Chapter no 3

What is the role of the central processing unit (CPU) in a computer?

 A computer system consists of hardware and software

 The main hardware components of a computer system are input devices, the central
processing unit, primary memory, secondary storage and output devices
 Examples of input devices - keyboard, mouse, game controller, sensors, microphone
and webcam
 Examples of output devices - monitor, phone screen, speakers, printer, and motors
 Data and commands are inputted by the user using an input device, the central
processing unit (CPU) processes data by executing instructions and the results are
outputted to an output device

A diagram showing the input, process, output sequence followed by computer

systems

 Below is an example of data being inputted, processed and the results being outputted

Step Example

Input  A keyboard is used to input a number

Process  If the instruction being executed is ADD,

the inputted value is added to an existing
value

Output  The result of the calculation is outputted

to the user via the monitor

What is a microprocessor?

 A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip

 An integrated circuit is a small electronic circuit made up of transistors, capacitors,
resistors and other electronic components
  The integrated circuit contains a central processor designed to perform arithmetic and
logic operations, which include adding, subtracting, transferring numbers from one
memory location to another, and comparing two numbers
 The single chip also contains input/output interfaces, and memory
 Microprocessors are a compact way of processing data and can be used in a wide range
of electronic devices, including general-purpose computer system and Embedded
system

Von Neumann Architecture

The components in a CPU, in a computer that has a Von Neumann architecture

 John Von Neumann developed the concept of the stored program computer in the
1940s

 The Von Neumann computer architecture which most modern day computers use, is
based upon this concept
o The key feature of the stored program concept, and Von Neumann architecture,
is data and instructions are stored in the same memory ( RAM ) as binary
o Another feature of Von Neumann architecture is a central processing unit
(CPU) fetches instructions from memory and executes them one at a time
(serially)
o The CPU then stores the results back into memory
Components of the Central Processing Unit

A diagram showing the main components of the CPU

 The main purpose of the CPU is to execute instructions and process data

 The CPU has two main components - the Control Unit (CU) and the Arithmetic Logic
Unit ALU)
o The Control Unit controls the flow of data around the CPU
o The Control Unit also sends control signals to the different components
instructing them what to do e.g. read, write, add, subtract
o The Control Unit decodes instructions (into an opcode and operand )
o The Control Unit controls the timings of operations (the clock speed)
o The Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU) performs the calculations required to execute
the instructions, these include ADD and SUBTRACT
o The ALU also carries out logical operations such as COMPARE
o The ALU has a built-in register where it stores interim results of calculations

o After calculations, the ALU sends data to the MDR

 The CPU also contains a number of registers which are small memory locations
within the CPU, which temporarily store data needed to execute an instruction
  Special purpose registers have specific roles to play in the execution of an instruction

Special purpose register Definition

Program Counter (PC)  stores the address of the next

instruction to be fetched from
memory

Memory  stores the address of the

Address Registers (MAR instruction or data to be fetched
) from or written to memory

Memory Data Register  stores the data that has been

(MDR) fetched from memory or being
written to memory
 Data from MDR is sent to ALU to
be executed

Current Instruction  stores the instruction the CPU is

Register (CIR) currently decoding or executing

Accumulator  Temporarily stores the results of

the calculations performed by the
arithmetic and logic unit

Exam Tip

 If asked to describe the purpose of the PC, the MAR or the MDR make sure you explain
how the data is being fetched or written to memory.

Worked example
What are the characteristics of Von Neumann architecture?

[2]

Any 2 from:

 Both data and instructions are stored in the same memory unit [1]
 Single Arithmetic and Logic Unit [1]
 Single Control Unit [1]
 Uses the FDE cycle to execute instructions serially [1]
Buses

 Components within the CPU and wider computer system are connected by buses.
These are wires down which electronic signals and data travel. The different buses are
collectively called the system bus
 The system bus is made up of three different buses - the data bus, the control
bus and the address bus
o The data bus transmits data from the CPU to memory or input/output
controllers. It is bidirectional which means data can travel in both directions
o The address bus transfers addresses from the CPU to memory. It
is unidirectional which mean addresses only go from the CPU to memory
o The control bus transfers control signals from the control unit to other
components in the computer system such as memory or input/output controllers.
The control bus is bidirectional

A diagram showing how the different buses connect the components in a computer
system

Worked example
Which bus is unidirectional?
[1]

A Address bus

B Data bus

C Control bus

D System bus
A [1]
 The Fetch, Decode, Execute cycle

 The Central Processing Unit (CPU) executes instructions by performing the Fetch
Decode Execute cycle
o The CPU fetches an instruction from memory
o The instruction is then decoded ( by the Control Unit) into an opcode and
an operand
o The instruction is executed and the whole cycle is repeated with the next
instruction in the process

A diagram depicting the Fetch Decode Execute cycle

Fetch  The memory address of the instruction to be fetched

is stored in the Memory Address Register and is
sent down the address bus.
 The data/instruction at the memory address is
transferred back to the CPU, via the data bus, where
it is stored in the Memory Data Register
 The instruction is copied into the Current
Instruction Register and the Program
Counter increments

 The instruction in the Current Instruction Register is

Decode decoded, by the Control unit , into an opcode and
an operand

Execute The instruction is executed by the Arithmetic Logic

Unit and the opcode is performed upon the operand.

 The result is stored in the accumulator or written to

a memory location within memory
Worked example
Explain how an instruction is fetched using Von Neumann architecture
[6]

 The Program Counter (PC) holds address/location of the next instruction to be

fetched [1]
 The address held in PC is sent to Memory Address Register (MAR) [1]
 The memory address is sent using address bus [1]
 The Program Counter is incremented [1]
 The instruction is sent from the address in memory to the Memory Data Register
(MDR) [1]
 The instruction is transferred using the data bus [1]
 The instruction is sent to Current Instruction register (CIR) [1]

Exam Tip

 Make sure you read the question carefully and look at the numbers of marks allocated to
judge the level of detail required. Often questions on the fetch-decode-execute cycle
only require you to describe the steps rather than explain how the registers and buses
are used during each step (as shown in the table above)

CPU Performance

 Central Processing Units can have multiple cores

o A dual-core processor has two cores
o A quad-core processor has four cores
o Each core runs separate fetch, decode, execute cycles, independently from
one another and at the same time (simultaneously) meaning parallel
processing can take place
o Multiple cores enables multitasking (running more than one program at the
same time)
o Some programs cannot be split between cores
o The more cores a computer has the more instructions that can be executed per
second resulting in better performance
 Each core has a clock speed
o The clock speed is how many instructions the core can execute each second
o The clock speed is measured in Hertz
o Modern cores can execute billions of instructions per second
o A gigahertz (GHz) is a billion instructions per second
o A megahertz (MHz) is a million instructions per second
o A CPU core with a clock speed of 3.4GHz can execute 3.4 billion
instructions per second
 Cache is a small amount of memory situated within or close to the CPU with very fast
read/write speeds
 o It is used for storing frequently used instructions/data, recently used
instructions, and instructions that are to be fetched and executed next in a
process.
o The impact of increasing the amount of cache is that more data can be stored
there and accessed faster than if it was in RAM …which improves the
performance of the CPU.
 Double the number of cores does not necessarily mean double the number of
instructions executed a second. The cores might have different clock speeds and cache
sizes

Worked example
One computer has a single core processor and the other has a dual core processor.
Explain why having a dual core processor might improve the performance of the
computer
[2]

Any 2 from:

 The computer with the dual core processor has two cores/double the amount of
cores [1]
 Parallel processing can take place [1]
 Each core can execute a separate instruction at the same time [1]
 Each core can process instructions independently of each other [1]

Exam Tip: There are three key factors that affect CPU performance - the number of cores in
your CPU, the cache size and clock speed. You need to able to identify these factors and
explain how they affect the computer’s performance.
Instruction Sets

 An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed by a CPU
 Each command has a unique binary code
 The table below shows an example instruction set. Each instruction has
a mnemonic that indicates what the instruction does alongside a corresponding binary
code

Instruction Set

ADD 10100001

SUB (subtract) 00100010

LDA (load) 10111111

STR (store) 01100000

BRA (branch) 01011010

 After an instruction is decoded into an opcode and an operand, the CPU finds the
opcode in the processor’s instruction set. It then knows what operation to perform when
executing the instruction

Worked example
Using the instruction set in the table above what would be the operation if the instruction
was 00100010 00000010?
[1]

Either of:

 The operation would be SUB [1]

 If the operand was raw data the complete instruction would be to subtract 2 from the
value in the accumulator [1]

Embedded Systems

 An embedded system is a computer systems with a either one function or limited

specific functions built within a larger mechanical device
 Its purpose is to control the device and allow a user to interact with it
 It runs on firmware and does not have additional peripherals
 An embedded system is different to a general purpose computer system like a laptop or
desktop computer which can be used to perform many different tasks
 The vast majority of microprocessors manufactured are for use as embedded systems
 Some embedded systems are microcontrollers meaning they are part of an integrated
circuit with built in memory

Type of embedded
Description
system

Integrated circuit containing a CPU and memory

Microcontrollers
(RAM or ROM) built in to the same chip
Integrated circuit containing only a CPU on the
chip
Microprocessor
RAM , ROM , peripherals need to be added

 The microprocessor used in an embedded system is often custom designed

  Embedded systems often have firmware which is software built into the system which
cannot be reprogrammed by the user. The software may be able to be updated e.g. GPS
software in a car navigation system
 Embedded systems usually have some form of analog or digital input

Diagram of an embedded system

Embedded
Possible input devices Possible Output
system

Screen showing the time

Buttons to set the
Digital clock
time/mode/alarm
Alarm
Pedestrian button

Traffic Lights Timer Lights

Movement sensor
Lighting system Movement sensor Lights
Keypad to enter alarm
code
Security system Alarm
Camera

Movement sensor
Vending machine Keypad to make choice Actuator controlling
 movement of choice
Keypad to set temperature
Central Heating
Heat
system
Temperature sensor

 There are many advantages of embedded systems

o low power consumption
o small physical size
o low cost to manufacturer
o they can be controlled remotely
o can operate in real time and respond to inputs very quickly

Worked example
Describe how an embedded system controls a washing machine

[3]

 The user selects the wash cycle they require using a keypad [1]
 The microprocessor will process the inputs and begin to heat the water and move the
drum to begin the wash. The actuator controlling the drum and the heating mechanism
are the output devices [1]
 Sensors will monitor the water level and temperature [1]

Input Devices

 Every computer system receives commands and data, from the real world, via input
devices
 Input devices converts inputs into digital data which can be processed
 For conventional computer systems, such as desktop computers and laptops, the most
common input devices are the mouse and the keyboard
 There are a wide range of input devices used in more specialist computer systems such
as scanners and sensors

Exam Tip

 The exam board has limited the number of devices you may be asked about to eight -
keyboard, optical mouse, microphone, barcode scanner, digital camera, QR code
scanner, touch screen (resistive, capacitive and infra-red), 2D and 3D scanners
 If you're asked to list some input devices, check you're not listing one included in the
question as you won't get a mark for this
 You won’t be asked how they technically work but may be asked what each device does,
why it does it and when it may be used
Barcode Scanner

https://vectorportal.com/vector/scanning-a-barcode./21323

Diagram of a barcode being scanned by a handheld barcode scanner

 Barcodes are a series of black and white bars which represent a code
 A barcode reader shines a red laser at the barcode to read the data it represents
 The light from the white lines is reflected back
 Black lines absorb the light so less is reflected
 The different levels of reflection are converted into a binary value which can be
processed by a microprocessor
 A barcode reader can be handheld or built into a larger machine such as a self-service
checkout at a supermarket
 Barcodes can be used in many ways such as identifying a product being sold
or tracking a package through the delivery process
 Benefits include faster checkouts, automated stock control, less chance of
error due to manual entry of data, and more detailed tracking information
Worked example
How are barcodes used in supermarkets to manage stock control?

When a customer purchases an item, its barcode is scanned in at the checkout [1]

The barcode reader sends the digital code for the product to the stock database where
it is removed from the stock inventory [1]

This means the number of items of stock is always accurate and up to date [1]

and the supermarket staff can reorder items quickly when stock is low [1]
Digital Camera

 A digital camera works by capturing light and converting it into a digital image
 Light enters the camera through the lens, it reaches an image sensor where it is split into
millions of pixels (small squares). Each pixel measures light intensity which
is converted into binary and represents a colour.
 Digital cameras are integrated into smartphones , used in security systems and
by professional photographers to create high quality digital images
 An advantage of digital cameras is they show a preview of the image
 They also instantly create an image which can then be
easily duplicated and transmitted via bluetooth or WiFi
 Software can be used to edit digital photos, for example applying a filter or retouching
a photo

Keyboard

 A keyboard is the most common device used for text-based data input
 They are connected either by a USB cable or wirelessly to the computer system
 They are built into laptops.
 Smartphones and tablets have virtual keyboards
 Each key on a keyboard has a peg underneath it which makes contact with a conducting
membrane. This is then converted into an electrical signal to transmit a unique
character code

Microphone

 A computer microphone works by converting sound waves into electrical signals that
can be processed by the computer.
 They can capture any real world sound and convert it into digital data which can be
stored, duplicated or modified
 The microphone has a diaphragm that vibrates in response to sound waves. These
vibrations are then converted into electrical signals by a coil of wire attached to the back
of the diaphragm. Changes in the signal are recorded by a microprocessor using a
analogue to digital converter
 Microphones are used to record music, telephone calls, communicate
online and dictation
Optical Mouse

 A mouse use a laser to detect and track movement, this is then processed by a
microprocessor which interprets the movement and replicates it when moving a virtual
cursor on-screen
 Items can be selected or moved using the left mouse button, whilst the right button
usually displays additional menus
 They can be wired or wireless
 They are used to control the cursor in a Graphical User Interface (GUIs)
 They are simple to use and provide the user with an intuitive way to navigate the
computer
 They are reliable due to no moving parts

QR code scanner

https://pixabay.com/vectors/qr-code-scanner-bar-code-156717/

Diagram of a QR code being scanned by a mobile device

 A QR code is a visual representation of data using black and white squares

 QR codes can represent over 7000 digits whereas a barcode represents up to 30 digits
  QR codes are scanned by a camera (often on a mobile device)
 A piece of software convert the squares into binary data
 QR codes often link to a website where more information can be found
 They can also be used to advertise products, share contact details,
provide promotional codes, train tickets, and event tickets

Worked example
Describe how festival organisers could make use of QR codes and QR code scanners
[4]

Any 4 of:

Festival e-tickets could be in the form of a QR code [1]

QR scanners could scan them on entry to the festival [1]

QR codes could be used to advertise the festival [1]

QR codes could be used to link to the festival website [1]

QR codes could be used to provide information during the festival [1]

Touchscreen

 A touchscreen can be classed as both an input device and an output device

Types of touch screen

Type How it works Benefits/Drawbacks Uses

Resistive Resistive screens + Cheap to produce.

screen consist of two
conductive layers. The + Resistant to surface
Used in cash
top layer is flexible. contaminants
machines,
When the screen is
information kiosks,
touched the two layer + Can be activated with
medical equipment
connect, completing a nearly every object
circuit (stylus, finger, gloved
hand)
Infra-red LEDs shine infrared + Excellent image Tablets, laptops,
screens light across a screen quality, smartphones
forming a matrix.
When the screen is + high precision
touched the beams are
interrupted
 + durable

+ allows for multiple

touches at the same time

- Requires a bare finger

or stylus for activation
Capacitive Made up of a protective +Excellent image
screens layer, a transparent quality
conductive layer and a Large scale
glass substrate. +Unlimited touch-life commercial displays
Touching the screen
changes the +Scale well Information kiosks
electrostatic field of the
conductive layer - Sensitive Medical equipment
to interference from
light, water, snow
2D and 3D scanners

 A two-dimensional (or flat-bed) scanner shines a strip of light over a document.

Reflected light is measured for each pixel. This data is converted into binary data so the
document can be digitally recreated
 A three- dimensional laser scanner shines a light over an object. The geometry and
dimensions are recorded so the object can be recreated digitally
 The digital 3D model can be modified using specialist software
 A 3D printer could then print out the model
 2D scanners can be used for creating digital versions of documents or photographs
 Reading passports at airports
 3D scanners can be used to create 3D models for use with computer-aided
design (CAD) software
 Creating replicas with 3D printers
 Typical uses of 3D scanners and printers are dentistry, product development, medical
 A cheap and quick way of creating a digital representation of both 2D and 3D objects
so they can be manipulated, stored, transmitted or copied

Summary of input device uses and benefits

Device Example Uses Benefits

Barcode scanner Faster checkout, less errors,

Checkouts, parcel delivery detailed stock/tracking
information
 QR code scanner Can hold more information
than a barcode
Advertising products, linking
to websites, e-tickets Can be scanned using a
camera on a mobile device
(smartphone)
2D and 3D scanners Converts 2D and 3D objects
into digital data which is
Scan documents, photos and
easier and quicker to
objects
transmit/duplicate or
manipulate
Digital camera Smartphones, professional
photography, security Instant preview and image
systems
Keyboard Entering text Universal, easy to use
Mouse Navigating a GUI
Intuitive
Making selections and
entering commands
Microphone Recording real-world sound

Musical recordings

Telephone calls

Dictation
Touchscreen Entering text and commands
on mobile devices (tablet,
smartphone) Can be durable

Cash machines Good image quality

Interactive advertisements Intuitive/easy to use

Information screens
Exam Tip

 The exam board will refer to a touchscreen as an input device.

 Output Devices

 An output device shows the results of the processing in a way humans can understand
 In a general purpose computer system, the main output device is the monitor/screen
 Other output devices include projectors, printers, speakers and actuators

Exam Tip

 If you're asked to list some output devices, check you're not listing one included in the question
as you won't get a mark for this

Actuators

 Actuators are used in conjunction with a motor to translate energy (electrical, air, hydraulic)
into real-world movement of a physical object.
 They come in a variety of sizes and have been made specifically for a particular function.
 Examples of use include turning a wheel, opening or closing a door, controlling a conveyer belt,
operating machinery, moving robotic arms, vibrating a machine, starting or stopping a pump,
opening or closing a valve
 They are often used with sensors. The input of the sensor is checked against stored values. If
the input is within a certain range an actuator is used to provide movement of a physical object

Worked example
A theme park has a game where a player has to run from the start to the finish without getting
wet. The system for the game uses sensors and a microprocessor to spray water at a player as
they run past each sensor

Describe how the sensors and the microprocessor are used in this system

[6]

 Motion sensors are used to detect the player’s movement [1]

 The sensor sends data to microprocessor [1]
 Data is compared with stored data [1]
 if value is within range water is sprayed [1]
 signal sent to actuator to spray water [1]
 if value is outside of range no action is taken [1]

Light projectors

 Used to project computer outputs onto a large screen

  Used to give presentations in both business and education settings
 There are two types - Digital light processing (DLP) projectors and Liquid crystal display (LCD)
projectors.
 DLP systems use millions of micro-mirrors arranged in a grid on a microprocessor within the
projector. Light is shone through colour filters and the mirrors. The position of the mirrors can
be altered to change the intensity of the light
 LCD projectors use three mirror filters to separate an image into red, green and blue
wavelengths. The three images are then combined to produce the full colour image which is
passed through the lens on to the wall/screen

Device Advantages Disadvantages

Digital light
Higher contrast ratios. Image tends to suffer from
projector (DLP)
“shadows” when showing a
Smooth video moving image

DLP do not have grey

Higher reliability
components in the image

The colour definition is not

Smaller and lighter
as good as LCD projectors

Better suited to dusty atmospheres

than LCD projectors
LCD projector
Give a sharper image than DLP Contrast ratios are not as
projectors good as DLPs
Better colour saturation
Have a limited life
and intensity than DLP projectors
Use less power and generate less LCD panels degrade over
heat time.
Quieter running that DLP
Laser and Inkjet printers

 Both printers create hard copies of a digital document

 Hard copies are needed when you do not have access to an electronic device

Inkjet printers:

 Have a print head which moves across the page

 Spray liquid ink droplets from ink cartridges through very fine nozzles onto the paper (these are
in the print head)
  The droplets can be piezoelectric or thermal bubble technology
 Inkjet printers produce high quality hard copies of digital images or documents

Laser printers:

 Are very fast when making multiple copies of a document

 Are useful for high volume print jobs for example producing leaflets
 Have a low running cost per page.
 Are often used in business and education setting
 Have large toner (dry ink) cartridges and large paper trays
 Use positive and negative charges to make the toner particles stick to piece of paper, heat is
then used to bond the particles to the paper

Worked example
Match the characteristic to the correct type of printer

Characteristic Inkjet Laser

Uses ink cartridges

Uses toner (powdered ink)

Great for bright colours and images

Great for clear, sharp images and text

Widely used in homes and home offices
with lower print volumes
Widely used in office with higher print
volumes
[1 mark per row]

Characteristic Inkjet Laser

Uses ink cartridges x

Uses toner (powdered ink) x

Great for bright colours and images x

Great for clear, sharp images and text x

Widely used in homes and home offices x
with lower print volumes
Widely used in office with higher print
x
volumes
3D printers

 3D printers create 3D models of a digital model by depositing layers of material, such as plastic
or resin, on top of one another to slowly build up a 3D object
 They allow for precision and can be used in medicine to create prosthetics and blood vessels
 3D printers can be used to create rapid prototypes
 Models can be transmitted digitally and then models printed out all across the world

Liquid Crystal Display screens

 LCD screens are made up of millions of tiny liquid crystals.

 The display is made of pixels arranged in a matrix
 The display requires backlighting
 They are used for TVs, monitors, tablets and phones
 They have low power consumption and run at a cool temperature
 They do not suffer image burn or flicker issues
 They provide bright images and colours
 They are cheaper to produce than LED screens

Worked example
Describe three benefits of LCD screens

[3]

Any 3 of:

 Low power consumption [1]

 Runs at a cool temperature [1]
 Bright image/colours [1]
 Do not suffer Image burn [1]
 Cheaper to purchase than an LED screen [1]

Light emitting diode (LED) screen

 An LED screen is made up of tiny LEDs

 They do not need backlighting which makes them thinner and lighter to hang on the wall
 LED screens are replacing LCD displays in TVs, monitors, laptops and mobile devices
 They have better image quality and a longer life span
 They can be used to create very large screens that can be used to show visual content at events
such as football matches and music festivals
 They consume very little power making them suitable for being switched on for many hours in
the day
Organic light emitting diode (OLED) screen

 Much thinner and lighter than traditional LCD screens

 Use organic light emitting diodes (OLEDS).
 They use organic carbon compound to create semiconductors
 No form of back lighting is required
 You can have very thin, flexible screens

Speakers

 Speakers are used to take digital sounds or recordings and output them as sound waves which
can be heard by humans
 The digital data is changed into a electric current using a digital to analogue converter (DAC)
 It is then passed through an amplifier to create a current large enough to drive a loudspeaker
 The loudspeaker converts the current into a sound wave
 Typical uses include listening to music, listening to video sound, telephone calls and alarms

Worked example
What would an appropriate output device be for a large screen showing replays during a football
match?
Justify your choice.
[3]

 An LED screen [1]

 Any 2 of:
 Consume little power [1]
 Can be used to create large screens [1]
 Provide a better quality image compared to alternatives [1]

Exam Tip

 This section of the course has been simplified for exams taking place from 2023 onwards. In the
past students needed to know how each device physically worked. You now only need to know:

o What each device does and why it does it

o When it is used
 Older textbooks may contain more detail than is required
 Sensors

 Sensors are input devices

 They measure a physical property of their environment such as light levels,
temperature or movement
 Sensors can be used for monitoring systems and control systems
o A monitoring system tracks the state of a system, it gathers data and may
issue warning messages
o A control system will control the system based upon the input from sensors
o For example, if the water temperature in a fish tank fell below the acceptable
level, a control system would start up a heater. The system will then continue to
check the water temperature readings and when they are within the acceptable
range it will switch off the heater
 This process of the outputs affecting the following set of input values
received from the sensors is called a feedback loop

Exam Tip

 You are likely to be given a scenario and asked to identify the sensors that would be
used.
 The 14 sensors you need to be aware of are in the table below

Sensor type What it measures Typical use

Acoustic Sound levels To detect changes in sound

levels of industrial
machinery

To monitor noise pollution

In security system to detect

suspicious sounds
Accelerometer Acceleration rate, tilt, Detecting sudden changes
vibration in vehicle movement and
deploy safety features if
needed

In mobile phones to detect

orientation of the device
Flow Rate of gas, liquid or Detect changes in the flow
powder flow through pipes in water
system
Gas Presence of a gas e.g. Detect levels of gas in
carbon monoxide
 confined spaces

Detect gas levels when

fixing gas leaks
Humidity Levels of water vapour Monitor humidity in
greenhouses
Infra-red Detecting motion or a heat Security systems detecting
source intruders who break the
beam

Measures heat radiation of

objects - used by
emergency services to
detect people
Level Liquid levels Detects levels of petrol in a
car tank

Detect levels of water in a

water tank

Detect a drop in water

levels due to a leak
Light Light levels Automatically switching on
lights when it gets dark
(street lights, headlights)
Magnetic field Presence and strength Anti-lock braking system

Monitoring rotating
machinery such as turbines
Moisture Presence and levels of Monitoring moisture in soil
moisture
Monitoring damp in
buildings
pH Acidity or alkaline Monitoring soil to ensure
optimum growing
conditions

Monitor pHlevels in
chemical processes
Pressure Gas, liquid or physical Monitoring tyre pressure
pressure
Monitoring pressure in
pipes during manufacturing
process
 Proximity Distance Monitoring position of
objects in robotics

Used in safety systems to

prevent objects colliding
Temperature Temperature in Celsius, Used to maintain
Fahrenheit or Kelvin temperature in swimming
pools

Used to control
temperature in chemical
processes
Worked example
What type of sensor would be used to help drivers when reversing?

[1]

A Motion

B Infra-red

C Light

D Proximity

 D [1]
 A proximity sensor would be used to monitor how close the car was to objects. It would
then sound a warning alarm when the proximity is below a certain value (meaning the
car is too close to an object)

Is this a monitoring system or a control system?

[1]

A Monitoring

B Control

 A [1]
 The reversing warning system is a monitoring system. It indicates to the user when the
car is too close to an object but it does not stop the car automatically
 Virtual Memory

 The purpose of RAM is to store current data and program instructions in use
 The amount of physical RAM available is limited. The average modern desktop
computer has between 4GB and 16GB of RAM. Some programs are larger than this
 Virtual memory is part of secondary storage which acts as RAM when RAM is full
 It prevents the computer system crashing when RAM is full
 Data that needs to be accessed by the CPU directly is switched by the operating system
from virtual memory into RAM and an inactive page from RAM replaces it in virtual
memory. This is called page switching

A diagram showing page switching between RAM and virtual memory

The table describes the steps that are taken when a program is opened on a computer

Step Description

1  The memory manager software built into the

Operating System checks to see if there is sufficient
space in RAM to move the new program’s
instructions into RAM, so that they can be directly
accessed by the CPU

2  If RAM is full, the memory manager will move out

the most inactive pages of data and put them in
virtual memory until needed
 3  The new program instructions are moved into RAM

Worked example
Sandy is playing an open world role playing computer game set in a large 3D
environment. This requires the use of virtual memory. Explain why
[3]

 To extend the RAM capacity [1]

 To stop the computer game from crashing when the physical RAM is full [1]
 To allow the computer to process the large amount of data required [1]

Primary Storage

 Primary storage is directly accessible by the CPU , it includes RAM, Cache, and ROM
 The purpose of Random Access Memory (RAM) is to store data, instructions and
software (including parts of the OS) currently in use
o RAM is also called main memory
o RAM has faster read/write speeds than secondary storage
o RAM is volatile which means it is temporary memory and all data will be
lost when the computer is switched off
o The larger the main memory, the more data the computer access quickly,
which can improve the computer's performance
o A standard desktop computer has between 4GB and 16GB of RAM
 The parts of the operating system currently in use will be stored in RAM
 The purpose of cache is to store frequently/recently used instructions and data
o Cache has faster read/write speeds than RAM
o There are different levels of cache
 Level 1 cache is situated within the CPU
 Level 2 and 3 cache are situated on the motherboard
o If you increase the amount of cache you can store more frequently used data
and increase the performance of your computer
 If you have too much cache it will decrease the data access speeds
because the data requested will take longer to find
o Cache is volatile and all data will be lost when the computer is switched off
A diagram showing the parts of a computer system which are classed as primary
storage

 The role of Read-only memory (ROM) is to store the computer’s boot-up sequence
o The boot-up sequence is a set of instructions the computer executes when then
computer is initially switched on
o This sequence will run a series of checks to ensure all of the system hardware is
working
o It will then load the operating system which will move from secondary storage
to RAM
 ROM is non-volatile which means data will be stored when the computer is switched off
 ROM is read-only which means data cannot be written to ROM

The difference between ROM and RAM

RAM ROM

Volatile Non-volatile
Can read and write data to RAM Read-only
Exam Tip

 Make sure you're specific about which component you're referring to in exam questions
and give the proper name e.g. RAM rather than memory unit

Worked example
Describe what is meant by main memory and how it is used in the Von Neumann model
for a computer system

[3]

Any 3 of:

 Memory is RAM [1]

 It is primary storage [1]
 It is volatile memory [1]
 It holds currently in use data/instructions [1]
 It is directly accessed by the CPU [1]

Secondary Storage

 Secondary storage is not directly accessed by the CPU

 It is used for permanent storage of data
 Secondary storage is non-volatile. This means data is stored even when power is lost
to the device
 Secondary storage is needed as primary storage (such as RAM ) is volatile and will not
retain data when the computer is turned off
 Unlike ROM, secondary storage can be read from and written to. ROM is read only
 Common examples of secondary storage include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state
drives (SSDs), external hard drives, USB flash drives, CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray
discs. These can be used to store data to transfer it to another computer
 Data access speeds for secondary storage devices are typically slower than primary
storage (such as RAM)
 Secondary storage devices often have large capacity (can store large amounts of data)
 Software such as the operating system is saved permanently on secondary storage.
The instructions and data that makes up the software then moves to RAM when it is in
use
 Secondary storage devices can be internal (inside the computer) and external (outside
the computer)
 Diagram showing different internal and external secondary storage devices

Comparison of primary and secondary storage

Primary storage Secondary storage

Volatile / temporary Non-volatile /permanent

RAM and cache can be read from and written to

Secondary storage can be read from and written to
ROM is read-only

Can be directly accessed by the CPU Cannot be directly accessed by the CPU
Smaller capacity Larger capacity

Data access speeds faster than secondary storage Data access speeds slower than primary storage

Stores data and instructions Stores data and instructions

Worked example
Which of the following is an example of secondary storage?

A Random access memory

B Read only memory

C Solid State Drive

D Blu-ray disc

 C and D [1]
 Random access memory and read only memory are both primary storage and can be
accessed directly by the CPU. Solid-state drives and blu-ray discs are classed as
secondary storage. Data can be permanently stored on them but they cannot be
accessed directly by the CPU

Exam Tip

 When referring to a USB memory stick, don't refer to it as USB as this could be anything
that is plugged in with USB and not necessarily a storage device

Types of secondary storage

 There are three types of secondary storage - magnetic, solid state and optical

Exam Tip

 You need to be able describe the operation of each type of secondary storage. You may
also need to recommend a type of storage for a given scenario and justify your choice

Magnetic

 Magnetic hard disk drives have been the main type of internal secondary storage in
personal computers for many years however solid state drives are increasingly popular
due to their durability, low power consumption and high read/write speeds
 A magnetic hard disk is made up of several metal discs coated with a magnetic
material
o These are called platters
o Iron particles on each platter are magnetised to represent a 0 or 1
 A diagram showing the structure of a magnetic hard disk

 Each platter is divided by concentric circles creating several tracks and wedge
shaped sectors. Where they intersect is a track sector
 A diagram showing how each platter is divided by tracks and sectors

 The hard drive spins the metal disk(s) at a high speed (typically around 5400-7200
RPM) using a motor
 A read/write arm, controlled by an actuator, moves the head over the surface of the
disc to the location of the data
 The data is read/written using electromagnets

Solid State

 Solid State secondary storage is made of transistors that are arranged in a grid layout
 It uses NAND and NOR gates in electrical circuits to persistently control the flow of
electrons
 Current flowing is 1, no current is 0 - which is how electrical flow can represent binary
values
 A NAND gate will take in two inputs and produce an output (1/electrical current) as long
as both inputs are not 1

The truth table truth table for a NAND gate

InputA InputB Output

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1
1 1 0

 A NOR gate will produce an output (1) only when both inputs are 0

The truth table for a NOR gate

InputA InputB Output

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Optical

 Optical devices include CDs, DVDs and Blu-rays

o Blu-rays have the largest capacity
o CDs have the lowest capacity
o CD-R are read-only (you cannot save data on to them)
o CD-RW can be written to and read from
o DVD-RW can be written to and read from
 All optical devices work by shining a laser at the disk and processing the reflection
 An arm moves the laser across the surface of the disk
 In CD-Rs a laser burns the data, permanently on to the disk, by
creating pits and lands
 The laser is also used to read the data from the pits and lands
 When the laser light hits the point where the pit changes into a land or vice versa the
light scatters and is not reflected back as well. This is captured by a sensor and can be
interpreted as a change in the binary value

A diagram showing how data is burnt on to optical discs to create lands and pits
which can then be used

 In CD-RW the chemical composition of the disk is changed to represent 0s and 1s. This
change can be overwritten

Exam Tip
 Make sure you have a greater understanding of the operation of the different
types of storage

Worked example
Describe how a magnetic storage device stores data

[6]

Any 6 of:

 Storage device has platters [1]

 Platters/disk divided into tracks [1]
 Storage platter/disk is spun [1]
 Has a read/write arm that moves across storage media [1]
 Read/writes data using electromagnets [1]
 Uses magnetic fields to control magnetic dots of data [1]
 Magnetic field determines binary value [1]

Cloud Storage

 Cloud storage is the concept of storing data on remote servers, that can be accessed via
the internet, instead of on a local storage device (such as an SSD or HDD)
 The physical servers, where the data is stored, are owned and managed by a hosting
company

o Cloud storage warehouses often have thousands of servers containing

harddrives
o The hosting company provides services such backing up the data, managing
access to the data as well as general security
 The data can be accessed at any time, on any device, as long as there is an internet
connection
 The data is accessible using a web browser or dedicated software that connects to the
cloud storage service
 There is potentially limitless storage, although it does need to be paid for
 Online storage means it is easy to share data and collaborate with others
 If the internet connection is slow/lost the access to your data is affected
 A diagram showing different devices connecting to remote servers

Advantages of cloud storage

 Cloud storage offers several advantages over storing data on a local secondary storage
device

Benefit Explanation

Accessibility
 Data can be accessed from anywhere
 Data can be accessed by anyone with the relevant
permissions, making it quick to share files and collaborate
with others
 Data can be accessed on any device with an internet
connection
 Scalability  Cloud storage providers allow customers to increase or
decrease their storage capacity as needed

Reliability  Cloud storage providers often use multiple servers to store

and backup data, reducing the risk of data loss due to
hardware failure

Security
 Cloud storage providers offer advanced security features,
such as data encryption and multi-factor
authentication multi-factor authentication, to protect user
data from unauthorised access
 There is no need to hire specialist staff as IT services being
provided by the cloud storage provider

 You also do not need to purchase local secondary storage devices

 One cloud storage centre is more environmentally friendly than millions of individual
servers
 There are some drawbacks to using cloud storage
o If the user has a slow or unreliable internet connection they would have
problems accessing their files
o If you are storing a lot of data it can be expensive
 You have to pay the cloud storage provider
 You may need to commit to an annual subscription
 You may have to pay for high download and upload data transfer limits
o Data being sent over the internet has the potential to be intercepted
o Security is managed by the cloud storage provider which means the user does
not have complete control over it but is still legally responsible for ensuring
any personal and sensitive data is secure

Worked example
A school currently stores all of their data on local servers. They are considering
upgrading their system to utilise cloud storage.

Explain two disadvantages to the school of storing their data in the cloud.

[4]

 You need a constant internet connection [1]

 if the internet connection failed, teachers would not be able to access lesson files [1]
 if the internet connection failed, teachers would not be able to access student data/take
electronic registers [1]
 if the internet connection failed, students would not be able to access their
work/coursework [1]
 Reliant on third party to carry out security procedures [1]
  but the school is still legally responsible if data is accessed by unauthorised people [1]
 Data stored on the cloud could be hacked or intercepted [1]

Explain two advantages to the school of storing their data in the cloud.

[4]


Additional storage can be purchased if needed [1]

The cloud hosting company provides back up [1]

The cloud hosting company provides security [1]
 Data can be accessed from anywhere and from any device provided there is an internet
connection [1]
 So teachers would be able to access data from home [1]
 So students would be able to access work from home [1]

Network Interface Card

 A Network Interface Card (NIC) or Network Interface Controller is an internal physical

component which enables computers and other devices to connect to a network
 They are also known as network adapters
 NICs have a built in ethernet port and can be connected to a network via
an Ethernet cable
 You can have Wireless Network Interface Cards (WNIC) which allow a device to
wirelessly connect to a network
 The primary function of a NIC is to send and receive data packets between the
computer or device and the network
 The NIC converts data to be sent into signals that can be sent across the
transmission medium
o If this is through a wired network, the signals will be voltages through an ethernet
wire or pulses of light through a fibre
o If this is through a wireless network, the signals will be radio waves
 NICs are likely to be integrated into the motherboard but can be added as an expansion
card

MAC Addresses

 A Media Access Control/MAC address is used to identify a device on a network

 It is a unique code which consists of six pairs of hexadecimal codes separated by a colon
 Each pair of hex digits is a Byte of data. So in total a MAC address is 6 bytes or 48 bits long
 An example MAC address is b4:71:ac:f3:21:a2
 The MAC address is assigned to the NIC by its manufacturer
  The first three pairs are the manufacturer ID number and the last three pairs is the serial
number of the NIC and identifies the device on the network

An example MAC address - the first part identifying the manufacturer and the second part
identify the device
A MAC address cannot be changed. It is staticA table listing the differences between an IP
address and a MAC address

MAC Address IP Address

Permanently assigned to a Can be used to identify devices on a network

NIC and cannot be changed but are dynamic and can be changed
MAC addresses are written in
IP addresses are written in denary
hexadecimal
MAC addresses are 6 bytes
IP addresses are 4 bytes long
long
MAC addresses are used to IP addresses are used to identify a device on
identify a device on a LAN a WAN
Worked example
Describe what is meant by a MAC address[4]Any 4 of:

 Used to identify a device [1]

 It is a unique address [1]
 It is a static address/it does not change [1]
 It is set by the manufacturer [1]
 The first part is the manufacturer ID [1]
 The second part is the serial number of the device [1]