Fundamentals of Aerodynamics

By John D. Anderson
Chapter 1: Aerodynamics: Some Introductory Thoughts

Fundamental Aerodynamic Variables

Four of the most frequently used words in aerodynamic:

➢ Pressure

➢ Density

➢ Temperature

➢ Flow velocity
Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on a surface
due to the time rate of change of momentum of the gas
molecules impacting on (or crossing) that surface.

Density is the mass per unit volume.

The velocity of a flowing gas at any fixed point B in space is

the velocity of an infinitesimally small fluid element as it
sweeps through B.

Shear stress: The constant of proportionality is

defined as the viscosity coefficient.

μ is not really a constant; it is a function of

the temperature of the fluid.
Atmosphere Conditions:
Quantities: SI unit
• Pressure (p) - N/m2 (Pascal)
• Temperature (T) -K (T [oC] =T[K]- 273.15)
• Density () - kg/m3
• Speed of sound (a) - m/s
• Dynamic viscosity () - Ns/m2
• Kinematic viskosity () - m2/s

Equations

(a) İdeal gas p =  RT

(b) Speed of sound a =  RT

For air, R (= gas constant) = 287.1 J/kgK,  (= Cp/Cv) = 1.4

International Standart Atmosphere (ISA) :

Sea level values

To = 288.15 K,
po = 101325 N/m2,
ao = 340.29 m/s,
g = 9.80665 m/s2,
o = 1.225 kg/m3,
o = 1.789 x 10-5 kg/ms,
o = 1.461 x 10-5 m2/s

p =  RT dp g
Hydrostatic equation: dp = −  gdz  p = −  RT dz
AIRFOILS

Cambered

Symmetrical

Laminar Flow

Reflexed

Supercritical
 • NACA Airfoil Classificaiton:

– NACA 2412

Camber: 0.2c (t/c)max 0.12

(t/c)max 0.4c back

– NACA 23012

– NACA 63-210
• Basic definitions:

– Chord line:
Line that combines the
leading edge and trailing edge.

– Camber line:
The camber line is a curve starting and
ending at the same points as the chord,
but where each single point is equidistant from both the top and bottom surface.

– Camber:
camber is the asymmetry between the top and the bottom surfaces of an airfoil.
• Additional Definitions:

– Relative Velocity:
V : the direction of the air.

– Hücum Açısı:
Bağıl hızile veter
doğrultusu arasındaki
açıdır.

Historical trend
Aerodynamic forces and moments

On the body are due to only two basic sources:

1. Pressure distribution over the body surface

2. Shear stress distribution over the body surface ➢ P acts normal to the surface

➢ Τ acts tangential to the surface

Resultant aerodynamic force and moment on the body:

L = N cos − Asin 

D = N sin  + Acos
 y


dS = (dsu )(1 m) = dsu

su: the surface distance of point according to leading edge at the upper surface.

sl : the surface distance of point according to leading edge at the lower surface.
 The wing has a span of 1 m : N, A, L, D, M 

Upper Surface Lower Surface

 
dNu = (− pu cos − u sin  )dsu dNl = ( pl cos − l sin  )dsl
 
dAl = ( pl sin  +  l cos )dsl
dAu = (− pu sin  +  u cos )dsu
 Total forces can be calculated by integration.

 
TE TE TE TE
N  =  dNu +  dNl  N  =  (− pu cos −  u sin  )dsu +  ( pl cos −  l sin  )dsl
LE LE LE LE

 
TE TE TE TE
A =  dAu +  dAl  A =  (− pu sin  +  u cos )dsu +  ( pl sin  +  l cos )dsl
LE LE LE LE
Pitching moment according to leading edge:


M LE


TE

TE

TE

TE

M LE =  − xdNu +  − xdNl +  ydAu +  ydAl
LE LE LE LE


TE TE
M LE =  x( pu cos +  u sin  )dsu −  x( pl cos − l sin  )dsl
LE LE
TE TE
+  y(− pu sin  +  u cos )dsu +  y( pl sin  +  l cos )dsl
LE LE
 
M LE


TE TE TE TE
M LE =  x( pu cos +  u sin  )dsu −  x( pl cos − l sin  )dsl +  y(− pu sin  +  u cos )dsu +  y( pl sin  +  l cos )dsl
LE LE LE LE


TE
M LE =  x( p cos +
LE
u u sin  ) − y( pu sin  − u cos )dsu
TE
+  x(− p cos + sin  ) + y( p sin  + cos )ds
LE
l l l l l
Dimensionless force and moment coefficients

Lift, drag, and moment on an airfoil:

l = lift/unit span
Reference area: S
d = drag/unit span
m = moment/unit span Reference length: l

The forces and moment are functions of: Dimensional analysis can be applied to Normal force coefficient:
reduce the number of free parameters: Axial force coefficient:
 = angle of attack
l
Cl = = f ( , Re, M  ) cN 
N
V = freesteamvelocity 1  V 2c
2   q S
 = freestreamdensity d
Cd = = f ( , Re, M  ) A
c = airfoil chord length 1  V 2
2  c cA 
q S
 = freestreamviscosity Cm =
m
= f ( , Re, M  )
1  V 2c 2
a = freestreamsonic speed 2  
Vc V
q = freestream dynamic pressure where Re = M =
 a
 S cr ct

Misslie type bodies

Reference length

d
Wing Area: Pitching moment:
S
S = bc c c=
reference area Reference length
b S
Reference area
Wing with 1 m span:
L
Local lift coefficient: cl 
qc
D
Local drag coefficient: cd 
qc
M
Local pitching moment coefficient: cm 
qc2
cl
p − p
Pressure coefficient: cp  Freestream pressure 2-d bodies
q
S = (c)(1 m) = c


Surface friction coefficient: cf 
q
Dimensionless force and moment coefficients:

ds cos = dx
dy
ds sin  = −dy = − dx
dx
S=c
TE TE
N =  (− p
LE
u 
cos −  u sin  )dsu + ( pl cos −  l sin  )dsl
LE

TE TE
A =  (− p
u 
sin  +  u cos )dsu + ( pl sin  +  l cos )dsl

1 
cn =  (c p,l − c p,u )dx +  (c f ,u + c f ,l )dy
c TE LE LE

c 0 LE 
cl = cn cos + ca sin 
1 
ca =   (c p,u − c p,l )dy +  (c f ,u + c f ,l )dx
TE c
Lift and drag coefficients:
c LE 0  cd = cn sin  + ca cos
 
TE
M LE =  x( p cos +
LE
u u sin  ) − y( pu sin  − u cos )dsu
TE
+  x(− p cos + sin  ) + y( p sin  + cos )ds
LE
l l l l l

   
cm,le = 2  (c p,u − c p,l )xdx −  (c f ,u + c f ,l )xdy + 2   (c p ,u − c p ,l )ydy +  (c f ,u + c f ,l )ydx
c TE TE c
1 1
c 0 LE  c  LE 0 
Center of pressure The location of the center of pressure varies with changes
of lift coefficient and angle of attack.

N

M LE

AA
xcp 
 M LE
 xcp = −
M LE = −( xcp ) N   xcp = −
M LE L
N
Different presentation of
forces and moments:


M LE

 c 
M LE 
= − L + M c / 4 = − xcp L
L 4

Mc / 4
xc / 4
MOVEMENT OF CENTER OF PRESSURE

As the angle of attack increases from 0º to 16º the upper ‘suction’

peak moves forward so the point at which the lift is effectively
concentrated, the CP, will move forward. The CP moves forward and
magnitude of the lift force increases with increase in angle of attack
until the stall is reached when the lift force decreases abruptly and
the CP generally moves back along the chord.
Aerodynamic Center:

The aerodynamic center is the point at which the pitching moment coefficient for
the airfoil does not vary with lift coefficient (i.e. angle of attack)
Flow Similarity
• Geometrical similarity: similar geometry.

• Kinematic similarity: flow pattern around the model should be similar to...

• Dynamical similarity: forces acting on the model should be similar to the real object to be analyzed.

Flight test of a F-18 model in NASA 11 ft

NASA NFAC Wind Tunnel
transonic (Mach .4-1.5) wind tunnel
Foton — is an experimental airplane.

Year 1987
DNW, the German-Dutch Wind Tunnels
Wing span, m 7.32
Plane length, m 8.27 3.0 m x 2.25 m 0 < V  80 m/s

Flow velocity 5-52 m/s

up to
Reynolds number per 1 m
3.6*106
Cross section area (elliptical) 24x14 m
Test section length 24 m
1. Geometrical Similarity:

model Lm,1 Lm, 2 Am,1

= L = L
2
=
prototype Lp ,1 Lp , 2 Ap ,1
Shape coefficient

2. Kinematic Similarity:

Vm Lm / Tm L
Velocity: = = = u
Vp Lp / Tp T
am Lm / Tm
2
L
Acceleration: = = 2 = a
a p Lp / Tp 2
T
Qm Lm / Tm L
3 3
Mass flowi: = 3 = = Q
Qp Lp / Tp T
3. Dynamic similarity:
Fm M m am m Lm L
3
= = =  
 L u
2 2

Fp M p a p  p Lp T
3 2

ul ul mu m lm  pu p l p
➢ Reynolds number Re = =  =
  m p

u um u p
➢ Mach number M=  =
a am a p

Speed of dound: a = RT

am Tm
If the fluid is smae: =
ap Tp
Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics

VL Reynolds Inertia force / Always important

 number, Re viscous force

V Mach Inertia force / Compressible flow

c number, M compressibility
force
V Froude Inertia force / Free surface flow
gL number, Fr gravitational
force
L Strouhal Unsteady force / Unsteady flow
V number, St convective force

• c: speed of the sound

• w: frequency of the oscillatory flow
• L: characteristic length
• V: characteristic velocity
TYPES OF FLOW:
CONTINUUM – LOW DENSITY FLOW

Flow around circular cylinder. : he average distance that a molecule moves before colliding with another molecule.

  d ise Continuum flow.

d

  d ise λ , is small compared to the significant characteristic length, d.

VISCOUS – INVISCID FLOW

inertia forces
Re =
vis cos forces

A flow in which viscous

Re ; inviscid flow effects can be neglected
is known as inviscid flow.
 Inviscid flow: velocity is tangent to the surface.

 dV 
Shear stress: w    
 dy  y =0
V  V 
P  P 
Flow separation, stall
V  V 
➢ “Fat airfoils” (t/c > %14)
Stall from the trailing edge:
•  ; turbulent boundary layer 
• At 100 boundary layer begins to separate starting at the
trailing edge,  ; moving forward
• The loss of lift is gradual, the pitching moment changes only a
small amount.

➢ “Thinner airfoils” (%6 < t/c < %14)

Stall from the leading edge:
• The flow separates near the nose at a very small angle of
attack, but immediately reattaches itself : little effect is felt.
•  ; the flow fails to reattach: entire stall
• An abrupt change in lift and pitching moment.

• “Very thin airfoils” (t/c < %6)

• The flow separates from the nose at a small angle of attack and
reattaches immediately.
•  ; “bubble” continues to stretch toward the trailing edge. The
airfoil reaches its maximum lift where the bubble completely
stretches.
• The loss of lift is smooth, but large changes in pitching
moment.
INCOMPRESSIBLE – COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

A flow is said to be incompressible if the density of a fluid element does not change during its motion.

The Mach number can be used to determine if a flow can be treated as an incompressible flow.

If M < 0.2–0.3 and the flow is (quasi) steady and isothermal, compressibility effects will be small and a
simplified incompressible flow model can be used

MACH NUMBER REGIMES

M  1.0 → subsonic
M = 1.0 → sonic
M  1.0 → sup ersonic
M  5.0 → hipersonic
 Transonic
flow

M = 1.0 M = 2.0 M = 3.0 M = 5.0

Subsonic flow Süpersonic flow Hypersonic flow

Drag Force Components

Skin friction

Pressure
Applied Aerodynamics
Flow Around Circular Cylinder

As the flow rate increases wake drag

becomes an important factor.

The streamline pattern becomes mixed

at the rear of the particle and at very
high Reynolds numbers completely
separate in the wake.

This causes a greater pressure at the

front of the particle and thus an extra
force term due to pressure difference.