By bestowing their audience with deeper insights relying on personal vision of the brand and individual
into their lives, experiences, and opinions, cocreators taste. This codesign might, by adding the influencer’s
use their own brand identity to shape attitudes of personal visual elements, expand the brand’s identity
their audience toward cocreated products: and create new meanings for consumers:
I made myself a custom leather jacket because I Happy to announce my capsule collection called
figured if I hadn’t found the perfect style by 30, then “Project Party” with @standstudio.official and
I probably never would unless I made it myself. Then @netaporter #ad See link in bio. Photo by
I decided to sell it after I put it on. Link to the story @themisspopo makeup @mette.schou
in bio @laer_brand Side note it also took me 30 years @pernilleteisbaek, October 28, 2019 (see Picture 9 in
to find the best slice of pizza in LA, and it’s at the Supplemental Online Appendix)
@primepizzala.
This post is by a popular Danish influencer,
@alwaysjudging, March 21, 2018 (see Picture 8 in the
Supplemental Online Appendix) announcing her double-edged collaboration with
clothing brand Stand Studio and luxury digital retailer
Informing followers about the influencer’s cocrea- Net-a-Porter, where her collection is available for pur-
tion of a leather jacket together with a leather goods chase. Here, Stand Studio and Net-a-Porter rely on
brand, the post illustrates an example of impactful her personal taste to create meaning for followers and
content with a high degree of creative freedom. The others alike. Participating in design collaboration, the
existence of strong social capital (Bourdieu 1986, p. influencer takes responsibility for his or her own vis-
248) appears to be a significant condition for cocrea- ual choice integrated into the final result appearing
tors to attain this high level of creative freedom and before the audience.
generate cultural and economic value for brands. In
They are finally here! So excited for my sunglasses
this case, the brand control is lower than in the case that I’ve designed with @gentlemonster! Inspired by
of a spokesperson. The company brand and the influ- L.A. and my commute on the 101 freeway, we created
encer brand are joined in a situation resembling clas- 4 different color ways. They are available for purchase
sic cobranding. This has interesting implications when today at 5pm PST on gentlemonster.com. Here is a
using influencers as cocreators, such as how to bal- video that I directed and @cholpak shot! So so so
excited for this collab! #GentleMonsterxSongOfStyle
ance accessibility and authenticity and how to balance
corporate goals and the risk of diluting brand mean- @aimeesong, February 9, 2017 (see Picture 10 in the
ing (Campbell and Farrell 2020). For instance, studies Supplemental Online Appendix)
on cobranding reveal that combining two existing This post shows that the influencer clearly states
brands can have a positive effect, but only when the the collection of sunglasses is designed by her with
two brands are complementary (Park, Sung, and the brand and not the other way around. Further, she
Shocker 1996). It is not unlikely, therefore, that the has directed a video to be used in the promotion of
extent to which the influencer’s brand is complemen- the collection. It appears that the influencer possesses
tary to that of the company brand will impact the a high degree of creative control in relation to the
reception of a cocreated product among consumers. brand through the personal creative interpretation of
the brand identity. This transfers the influencer’s
Cocreator Subrole: Codesigner social capital into the brand’s unique set of associa-
As codesigners, influencers together with or for a tions, which constitute a part of the brand’s identity
brand participate in the creative process of designing (Alsem and Kostelijk 2008). The influencer, similar to
products or product lines, bestowing consumers with an art director, takes responsibility for visual choices
their personal experiences. Hence, as opposed to while translating his or her personal interpretation
556 K. RUNDIN AND J. COLLIANDER

into persuasive visuals (Phillips, McQuarrie, and digitally confirmed expertise as a body acceptance
Griffin 2014) as a part of the brand’s identity. activist. The brand wants her to share her opinion
Collaborating with a brand through a codesign pro- and expertise about the product they are developing
cess, an influencer generally becomes a content devel- for a niche market—plus-size women. Given the free-
oper, integrated into the brand’s creative process and dom to show a glimpse of how the product develop-
visual identity (Griffin 2008). Influencers find the ment is taking place, the influencer raises an
right intangibles with which to create content that will important issue concerning a lack of comfortable
differentiate the promoted brand from other similar plus-size clothes. The essence of a consultant concerns
brands in the market, using his or her own social cap- the application of the influencer’s expertise and digital
ital as a generator. Should future researchers wish to space to contribute to a solution through value cre-
further investigate the effects of influencers as code- ation for both the brand, its consumers, and the influ-
signers, we see the potential for research on how fol- encer’s audience.
lowers react to sponsorship disclaimers for Thus, consultants are a kind of agent between the
codesigners. As mentioned in the introduction, the brand and consumers. They might play a wide range
effects of sponsorship disclaimers constitute a com- of roles; for example, they may be interior decorators,
mon topic in influencer marketing research. writers, stylists, all using their expert power of persua-
Potentially, though, followers react differently to spon- sion (e.g., French, Raven, and Cartwright 1959). The
sored posts when the product in it has been code- consultant helps brands define consumer engagement
signed by the influencer (as opposed to, for example,
behaviors by engaging consumers in their own social
when he or she acts as a billboard).
networks. Content posted by the consultant can be
used as advertising to influence consumer brand atti-
Cocreator Subrole: Consultant
tudes and provide consumers with content to share
As consultants, influencers shoulder the role of an
with their own networks (Ashley and Tuten 2015). It
agent who provides a brand with ideas or consulta-
guarantees brands a social presence across channels
tions concerning product creation but does not
actively take part in it. Hence, a consultant offers with content that is fresh and frequent, which creates
advice that is induced by and generated from the incentives for consumer participation (Ling
influencer’s own field of expertise. The level of cre- et al. 2005)
ative control over product creation is determined by The main difference between codesigner and con-
the borders of the commitment and the limits of the sultant is the nature of collaboration, where the code-
influencer’s personal expertise but is generally lower signer is an influencer, with a strong cultural capital,
than that of the codesigner. As with that type of col- who has to contribute with his or her designer skills,
laboration, however, consultants might have a varying adding value to the visual part of the promoted brand.
degree of control over the form of the In the case of consultants, the influencer offers estab-
communication: lished digital expertise to the brand and audience to
present an effective solution to a relevant problem. In
//unstoppable in this perfectly fitting denim. I am so
excited to tell you that @tomtailor_official is both cases, the influencer has to be bestowed with a
launching an extended size collection. The collection certain extent of freedom to be able to create intan-
is called “MY TRUE ME” and I had the honor to gibles for a brand and to achieve desired brand mean-
brainstorm with the @tomtailor_official team and ings through communication that is relevant for
give them my advice over the past months. This jeans
the audience.
has been the first item I tried on a few weeks ago and
I instantly fell in love. The whole collection will be
available from August on and I’ll have a little
exclusive surprise for you guys next week. So you
Collaboration Main Role: Co-Owner
better keep an eye on my Insta Co-owners have an ownership stake in the products
Stories #MYTRUEME.
or services they promote, either for themselves or
@charlottekuhrt, July 20, 2019 (see Picture 11 in the through close relations. Thus, unlike spokespersons,
Supplemental Online Appendix) co-owners have a high degree of control in the prod-
This post is created by an influencer who, accord- uct creation process. Unlike cocreators, the level of
ing to her Instagram profile, is a “body acceptance creative control over product creation is defined not
activist.” And as one can see, her consultant role, by the brand but typically by the co-own-
described in the post, is directly connected to her ers themselves.
 JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING 557

I can’t keep it secret anymore! It’s officially here: the more of a focal point as they progress to co-owners,
launch of @songofstyle the label! I’ve been dreaming that change might affect consumers.
about this for years. There’s a reason why it took me
so long to launch my own label. I wanted to do it
right and I knew I needed the right partners and Co-Owner Subrole: Sole Proprietor
team to make this special, wearable and accessible for As a sole proprietor, an influencer can establish a
all of you. brand that would be an integrated part or a strongly
@aimeesong, April 30, 2019 (see Picture 12 in the
associated extension of the influencer’s own digital
Supplemental Online Appendix) image and credibility. Being the sole owner of the
brand or product gives the influencer almost complete
This post is an example of when a brand becomes creative control over product creation and over the
an extension of the influencer and appears to be a form of the communication. In the same way as an
product entirely of her creativity and expertise. influencer would promote any external brand, sole
Consumers acquire a feeling that the influencer herself proprietors take advantage of their gained trustworthi-
designs and creates all the garments. As a co-owner, ness and credibility to endorse their own business:
an influencer might also create a product and frame it
as a result of an entirely independent creative process, @AMLUL IS ONLINE After so many months
working like crazy, my most precious project is
maintained and controlled by the co-owner and dir- finally out. #Amlul was born in 2007 but the last 12
ectly connected to her field of expertise: years have evolved into an extension of myself and
I am so pleased to share a longform essay I’ve been my world. A journey I wanted you all to be a part of
working on for the last few months, called The and that’s exactly why #Amlul Resort was born. I’ve
Authentic Lie. . . . It is about the modern obsession spent the last years travelling non stop realizing we
with authenticity—finding it, anchoring it, framing now live in a time where seasons no longer matter,
it—in a hyper-curated world. It deals with but making wise choices does. Imagine a world where
womanhood, self-image, celebrity, social media and you only need the good stuff, the simple yet precise
to fill in no more than 23 kg in your suitcase. Resort
the concept of “likeability” in order to ask, what
has always been my favourite season, and Amlul was
makes an authentic life?
born to fulfil the time where we no longer follow
@pandorasykes, February 6, 2019 (see Picture 13 in seasons. Welcome to journey 1: Chinch on to my
the Supplemental Online Appendix) mother land and to endless shades of white. Love, G.
This post reflects the value of the social capital the @galagonzalez, April 16, 2019 (see Picture 14 in the
influencer has obtained and her expertise as a writer Supplemental Online Appendix)
and SMI, which were put directly into the product. In this post, there is very little distinction between
Thus, the product is the influencer herself—a brand the influencer and her business entity. It presents an
based on her experience gained partly through her impression of her as an independent creator commit-
influencer activity and partly by being a journalist ted to her business—and her audience, with whom
and writer. she shares everything about it. Similar to the owner-
Hence, being a co-owner involves a certain entre- manager of an enterprise, the role of influencer in
preneurial activity—the creation of a new venture such a business unit becomes central (Hult, Snow,
(Carland, Carland, and Stewart 1996). Influencers can and Kandemir 2003). Due to the established inter-
start a business based on their influencer role as such active digital connection with the audience, it creates
and their gained social capital. Co-owners might favorable conditions for developing stronger links
branch out by starting their own business or possibly with and a better understanding of consumers in a
by cooperating with other businesses to develop prod- one-to-one personalized marketing context
ucts or services. Mapping the co-owner role contrib- (Cunningham 2002). Thus, such enterprise becomes a
utes to existing influencer research by illustrating the part of the influencer’s own brand identity, framed by
practical applications of the influencer as a social a business model, where the audience is invited to
media manager, which might translate into a content interact and to experience the process
producer, strategist, or even community manager and commitment.
(Campbell and Farrell 2020). The role offers a great
deal of creative freedom. Here, the cobranding litera- Co-Owner Subrole: Facilitator
ture provides interesting analogies. In cobranding, the Acting as a facilitator, an influencer boosts a commu-
positioning of the brand names involved in collabora- nity, a brand, or a product that belongs to someone
tions has been found to be important (Park, Sung, else, usually closely related, such as a friend or a fam-
and Shocker 1996). As influencers’ names become ily member. As the influencer is associated with the
558 K. RUNDIN AND J. COLLIANDER

owner, they often have a degree of control over prod- profit but also as a way to produce engaging and
uct creation and over the form of communication, motivating content for consumers. Being a partner in
though not necessarily as high as that of the sole pro- the brand or product gives the influencer a high
prietor. In this context, the influencer appears as a degree of creative control over product creation and
mediator between the boosted unit and her over the form of communication.
own audience: The journey toward becoming a partner might start
I am so proud of you Justin! All you badass guys from a codesigner role that later transforms into a
thank you all for your major support #happybrunner. more coherent business relation with a greater
amount of responsibility and trust among both par-
@veronikaheilbrunner, December 10, 2019 (see
Picture 15 in the Supplemental Online Appendix) ties. An influencer can collaborate with a brand by
designing a product or an entire collection for it.
In this post, a famous German influencer cheers Later their relationship might develop into a long-
her boyfriend on after a successful fashion show for term partnership, where the influencer not only con-
his self-funded menswear label that debuted at Men’s tributes with personal design skills and cultural capital
Fashion Week in Paris in June 2017. Although the but is perceived by consumers as a part of the brand
man himself has acquired powerful posts within the on a cognitive level. As a partner, influencers may use
fashion industry, the influencer exposes the brand and their cultural capital to cultivate their voice and shine
its creator to her audience, making them a part of a spotlight on behind-the-scenes stories by partnering
both her personal experience and the business event with someone else in the industry and creating a
as such. Family relations often play a part when influ- unique product, such as a podcast or a documentary:
encers take on a facilitator role:
Capital of Style vs Kingdom of Fashion: our new
Water proof @rainsjournal @socialzoo. show[down] is out this Sunday on @parispremiere
@pernilleteisbaek, February 1, 2018 (see Picture 16 in Featuring the greats @jacquemus @dior
the Supplemental Online Appendix) @csm_news@mollygoddard and much more!
@camillecharriere, September 19, 2018 (see Picture 17
This post is from a Danish influencer and entrepre-
in the Supplemental Online Appendix)
neur and depicts her wearing a transparent raincoat
designed by a company run by her partner. She uses This post informs followers about a new documen-
tags of both his company and her own PR agency that tary, which is one of the first to be produced with
at that time promoted the brand. By sharing details French TV channel Paris Premier and which examines
about her personal life and the business ventures of issues related to fashion and style in British and
her significant other, the influencer might hope to French contexts in a manner that is different for the
create parasocial interaction (PSI) with her followers. fashion industry. This documentary is built on the
PSI is an illusionary experience of having established influencer’s previous and, at that time, ongoing pod-
a face-to-face relationship or friendship with a remote cast called Fashion No Filter, which the influencer
media personality (Horton and Wohl 1956). PSI has hosted together with her friend and fellow influencer.
been demonstrated to arise because of exposure to In partnering with someone, the influencer might
details from a media performer’s personal life and has send a signal about product quality to his or her fol-
been shown to affect consumers’ reactions toward the lowers. A signal is an action that a seller can take to
advocacy in social media (Colliander and Dahlen convey information credibly about unobservable prod-
2011). The development of PSI does not necessarily uct quality to a buyer (Rao, Qu, and Ruekert 1999).
depend on the length of the relationship, and feelings Some studies have demonstrated that increased signals
of PSI can arise during initial exposures (Perse and sent in marketing can enhance the effectiveness of
Rubin 1989). Thus, consumers with almost no inter- communication. This has been shown in both offline
action with the featured brand can start to develop a and online settings (Biswas et al. 2009). For example,
relationship with the latter, facilitated by the influen- sophisticated production techniques signal to consum-
cer and exposure to her personal life. ers that the associated advertising is expensive. This
leads consumers to surmise that the company in ques-
Co-Owner Subrole: Partner tion is more confident in the products it promotes (as
Being a partner entails the creation of a product or the company would not devote so many resources
establishment of a brand in conjunction with someone otherwise) and that the company’s products are there-
else, such as another influencer or an entrepreneur. fore of higher quality (Ambler and Hollier 2004).
This is often portrayed as not only a way of earning a Believing in the high quality of brands and products
 JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING 559

Figure 1. Influencer roles in relation to the degrees of control over product creation and communicative processes.

that they partner with, influencers signal an unobserv- SMIs have vis-
a-vis consumers. Our study confirmed,
able quality to followers. The investment can be however, that the influencer role has expanded not in
thought of as a “bond” that the influencer offers: the relation to consumers but rather in relation to the
higher the bond (the greater the work spent on build- advertised brands. In creating our typology, and in
ing a reputation), the more credible the signal (e.g., clearly defining and conceptualizing the various roles
Ippolito 1990). we found in our empirical material, we therefore pro-
vide researchers with a conceptual toolbox to advance
studies within influencer advertising. Advertising
Discussion
research has long recognized and conceptualized, for
This research advances our understanding of influen- example, celebrities as brand spokespersons (e.g.,
cer marketing by creating a typology of influencer Ohanian 1991) or consumers as cocreators with
roles in relation to brands in advertising collabora- brands (e.g., Thompson and Malaviya 2013), yet no
tions. We find that SMIs can take on three main roles comprehensive conceptualization of various SMI roles
in such collaborations, which are further divided into in brand collaborations previously existed. Given the
eight subroles. The three main roles are spokesperson explosive growth of influencer advertising and the
(with the subroles billboard, stylist, and ambassador), various new roles that SMIs are taking on, such a con-
cocreator (with the subroles consultant and code- ceptualization is timely. This becomes evident when
signer), and co-owner (with the subroles sole propri- looking at studies of influencers, where various terms
etor, facilitator, and partner). The dimensions such as ambassador (Argyris et al. 2020) or endorser
separating these main and subroles are the degrees of (Shan, Chen, and Lin 2020) are used to describe simi-
control the influencers seemingly exert over product lar roles. Our typology now allows scholars in this
creation and communicative processes, as Figure 1 field to clearly conceptualize their constructs. This is
illustrates. an important contribution to future research, as poor
construct conceptualization often causes ripple effects
such as undermining construct validity, statistical con-
Theoretical Implications
clusions validity, and eventually internal validity
The present study makes three important theoretical (MacKenzie 2003). The conceptual innovation of our
contributions: concept formation, categorization for study is thus, in our opinion, the chief contribution of
classification, and providing insights into the control the present research.
dynamic between companies and SMIs. In creating categories for classification, our typ-
As for forming concepts, previous classifications of ology also provides researchers with a tool to better
influencer roles (e.g., Gross and Wangenheim 2018; understand influencers in advertising. In the same
Marwick 2015) have been based on the roles that way as classifications of different types of influencers
560 K. RUNDIN AND J. COLLIANDER

(e.g., Campbell and Farrell 2020) can be used to inves- interests (Jiang et al. 2015). However, recent studies
tigate influencer advertising based on influencer type, on brand control (Martınez-L opez et al. 2020) con-
our typology can be used to explore influencer adver- clude that a high level of control over the influencer’s
tising based on their roles. It can thus serve as a con- message leads to reduced credibility, as well as dimin-
ceptual starting point in studies on influencers. As ished follower interest in the brand and lower inten-
such, it allows researchers to either compare influ- tion to search for more related information. This
encers in various roles or more easily identify roles study contributes to the stream of research into this
that are of interest in a particular study. For instance, tug-of-war for control between brands and the outside
researchers investigating the effects of SMI message collaborators they rely on for successful advertising
content can now compare how these messages are and product development. It adds to the nascent
perceived when they come from influencers in differ- stream of studies that expands the research from the
ent roles or choose to focus their studies only on traditional set of collaborators (such as advertising
SMIs in certain roles and thus achieve more depth. creatives) to new ones (such as SMIs). It identifies
Applying the typology developed in this study, various forms of control that brands can relinquish to
researchers can thus more easily focus their studies on these collaborators. Whereas studies such as the one
select facets of the influencer phenomenon. The typ- by Martınez-Lopez et al. (2020) deal with control over
ology may also allow scholars to revisit previous find- the communicative process, we demonstrate that there
ings within influencer advertising where there are is also the issue of control over the product creation
seemingly contradictory results and try to resolve process. By doing so, we add to this theoretical field
those inconsistencies. Such contradictions may be due by opening further avenues for research.
to the various roles that influencers were portrayed as
having in different studies. The typology can thus
Practical Implications
serve as a tool to overcome impasses in research
(Collier, LaPorte, and Seawright 2012). As influencers This study also has implications for advertising practi-
are expanding their reach into the societal and polit- tioners. First and foremost, it can serve as a practi-
ical spheres, affecting decisions as diverse as vaccina- tioners’ map of the opportunities available in future
tions and voting, we argue that a nuanced influencer collaborations. For those managers to
understanding of their role is crucial. The present whom influencer collaborations are novelties, it can
research can be a tool to achieve such nuance. serve as inspiration. For those more experienced in
Finally, our study provides new insights into the working with influencers, it can serve as a tool for
underlying dimensions of control used to categorize generating ideas for future partnerships. Many who
the various roles influencers take in observed collabo- are used to spokesperson-type collaborations could
rations. Brands must balance between being too pre- perhaps be inspired to invite influencers into the
scriptive to the influencer and giving the latter too product creation process. Some organizations could
much freedom and control (Brouwer 2017). Previous even be inspired by the work of some of the compa-
research has shown that when clients provide fewer nies mentioned in the introduction of this article to
visual mandatories, outcomes for both creatives and change their business model entirely and invite influ-
brands tend to be positive (Phillips, McQuarrie, and encers into the organization on a more regular basis.
Griffin 2014). This would indicate that brands should Such changes will have consequences for both their
give influencers enough freedom to achieve their per- future operations and communications strategies but,
sonal creative goals while serving the brand in order given the strong influence that SMIs have over their
not to confuse its consumers. audience, could also potentially be very rewarding.
Relinquishing control, however, comes with ten- Such a decision, however, once more brings the
sion. Studies indicate that for organizations, losing spotlight to the notion of control. Many brands try to
part of the control over their brand might be chal- walk a tightrope between controlling conversations on
lenging to manage, particularly for those unprepared the Internet about their products (e.g., Wolf and
to share control of brand images (Vernuccio and Archer 2018) and using influencers as credible inter-
Ceccotti 2015). Deeper forms of influencer collabora- mediaries (Uzunoglu and Kip 2014). For the many
tions also make companies more vulnerable to disrup- innovative brands that use influencers not as a tactical
tions in business relationships. Organizations risk complement but as a strategic element in the com-
crisis if the chosen influencer should become associ- pany’s marketing plan (Childers, Lemon, and Hoy
ated with issues that are not aligned with the brand’s 2019), that means, first, that there must be internal
 JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING 561

decisions in place to relinquish control to external influencer communication when SMIs appear in dif-
partners. Such a process could be burdensome to both ferent roles. How followers perceive messages, images
initiate and complete but to avoid friction with exter- or disclaimers may all differ depending on the SMI’s
nal collaborators it is crucial to carry out. This is also role when communicating advertising messages.
an issue that SMIs need to consider (as well as the Mapping the psychological mechanisms behind these
agents and agencies that represent them). Before effects is another topical issue.
engaging in cooperation with brands, clear guidelines The boundary conditions of the influencer roles
for the extent of SMIs’ creative freedom ought to be identified in the present research is another interesting
obtained—again, to avoid friction later on. question for future research. Studies on cocreation,
Despite these potential pitfalls, however, it is our for instance, have revealed that while consumers gen-
hope that the typology offered in this article will serve erally like products cocreated by other consumers, this
as an inspiration to both practitioners and influencers. is not always the case. Consumers perceive user-
In seeing the various collaborations of others, they designed luxury products to be of lower quality and
can find opportunities moving forward to create more not signaling as high a status compared to those
inspiring products and communication that will bene- designed by professionals (Fuchs et al. 2013). Similar
fit influencers, brands, and consumers alike. studies could be performed on influencers in a cocrea-
tor or a co-owner role. The results of such studies are
far from preordained. While influencers are (usually)
Limitations and Future Research not professional designers, they could be perceived as
This study, like all studies, has limitations. First, it more of an expert than a regular consumer, thus
categorizes influencer roles based solely on the com- potentially overcoming the perceived shortcomings of
municative narratives of influencers themselves. We user-designers in the study by Fuchs et al. (2013). The
can merely deduce, based on the influencers’ content, results might also differ depending on the subrole. An
the degree of control that they have exercised in rela- influencer in a consulting role for a luxury product
tion to the brand. Influencers may exaggerate or pur- might be more acceptable than in a codesigning role,
posefully diminish their sway in certain brand for example. Using the typology in the present article,
collaborations. Not knowing fully what, if any, con- future researchers could dig deeper into
tractual obligations exist is a limitation of the pre- these questions.
sent research. Finally, we see great potential for research into how
Furthermore, our study is limited to 21 fashion relationships between influencers and their followers
influencers over a period of three years. A more evolve as SMIs progress through the various roles we
extensive study could uncover further nuances. have described in this article. Will PSI, for example,
Including influencers with other focus areas, older increase as SMIs become more involved in the cre-
influencers, or influencers of different genders ation process of the products they promote? There are
(Drenten, Gurrieri, and Tyler 2020), sexuality reasons to believe that it might, as the narrative of
(Duguay 2019), and religion (Beta 2019) over a longer that process might give more insight into the life of
period might reveal more influencer roles than those an SMI. We leave it to future researchers, however, to
described in the present study. investigate this and the other research questions posed
In addition, this study is mostly limited to a in this article.
Western context. Including more influencers from, for
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