Science notes:

11.1 - Evidence of Evolution:

Evolution – Evolution is a gradual change in the physical characteristics. of living organisms
over many generations, often because of natural selection.
Bonobo - One of the closest relatives to humans is thought to be the Bonobo (Pygmy
Chimpanzee), a great ape found in regions of the Congo in Africa.

Scientific evidence to find common ancestors:

Comparative Anatomy:

 Comparative anatomy is the study of features (structure of the body) of different

species to look for evidence of a common ancestor.
Homologous Structures:

 Parts of the body in different species that show evidence of common features are
called homologous structures.
 These are present due to the inheritance of common genes (a section of DNA that
carries the genetic code for a particular characteristic).
 For example, the pentadactyl limb in vertebrates:
 Most vertebrates show a similar basic pattern of bones in their limbs – one upper limb
bone, two lower limb bones, wrist/ bones and 5digits.ankle bones

Analogous Structures:
  Analogous structures are structures of different species with similar functions.
 Convergent Evolution: Sometimes, animals facing similar challenges, like needing to
fly or swim, end up developing similar solutions, even if they're not related.
 Similar Jobs, Different Tools: Animals might do similar things, like flying, but they
have different body structures, like birds with feathers and bats with skin wings.
 Different Animals, Same Tricks: Just like you and your neighbour might both build a
treehouse, animals from different families can end up doing the same things, like
hunting in groups.
 Quick Changes, Similar Features: When animals adapt to new environments fast, they
can end up looking alike, even if they started out very different. For example,
dolphins and sharks both have streamlined bodies to swim fast.
 Looks and Genes: Scientists don't just look at how animals are shaped; they also look
at their genes. By comparing both, they can understand how animals change in similar
ways, even if they're not related.

Vestigial Structures:

 These are parts of organisms that have lost their usefulness as a species evolved.
 They remain in the organism, sometimes even causing problems.
 Vestigial structures in humans include wisdom teeth, the appendix, the tailbone and
nipples on men.
Comparative Embryology:

 Embryology is the study of the development, structure, and function of embryos. By

comparing the early stages in multiple animals, many traits of one type of animal
have been identified in the embryo of another type of animal.
 The development of mammals, reptiles, birds and fish are linked to branchial arches.
 Biologists have proposed that fish evolved into amphibians which evolved into
reptiles which evolved into birds.
 Evidence from studying embryos including branchial arches supports this idea.

Genetic Evidence:

 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a molecule that codes for genetic instructions of

living organisms; found in nearly every cell of living organisms.
 A gene is a section of DNA that carries the genetic code for a particular characteristic.
 The Human Genome Project, completed in 2003, completely mapped the DNA of
humans. As a result, we can now compare the DNA of different species and identify
how similar they are.
 For example, DNA mapping shows that humans and Bonobo Great Apes share more
than 98% of their genes, providing evidence that we had a common ancestor.
  Proteins form the basis of living tissues and play an important role in biological
processes.
 Proteins are molecules made of subunits called amino acids.
 Genes hold the code to put the amino acids in a specific order to make specific
proteins (protein synthesis).
 Amino acid sequences in proteins of different organisms can be analysed for
differences.
 A small difference means the organisms are closely related and have a common
ancestor.
 A large difference means that the common ancestor of the two organisms lived a long
time ago.
 For example, Cytochrome C is a protein involved in aerobic respiration and is found
in many organisms including plants and humans.

Biogeography:

 Biogeography is the study of the past and present distribution of living organisms.
 Much of the evidence for biogeography comes from fossils, If fossils of one species
are found in different continents, then this is evidence that the two continents were
once connected.
Example 1 – Australian marsupials

 Australia has been an isolated island for many years however, Australian marsupials
still have some common features with those in South America.
Example 2 - flightless birds (Ratites)

 The present-day distribution of flightless birds and similarities between them suggests
the: birds originated from a common ancestor on Gondwana, and different
populations evolved on the isolated southern continents as they drifted apart.

11.2 - The fossil records:

Fossils: Fossils are the remains, impressions or traces of long dead organisms left in rock and
kept safe by geological processes.
Palaeontology: Palaeontology is the study of fossils and a palaeontologist is a scientist who
studies fossils.

What do fossils tell us:

 Give clues about organisms that lived long ago.

 Help to show that evolution has occurred.
  Provide evidence about how Earth’s surface has changed overtime.
 Help scientists understand what past environments may have been like.
 Are important in the scientific study of comparative anatomy.

Fossil Formation:
Types of Fossils:

 Original fossils - Form when a part of the organism (a complete skeleton, bones, a
tooth or teeth or a shell) is preserved.
 Indirect/Trace fossils - The preserved evidence of an animal's activity or behaviour
without containing parts of the organism.
 Mould Fossils - Left when the entire organism decays but the shape or impression of
the external surface remains.
 Mineralised/Cast Fossils - Occur when an organism in rock decomposes and the space
in the rock fills with soil and turns to rock. Soil may eventually replace the entire
organism leaving a replica of the original fossil.
 Mummified organisms/True form fossils - Organisms that have been trapped in a
substance under conditions that reduce decay (e.g. ice, amber and dry air) and so
undergo little change.
 Carbon film fossils/Carbon trace fossils - Occur when the dead body partially decays
and leaves a thin black deposit of carbon.

The fossil record:

  The fossil record is a record of all fossils found on Earth.
 It provides evidence for evolution because it shows how organisms have changed
through geologic time from the simplest single-cell organisms to human beings.

Geological Time Scale:

 The geological time scale shows us that older fossils are simpler organisms than
younger fossils.
 This evidence supports the theory of evolution because it suggests that much more
complex organisms evolved from simpler ones.
 Relative Dating: Relative dating gives an approximate age of a fossil by comparing it
to other fossils or by studying the layers and ages of the surrounding stone.
 Absolute Dating: Precisely determining age using decay rates of radioactive elements.
 Absolute dating is commonly done by studying the radioactive minerals in rocks.
 Scientists can calculate the age of the rock by investigating how much the radioactive
elements in them have decayed.
 Half-life is the time required for half of the atoms of a radioactive substance to
become stable.

11.3 – Natural Selection:

What is natural selection?

 Natural selection (‘survival of the fittest’) is the process where organisms that are
better suited to their environment (beneficial traits) tend to survive and reproduce,
passing their traits on from one generation to the next.
  The beneficial traits are hereditary – they are passed by parents to their offspring,
through the genes.
 Natural selection was first proposed in the 1850s by the scientist Charles Darwin, who
put his ideas about natural selection and evolution into his book The Origin of
Species.

5 key elements of Darwin's theory of natural selection:

1. In any generation there are more offspring produced than can survive (there is a struggle
for existence) – overproduction.
2. All individuals within a population of organisms show variation.
3. As a result of variation, some organisms may have more favourable features which allow
them to survive better in their environment than individuals with less favourable variations –
competition.
4. These individuals with more favourable variations are more likely to survive, reproduce
and pass on their favourable variations to their offspring – selection/adaptation.
5. Over several generations the favourable variations become more common in the population
– speciation.

Galapagos finches helped Darwin develop his theory of natural selection:

 During his 5-year expedition, Charles Darwin discovered a few species of finches in
the Galapagos Islands, off the coast of Ecuador.
 Although the finches looked very similar, their beaks were different lengths and
shapes, which reflected the different food sources on each island.
 Darwin theorised that the finches had a common ancestor, but after they separated
geographically and had different food sources, the finches evolved different beaks
through natural selection.

Antibiotic resistance is a result of natural selection in bacteria:

The way in which bacteria develop resistance to antibiotics can be explained by Darwin’s
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection:

 1. Bacteria are exposed to an antibiotic.

 2. The bacteria that have variations that are best suited to that environment (resistance
to the antibiotic) will survive and reproduce.
 3. Therefore, the population will become more resistant to the antibiotic over
generations.
Example 1 – Mosquitoes resistant to pesticides such as DDT
(Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)

 Mosquitoes carry deadly diseases such as malaria.

 An effective way of reducing the incidence of malaria is to spray populated areas with
pesticides (chemicals that control pests).
 In some areas however, mosquitoes are becoming resistant to pesticides.
 Natural selection means resistant mosquitoes are more likely to survive and pass on
the resistance to their offspring.
 This results in a population resistant to pesticides that could also be carriers of
malaria.
Example 2 – Development of antibiotic resistant bacteria

 There are many different types of bacteria, some of which can cause disease in
humans.
 Antibiotics are chemicals that can inhibit the growth of bacteria or destroy them.
 Another example of natural selection happening is the increasing resistance of
bacteria to antibiotics because of the overuse of antibiotics.
 The widespread use of antibiotics has developed a problem that threatens the
successful future treatment of diseases.
 Bacteria, during the normal process of natural selection, have evolved strains that are
resistant to many, if not all, of the antibiotics used to treat infectious bacterial disease
in the world today.

11.4 – Factors affecting survival:

Many factors affect the survival of organisms in a population, including:
1. An individual’s genetics
2. The environment it’s in
3. The availability of resources
4. The availability of mates
5. The presence of predators and
6. Population density:
 Population density is a measure of the number of individuals living in a particular area
and is very important to the survival of organisms.
 If the population density is too high, then the individuals have to compete for food,
water and reproductive mates.
 If the population density is too low, the population can lack genetic variation and it can
be hard for individuals to find a mate.

1-Survival depends on genetic diversity in populations:

 DNA is the blueprint for your biology. it is found in the nucleus of most cells.
  Segments of DNA are called genes and can determine different physical
characteristics.
 For example, your height and bone structure are partly determined by your genes,
which were passed down to you from your mother and father.
 Genetic variation describes the variation in DNA sequences that is present in
individuals of the same species and is critical to the continuation of life on Earth.
 Natural selection acts to produce a population that is well suited to an environment.
 Overtime it can reduce genetic variation, with organisms becoming more genetically
alike.
A population is a group of the same species living in a specific area and interbreeding.

 When populations lack genetic diversity, they are vulnerable to changes in their
environment.
 They may be unable to adapt to changes because they don’t contain the necessary
genetic options.
 For example, the Tasmanian devil lacks genetic diversity because of its low numbers,
isolation, and generations of interbreeding. When a highly contagious facial tumour
spread through the population in the mid -1990s, no individuals had genetic resistance
to the condition. The disease now affects more than 80% of Tasmanian devils.

2- Environmental factors affect survival:

 Many environmental factors influence survival, for example: the amount of sunlight,
temperature, wind, soil quality, pH, and water.
 Most organisms can only survive in a narrow temperature range.
 For example, polar bears thrive in freezing temperatures but would perish in tropical
climates.
 Polar bears have several adaptations to their cold environment, including a thick coat
and a layer of fat, as well as white fur that helps them blend in with their icy
environment.

3- Human activity affects the survival of other species:

 Humans have had a devastating effect on the natural environment and, thus, the
survival of plants and animals. For example:
 Habitat destruction has increased as humans have cleared land for farming, buildings,
and roads, leaving plants and animals without the resources they need to live and
reproduce.
 The World Wildlife Fund estimates that since 1970, humans have caused the death of
approximately 60% of all mammals, bird, reptile and fish species.
 Conservation management can do much to assist species to avoid extinction. For
example:

 The formation of National parks provides protected places for plants.

 and animals.
 Reducing deforestation.
 Using natural resources sustainably.
 Protecting the most vulnerable species.

Chapter 2: Motion

2.1 Force, Mass, and Acceleration:

Force - A force is a push, pull or twist that causes an object to either:

 increase its speed (accelerate)

 decrease its speed (decelerate)

 change its direction, or

 change its shape.

 any of these things happen, then a force caused it.

Mass - The amount of matter in an object is referred to as its mass.

 Although the mass of an object is one of the factors that determines its weight, it is a
different property.

 An object's weight is affected by gravity and can vary depending upon its location
relevant to another object exerting a gravitational pull on it; however, an object's mass
remains constant, even when there is no gravity acting upon it, such as in space
beyond the Earth's gravitational field.

Acceleration - Acceleration is the rate at which something changes speed or velocity.

 A falling object accelerates towards Earth because of the force of gravity. This means
it speeds up as it falls.
  The friction between the air and a falling body is called air resistance, and the final
velocity is called terminal velocity.

Terminal Velocity - Terminal velocity is the constant velocity that results when the force of
atmospheric friction equals the force of gravity for a falling object. At this terminal velocity,
the falling object no longer accelerates.

Acceleration depends on mass and the size of the force being applied

 The relationship between force, mass and acceleration is summed up by Newton’s

second law.

 The acceleration of an object is proportional to the force applied, and inversely

proportional to the mass of the object.

 ̈ Inversely proportional means when one value decreases at the same rate that the
other increases.

2.2 – Speed, Distance and Time:

Relationship between speed, distance and time:

 Distance is the amount of space between two points.

 Speed is the distance an object travels divided by the time taken.

 Time is how long it takes an object to travel a certain distance.

 An object moves faster when it travels a greater distance in a certain time or covers a set
distance in a shorter time.
 Ticket Timer:

 The ticker timer works by attaching a long strip of paper to a moving object, such as a
dynamics trolley. When the trolley moves, it drags the paper through the ticker timer
device. A small hammer hits the paper every 0.02 seconds and leaves a dot. The string of
dots is a record of both distance and time over very short time intervals.

2.3 – graphs/motion:

Distance is different from displacement:

 Distance is how far an object actually travels. Distance does not involve the direction in
which you move at any time in your journey.

 Displacement is the straight-line distance between the finishing and starting points. It is
distance with direction.

 Distance and displacement are measured in the same units, metres are used for
calculation.

Speed and velocity are both related to distance and displacement.

 Speed is a measure of how much distance changes in a certain time.

 ̈ Distance and speed do not require a direction and are known as scalar quantities.

 Velocity is a measure of how much displacement changes in a certain time.

 ̈ Displacement and velocity should always be given a direction as well as a

magnitude (such as 6m/s east).

 ̈ Quantities that have both a direction and a magnitude are called vector quantities.

 ̈ Other vector quantities include acceleration and force.

Distance-time graphs represent motion:

 Distance-time graphs show the total distance travelled by an object as time

progressed.

 Time is always placed on the x-axis (horizontal).

 Steep graphs indicate that the object is covering more distance and travelling
faster than flatter graphs.

 A horizontal graph indicates no movement at all – the object is at rest or

stationery.

 The slope or gradient of a distance-time graph gives us the object’s average speed.

Speed-time graphs provide more information.

 A graph of speed against time gives another picture of what is happening in the
motion of an object.
  Time is always placed on the x-axis (horizontal).
If the object is getting faster, the graph rises.
If slowing, the graph falls. Constant speed gives a flat graph.

 The area under a speed-time graph gives the distance that the object has travelled
up to that point.

Equations of motion

Key Terms:

 When an object speeds up we say it accelerates.

 When an object is slowing down, we say it has negative acceleration or a

deceleration.

 An object that is stationary, or is moving with a constant speed, has zero acceleration.
2.4 – Net Force and Acceleration:

1. Net force is the sum of all forces acting on an object:

2. Acceleration is any change in speed or direction over time:

 If acceleration is in the same direction as an object’s motion, the object will speed up.
 If acceleration is in the opposite direction to an object’s motion, the object will slow
down.
 If acceleration is not parallel to the object’s motion, the object will change direction.
 Acceleration is usually measured in metres per second squared (m/s2).

3. Acceleration and net force always act in the same direction

 When many forces are acting on an object, the acceleration depends on the net force
and is always in the same direction as the net force.

 If there is no net force, there will be no acceleration.

 Newton’s second law of motion states external forces cause objects to accelerate, and
the amount of acceleration is directly proportional to the net force and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.
2.5 – Newton’s Laws

Isaac Newton:

 Isaac Newton was an English scientist who lived in the 1600s.

 Among his many achievements are his three laws of motion, which describe how
objects move in relation to the forces applied to them.

 The unit of force is named after him.

1.Newton’s first law:

 An object stays at rest/at the same speed unless an unbalanced force acts on it

 Newton’s first law states that an object will continue doing what it is doing unless
acted on by an unbalanced force – a force that is not cancelled out by another force, so
a net force acts on the object, causing a change in motion.

 In other words, an object that is stationary (not moving) will remain stationary, and a
moving object will keep moving unless a force acts on it.

 E.g. - If you roll a ball across the floor, it doesn’t keep rolling forever. Rather, it
slows down and eventually stops. This is because there is an unbalanced force acting
on it – friction. The ball is being slowed down by a combination of friction from the
ground and air resistance.

Inertia:

 The property of an object to resist change in speed or direction (i.e. to remain at rest
or in a state of uniform motion), is called inertia.

 The larger the mass of an object, the greater its inertia and the harder it is to change
its motion.

 E.g. an empty shopping trolley will be much easier to stop or change its direction
than a full one.

2.Newton’s second law: force = mass x acceleration

 An object will accelerate in the direction of an unbalanced force acting upon it.

 Newton’s second law states that the size of the acceleration of an object is
proportional to the mass of the object.
  In other words, the heavier an object is, the more force is required to accelerate it.

3. Newton’s third law: for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

 Newton’s third law states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

 ̈ This means that if object A exerts a force on object B, object B exerts the same
sized force on object A, but in the opposite direction.

 Two equal and opposite forces exerted by two objects on each other, are known as
action-reaction pairs.

 ̈ E.g. 1 – when you jump, you push the ground down with your legs, but the ground
also pushes you up – that's why you can jump. The action (you pushing the ground
down) has an equal and opposite reaction (the ground pushing you up).

Chapter 10 – Genetics
10.1 – The human reproductive system:

Female Reproductive System:

Ovaries are oval-shaped glands that:

 Contain and release ova (eggs) – these are the gametes (sex cells) of women and are
also known as oocytes. (Girls are born with all the eggs they will ever have)
  Produce the reproductive hormones oestrogen and progesterone.

 Oestrogen is one of the hormones involved in the development of the secondary sex
characteristics at puberty – the widening of the hips, growth of pubic hair and breast
development.

 ̈ Progesterone helps to regulate the menstrual cycle and get the uterus ready for
pregnancy.

Menstruation is the monthly discharge of blood and tissue from the lining of the uterus:

 When a girl starts menstruating, an egg (or ovum) is released every month down her
fallopian tubes (the left and right alternatively).

 The fallopian tubes (oviducts) act as transport tunnels for the eggs to travel from the
ovaries to the uterus. Fertilisation occurs here.

 If an ovum is fertilised by a sperm, it develops and embeds in the wall of the uterus
(the womb), which acts as a ‘nest’ for the developing embryo.

 The uterus wall is lined with tissue, blood and blood clots. If no fertilised egg is
present, this unused material is shed out of the uterus, through the cervix and the
vagina, and is observed as menstruation.

Intercourse:

 The penis is inserted in the vagina during sexual intercourse. Sperm must swim from
here to the fallopian tubes if fertilisation is to occur.

 The cervix is the small opening to the uterus, which stretches during childbirth.
During sexual intercourse, the penis does not enter the cervix or the uterus.

Male Reproductive System:

  The testicles are outside the body in sacs called the scrotum; they are glands that
produce sperm and the male sex hormone testosterone.

 The scrotum regulates the temperature of the testes, by muscular contractions and
relaxations.

 The gametes of men are called sperm; they travel from the testis to the vas deferens
through a tube called the epididymis.

 The vas deferens is a duct that then transports the sperm to the ejaculatory (sperm) duct.

 The penis has a single opening called the urethra, and both sperm and urine can travel
down this passage.

When aroused, the penis floods with blood, stretching and becoming erect:

 This blocks off access to urine so that only semen can travel down during ejaculation.

 ̈ The prostate gland’s function is to secrete the fluids that are expelled with sperm
during ejaculation. These fluids and sperm together are referred to as semen.

 ̈ The semen provides the sperm with a medium that they can swim through and
lubricates the urethra.

Ova:

 The ova are the biggest cell types in the human body (about 0.1mm in diameter) and
are visible to the naked eye, compared to the tiny sperm cell (0.06mm).

 The ovum has a nucleus that contains the genetic material.

  Around the nucleus is the cell plasma, where all the substances required by the ova to
develop if it is fertilised by a sperm cell is found.

Sperm:

 Sperm cells have a head that contains a nucleus with the genetic material inside.

 Sperm also have a long tail (or flagellum), which propel the sperm forward using a
wave-like motion and is used to dig into and penetrate the female ovum.

10.2 – Heredity:

DNA:

 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) contains all our biological instructions.

 Your DNA is completely unique to you, containing all the instructions for your
genetic traits, passed down from your mother and father.

 DNA is found in the nucleus of nearly every cell, in the shape of a twisted ladder
called a double helix.

 The sides of the ‘ladder’ are the backbone of DNA and are made up of units called
nucleotides.
Nucleotides:

 Each nucleotide is made up of a phosphate group, a five-carbon sugar and a

nitrogenous base.

 There are four different nitrogenous bases (they pair together like rungs of a
ladder):

 ̈ Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

 The bases only partner in specific pairs – adenine pairs with thymine and
guanine pairs with cytosine.
Genes:

 One section of DNA is called a gene (the basic functional unit of heredity.)
 Genes are how traits are passed down from mother and father to their offspring
(heredity).
 Every human has two copies of each gene, one from their mother and one from their
father.

 Your genes make up your genotype – the genetic code for a specific gene or genes – and
determine your genome (your entire set of DNAS).

 Your genotype codes for your phenotype – how those genes will be physically
expressed.

 This can be through visible traits, such as hair or eye colour, or characteristics that aren’t
visible, such as blood type.

Some genes code for proteins which:

 are used to repair and make new tissue.

 make up much of our skin, hair, muscle and bone. make up hormones, blood and
antibodies.
 Other genes code for a variety of molecules with different functions.
How are heritable characteristics passed down from parents to offspring:

 Genes are passed down from parents to offspring in organised little packages called
chromosomes.
Human cells have 46 chromosomes; 23 are inherited from the mother and 23 from the
father:

 During fertilisation, when the 23 chromosomes from the ovum fuse with the 23 from
the sperm, the zygote (first cell) has a complete set of 46 chromosomes.
 These chromosomes contain all the genes the individuals will ever have, a biological
instructional manual for how to make a unique person.
 This combination of genes from your mother and father determines your
characteristics. Some traits, such as height, involve many genes.

10.3 – Chromosomes:
What is a chromosome made up of?

 DNA often exists in cells as disorganised long pieces. Under a microscope, DNA can
look like a bunch of squiggles.
 At various stages (especially during cell division) the DNA in chromosomes becomes
tightly coiled and packed.
Cells divide for:

 Growth - go from one cell/ (zygote to a trillion)

 Repair - 50 million cells die/second.
 Reproduction - make cells for reproduction (specialised sex cells)
 Each chromosome is made up of two identical chromatids, joined together at the
centromere.
 The two chromatids are joined so that they have short and long arms.
  Each chromatid contains one long DNA molecule that has been tightly coiled and
packed into the small structure.
 In order to ensure the DNA is effectively coiled and packed, it is wrapped around little
protein balls called histones.

Sex chromosomes are different from non-sex chromosomes:

Homologous chromosomes:

 Are the same length.

 Have the same centromere position (the point where the two chromosomes join).
 Have genes for characteristics at the same location along their length.
  A full set of chromosomes (in humans 46) is known as the diploid number.
 Sperm and ova only have half this number (23), which is called the haploid number.

Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans, 22 look very similar to each other – like little
X’s. These are the 22 non-sex chromosomes, also known as autosomes.

The 23rd pair of chromosomes is the sex chromosomes, also known as allosomes, which
determine the gender of the individual.