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 Ninth Edition

Adapting Early Childhood Curricula

for Children with Special Needs

BUTUH LENGKAP HUB

Ruth E. Cook
[email protected]
Professor Emeritus
Santa Clara University

M. Diane Klein
Professor Emeritus
California State University–Los Angeles

Deborah Chen
Professor
California State University–Northridge

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 FOREWORD

For over three decades, this text, Adapting Early Childhood Curricula for Children with
Special Needs, has served as a major resource for early educators, related services per-
sonnel, and faculty members who teach them. Its tremendous success lies in its blend of
developmental and learning theories, with practical suggestions for delivery of services to
young children with special needs and their families.
While today’s children with special needs are enrolled in the full range of early
childhood education programs, many of these programs have limited exposure to strat-
egies for modifying or expanding the curricula for these children. In most cases, only
minor adaptations may be needed to ensure that all children can become full members
of the group and benefit from the activities. Nevertheless, these adaptations can pose
challenges to service providers who are engaged in meeting the diverse needs of a wide
range of children in their programs.
This text is aimed at supporting those personnel. Its focus is on enhancing collabo-
ration, consultation, and problem solving among educators and other service personnel
in community-based inclusive early education settings, whether they are in child-care
homes, centers, or classrooms. Emphasis is placed on assisting practitioners to identify
the strengths that children and families bring to the programs and on involving fami-
lies through family-centered, relationship-based approaches. These strategies can only
be optimally implemented by planned coordination and collaboration among the many
personnel who work in these settings, who come from a variety of disciplines such as
special education, early childhood education, physical and occupational therapy, speech
and language pathology, psychology and counseling, health services, and so on.
The authors, Ruth Cook, Diane Klein, and Deborah Chen, together, bring years of
teaching and clinical experience to this text, as well as active engagement in the field
of early intervention/early education. Their collective knowledge is reflected in their ef-
fective translation of theoretical information into practical techniques that can be imple-
mented in a range of early education settings.
This text covers topics such as recommended practices in the field, family con-
cerns and experiences, individualized program planning for children, implementation
of instructional strategies, managing and understanding child behavior, and the integral
involvement of families in their children’s programs. Specific curricular strategies in de-
velopmental domains, such as language, motor, social, concept development, and emer-
gent literacy, also are described. Other useful features of the text include charts and
descriptions of typical child development, information on specific types of disability in-
cluding children with multiple disabilities, and resources available through web sites and
periodicals.
Adapting Early Childhood Curricula for Children with Special Needs is a highly
readable and comprehensive resource for early educators. This text appeals to the needs
of a wide range of readers who seek to support the development of young children with
special needs and their families through inclusive early education programs.

Marci J. Hanson, PhD

Professor
Early Childhood Special Education
San Francisco State University

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 PREFACE

This book is written with you, the student of either early childhood or special education,
in mind. Whether you are studying to become a teacher of young children with special
needs or are an early interventionist with a related background who wishes to develop
greater versatility in your chosen field, we have designed this to be an easy-to-read, in-
teresting, and comprehensive resource for you. It provides extensive use of examples,
dialogues, practical illustrations, vignettes, and a focus on the best practices in the field.
When this text was originally published, intervention with young children with spe-
cial needs was in its formative years. Since that time the field has expanded, and this
book has successfully grown with it. Young children with special needs are now enrolled
in a variety of settings and are served by professionals and paraprofessionals with diverse
backgrounds. Our objective now, as it was in the first eight editions, is to present a text
that will play a major role in the development of all who serve young children. The focus
is on the skills necessary to assist infants, young children, and their families to meet their
special challenges and develop to their fullest potential.

DISTINGUISHING FEATURES
This book has four main strengths that make it a compelling self-teaching resource:
1. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the natures of all young children
and how they learn. Adapting curricula and intervention approaches for children
with special needs works effectively only when professionals build on a strong
foundation of understanding what is common to all young children. On the basis of
this necessary foundation, students can consider strategies for meeting the develop-
mental and educational needs of infants and young children who have disabilities
or who experience circumstances and conditions that potentially interfere with op-
timal growth and adjustment.
2. The approach taken in this text stresses the absolute necessity of understanding
young children within the context of the family. Every family is unique and com-
plex, reflecting the many influences of history, culture or ethnicity, economics, and
family dynamics. Early interventionists must focus not on the detailed analysis of
these many factors but on ways of supporting families that will maximize their day-
to-day fulfillment as caregivers of their young. As explained in the text, your job, in
part, is to help parents develop a sense of competence in their own abilities to nur-
ture their children regardless of family circumstances. Appreciation of families’ roles
in the development of children and respect for families’ concerns and priorities are
critical to effective curriculum design and program development.
3. A significant portion of the text is organized according to traditional developmental
domains: social-emotional, motor, communication, and cognitive skills. As an early
childhood special education professional, you will seek to develop these growth
areas in the children entrusted to you. Thus, you must develop a thorough under-
standing of each of these complex domains.
4. Finally, you must ultimately understand that all the growth areas and individual and
family background factors must be synthesized into a view of the whole child. As in
any other form of synergy, the whole child is much greater than the sum of his or
her parts. This holistic view relates directly to the book’s emphasis on activity-based
and play-based approaches to intervention. You will learn how to integrate goals
and objectives for all domains into developmentally appropriate and motivating
activities in inclusive, community-based settings. You will also learn how to work
collaboratively with others in inclusive community-based settings in an itinerant
consultation role. Throughout, best practices are explained for home, center, or
classroom application.

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 v
Preface  

The four points just mentioned suggest the framework and approach that have con-
sistently made this book appealing to readers of eight previous editions. They have been
time tested and consistently found to be helpful.

NEW IN THIS EDITION

• Throughout the text, links to short video examples further explain key concepts.
• References to relevant web sites are included in selected chapters.
• Colorful photos as well as color enhanced text contribute to the readability of the
text.
• Evidence-based practices were updated along with additional examples of embed-
ding interventions in daily activities and routines.
• In depth coverage of development of communications skills includes AAC
• Consideration of the importance of principles of universal design for learning
(UDL), with suggestions for application to preschool settings
• Expanded discussion of interventions strategies with special consideration of spe-
cific disabilities such as autism
• Discussion of dialogic reading as an evidence based practice for supporting lan-
guage and literacy development
• Information on effective means of supporting emergent writing and math skills.

ORGANIZATION
The text opens with a presentation of our philosophy for working with children who
have special needs. It explores human likenesses and value differences and discusses our
belief in the importance of providing services in the most normalized settings possible.
Chapter 1 highlights the historical contributions of the fields of early childhood education
and special education. Important features and implications of Public Laws 94–142, 99–
457, 101–336, 101–476, 102–119, 105–17, and 108-446 are summarized. Evolving trends in
the field and alternative approaches to service delivery including the unique challenges
involved in supporting inclusion are discussed. Key findings from research on preschool
inclusion and the necessity of using person first language are highlighted.
Chapter 2 presents techniques to involve families in a collaborative partnership
with the variety of professionals with whom they must interface. In developing a family-
focused approach, students are encouraged to view families from a systems perspective.
Special attention is given to the various methods of parent involvement that can accom-
modate cultural diversity, language differences, and unique family situations.
Within Chapter 3, the importance of becoming a skilled observer of children is
stressed as students are encouraged to link curriculum to assessment and the monitoring
of progress. The components of individualized family service plans (IFSPs) and indi-
vidualized education programs (IEPs) are discussed in detail while techniques for writing
goals and objectives are illus-trated. Strategies for collaborative programming and transi-
tion planning are outlined. Chapter 4 focuses on curriculum development within a frame-
work of generic instructional strategies and introduces the principles of the Universal
Design for Learning. Communicative interactions, facilitation of play, the development of
appropriate schedules, and optimal environmental arrangement contribute to the success
of early intervention. As noted earlier, Chapter 5 focuses on considerations and strategies
for teaching young children with specific disabilities, including those with low incidence
and multiple disabilities, autism, or who have been prenatally exposed to alcohol.
Chapter 6 begins by describing the stages of psychosocial development as a precur-
sor to understanding how to facilitate social skills through the medium of play. Consid-
erable attention is given to helping children who experience particular emotional and
behavioral challenges and working with those who have been maltreated. The use of
positive behavioral supports is discussed in detail.
After describing typical development of motor skills, Chapter 7 examines atypical
motor development. Practical intervention strategies are offered, including handling and

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 vi Preface

positioning guidelines as well as techniques for facilitating self-help skills. The role of
movement education and music in the development of motor skills is considered.
Chapters 8 and 9 focus on the development of communication and cognition. The
importance of caregiver–child interactions and the role of play in optimal development
is recognized throughout. Special attention is devoted to specific strategies for enhancing
communication skills in children with severe disabilities, autism, visual impairments, and
hearing impairments. Attention is given to children from non–English-speaking families.
The section devoted to understanding the social and linguistic factors related to children’s
emergent literacy skills and strategies for encouraging these skills is unique. Facilitation
of phonological and phonemic awareness along with a brief synthesis of premath skills is
included in this section.
The final chapter provides an overview of models, strategies, and challenges for
providing inclusion support to young children with disabilities who are included in com-
munity-based early childhood settings. The chapter also contains helpful considerations
for working with paraprofessionals.
As in previous editions, the appendices include a wealth of practical information,
such as developmental guidelines, curricular adaptations for children with specific needs,
modifications, and checklists to assist facilitation of inclusion. A sequence of steps for mi-
lieu approaches is included. Finally, it includes a list of competencies that we hope will
be developed by each and every reader.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We present this book with gratitude to the hundreds of children and parents who have
been our teachers. From them we have learned to value and nurture the uniqueness of
each child regardless of background, skills, or abilities. We believe we have found a way
to meet children’s unique needs in whatever setting they appear. It has been our pur-
pose to convey the essence of this process to anyone interested in working with young
children.
We wish to sincerely thank the many colleagues and friends who assisted and
supported us throughout the many years since the original edition of this book. We are
especially grateful for the conscientious efforts of those who so kindly read and com-
mented on the prospectus and rough drafts of the present edition. Special gratitude goes
to the following reviewers for their time, attention, and feedback: Kai Kaiser, Saddleback
College; Ellen Lynch, University of Cincinnati; Megan Purcell, Purdue University; and
­
Sarah Hamsher. Malone University
There are many people who enrich and enhance one’s personal as well as profes-
sional life along the way. As indicated in the dedication which appeared in the previous
edition of this text, we want to again acknowledge the continuing support of Dr. Annette
Tessier, who was a coauthor of six of the previous editions, continues to inspire and en-
liven us. We will be forever grateful.
We also want to express our very sincere admiration and thanks to Dr. Marci ­Hanson
who has graciously written the foreword for this text. More than any other, Dr. Hanson,
has provided us intellectual and academic leadership and collegiality that has guided the
work of many of us in the area of early childhood special education.
Deep appreciation is extended to the parents, children, and outstanding staff of
Centro de Niños y Padres, at California State University at Los Angeles, the California State
University, Northridge Child and Families Studies Center, and the CHIME Early Education
Program for their effective implementation of evidence-based practices that support the
learning of all young children. Appreciation also goes to S­ andra Hovancik and Barbara
Porter for their skills as graphic artists. Finally, we send gratitude to Laurie Nielsen for
­designing a useful instructor’s guide.

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 vii
Preface  

Throughout this project, the personal support of those with whom we live and
work has been invaluable. Very special thanks go to Erin Klein, Christopher Cook, and
Kimberly Cook Bodemar, (and of course their own children) without whom our under-
standings of child growth and development would have been superficial, at best. Sincere
gratitude goes to Curtis Cook, whose patience, tolerance, and editorial skills over the
years helped make this project possible.
The editors and staff at Pearson Education have worked hard to keep us on target.
Particular praise and gratitude goes to our editor, Ann Davis and her editorial assistant,
Janelle Criner, for their attention and prompt responses have been invaluable throughout
the acquisition and development of this manuscript.

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 BRIEF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Educating Young Children with Special Needs: The Challenge 2

Chapter 2 In Partnership with Families 32
Chapter 3 Developing Individualized Intervention Plans and Programs and
Monitoring Progress 68
Chapter 4 Designing Instructional Programs 104
Chapter 5 Considerations for Teaching Children with Specific
Disabilities 132
Chapter 6 Promoting Emotional and Social Development 162
Chapter 7 Helping Young Children Develop Motor and Self-Help Skills 204
Chapter 8 Nurturing Communication Skills 238
Chapter 9 Encouraging the Development of Cognitive Skills and
Literacy 282
Chapter 10 Teaming: Collaboration, Problem Solving, and Inclusion
Support 324
Appendix A Chart of Typical Development 362
Appendix B Strategies for Helping Children with Specific Disabilities
Participate in Inclusive Settings 370
Appendix C Common Sequence of Training Steps Used in Milieu
Approaches 375
Appendix D Inclusion Support Itinerant Procedures 377
Appendix E Periodicals Relevant to Early Childhood Special Education 384
Appendix F Competencies for Trainees in Early Childhood Special
Education 385
Glossary 389
References 397
Name Index 412
Subject Index 418

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 CONTENTS

Chapter 1 Educating Young Children with Special Needs: The Challenge 2

Viewing the Child with Special Needs as a Child First 3
Person-First Language 4
Inclusion of Young Children with Special Needs in Community-Based Settings 4
Philosophy of this Text 5
Early Childhood Special Education: An Evolving Field 6
Pioneering Influences and History of Early Childhood Special Education 6
Casa dei Bambini 7
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 7
Recognition of the Role of Early Experiences 7
Project Head Start: A Breakthrough 8
Doubts 9
Impact of Early Education 9
Early Education for Children with Disabilities 10
Changing Policies: The Impact of Public Pressure and Legislation 10
Development of Professional Groups 10
The Power of Private Citizens 11
The First Chance Program 11
Public Law 94-142: The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 11
Public Law 99-457: The Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments of 1986 12
Public Law 101-336: The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 13
Public Law 101-476: The Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments of 1990 13
Public Law 102-119: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1991 14
Public Law 105-17: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997 14
Public Law 108-446: The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 14
Foundational Principles of Early Childhood Special Education 15
Relationship-Focused Models of Early Intervention 15
Family-Centered Services 16
Community-Based Inclusive Settings 16
Interdisciplinary Collaboration 17
Culturally Responsive Practices 17
Coordinated, Comprehensive Services 17
Evidence-Based Practices 18
Routines-Based and Embedded Interventions 18
Standards-Based Curriculum 18
Child Outcomes 19
Response to Intervention (RTI) or Tiered Instruction 19
Pre-K Response to Intervention 20
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) 21
Building on Recommended Practices 21
Collaboration Between Early Childhood Education and Early Childhood Special Education Professionals 22
The Importance of Ongoing Pursuit of Evidence-Based Practices 24
Service Delivery 25
Services for Infants and Toddlers 25
Services for Preschoolers 27

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Meeting Young Children’s Needs in Inclusive Settings 27

Unique Challenges Involved in Supporting Early Childhood Inclusion 28
Key Findings from Research on Preschool Inclusion 29
The Role of the Early Childhood Special Educator 29
The Case for Specific Training Related to Inclusion Support 30
Summary 31

Chapter 2 In Partnership with Families 32

Emotional Supports for Families with Children Who Have Special
Needs 36
Failure to Consider Basic Needs 36
The Need for Emotional Support 37
Parental Reactions: Dealing With Grief and Other Feeling States 37
Shock, Disbelief, and Denial 39
Anger and Resentment 39
Bargaining 40
Depression and Discouragement 40
Adaptation and Adjustment 41
A Father’s Perspective 41
Transitions 41
The Family as a System 42
Extended Family and Sibling Needs and Reactions 43
Siblings 44
Parents as Team Members 45
Options for Family Engagement 46
A Continuum 47
What Fathers Say About Their Involvement 47
Supporting and Partnering with Parents 47
Conferences with Parents 50
Parent Support Through Family Resource Centers 55
Engaging Families Through Internet-Based Communication 56
Working with Culturally Diverse Families 56
Cultural Models and Child-Rearing Practices 57
Language Differences 60
Parents’ Expectations of the Preschool Curricula 62
Working with Special Family Populations 63
Parents with Developmental Disabilities 63
Teen Parents 63
Foster Caregivers 64
Families That Have Experienced Divorce 64
Understanding the Impact of Poverty 65
Homelessness 66
Summary 67

Chapter 3 Developing Individualized Intervention Plans and

Programs and Monitoring Progress 68
The Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) Process for Infants, Toddlers,
and their Families 69
The IFSP Process 69

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Participants in Initial and Annual IFSP Meetings 70

Identifying Family Concerns, Priorities, and Resources 70
The IFSP Document 71
Developing Outcome Statements 72
Service Coordination 79
Who Can Become Service Coordinators? 79
Models of Service Coordination 79
Promoting Essential Interagency Collaboration 80
Developing Individualized Education Programs (IEPS) for Preschoolers 81
The Interdisciplinary IEP Team Meeting Process and Required Contents of the IEP 81
Considering Darren 83
Background Information 83
Present Levels of Performance and Identified Strengths and Needs 84
Supports Darren Will Need to Be Successful in His Present Preschool Setting 86
Placement Decision: Inclusive Preschool Setting, with Supplementary Supports and
Services 86
Purposes and Limitations of the IEP 87
Accommodations and/or Modifications 87
The IEP Document 88
Considerations Beyond the IEP 89
Writing Program Objectives 91
Basics of Writing Behavioral Objectives 92
Becoming a Skilled Observer 93
Observing How Children Perform a Task 94
Considering the Special Challenges When English Is the Child’s Second
Language 94
Realizing Environmental Influences on Child Performance 94
Recognizing the Interrelationship of Skills 95
Guidelines for Successful Observation 96
The Portfolio and Its Use with Young Children 97
Types of Observation Samples 97
Recording Children’s Progress 98
Linking Assessment to Curriculum 101
Facilitating Program Transitions 101
Steps in Transition to Center-Based or Public School Services 101
The Role of the Early Childhood Special Educator in Facilitating Transitions 103
Summary 103

Chapter 4 Designing Instructional Programs 104

Curriculum 105
Definition 105
Choosing a Curriculum 105
Considering Children with Special Needs 107
Philosophy of This Text 107
General Instructional Strategies 108
Motivation 108
Applied Behavior Analysis 110
Positive Behavior Support (PBS) 111
Social Mediation of Experience 112

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Responsive Adult–Child Communication Strategies 113

Routines 114
Play as an Important Teaching Context 115
Music and Young Children 117
Arranging the Physical Environment to Maximize Learning 118
The Physical Environment 118
Grouping Children 118
Sound and Lighting 119
Visual Materials 120
Special Considerations for Infants and Toddlers 120
Creating a Positive Social-Emotional Environment 121
Anticipate Children’s Questions 121
Encourage Children with Specific Positive Feedback 121
Provide Opportunities for Self-Efficacy and Decision Making 122
Designing the Teaching–Learning Environment: Universal Design for
Learning 122
Multiple Means of Representation 122
Multiple Means of Expression 123
Multiple Means of Engagement 123
Embedding Teaching and Learning Opportunities 123
Carefully Planned Schedules Promote Consistent Daily Routines 124
EQUIVALENT PRACTICE: Providing a Variety of Activities to Accomplish Any One
Outcome or Objective 128
Using an Activity to Achieve More Than One Objective 129
Summary 130

Chapter 5 Considerations for Teaching Children with Specific

Disabilities 132
Getting Started: Gathering Information About the Child 133
Learn from the Family 134
Collaborate with Team Members 134
Identify Required Assistive Technology Devices 137
Plan and Conduct Observations 137
Suggestions for Teaching Children with Specific Disabilities 138
Health Impairments 138
Hearing Loss 139
Difficulties in Learning 140
Physical Disabilities 141
Visual Impairments 142
Autism Spectrum Disorders 143
Specific Strategies for Teaching a Child with ASD 144
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders 146
Teaching Children with Severe and Multiple Disabilities 148
Provide Opportunities for Children to Make Choices 148
Ecological Inventory and Discrepancy Analysis 149
Interdisciplinary Support Participation Plan 150
Objectives Within Routine Matrix 150
Analyze a Child’s Lack of Response 151
Principle of Partial Participation 152

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Contents  

Prompting and Fading Procedures 153

Errorless Learning 153
Communication Strategies 155
Tips for Promoting Children’s Participation in the Classroom 157
Art Area 157
Book Reading 158
Manipulatives Area 158
Pretend Play Area (e.g., dress-up, transportation) 159
Gross Motor Area or Activities and Outside Play 159
Large-Group Activities 160
Summary 161

Chapter 6 Promoting Emotional and Social Development 162

Becoming Emotionally Secure 163
Attachment 164
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development 165
Greenspan’s Model of Affective Development 167
Building a Healthy Environment 170
Structure and Consistency 170
Routines 171
Limits 172
Constructive Consequences 173
Logical Connections 173
Variety 173
Avoiding Frustration 174
Encouraging Desirable Expressions of Feelings 174
Promoting Appropriate Behavior Modeling 176
Facilitating Social Skills 176
Use of Environmental Structuring 176
Use of Typical Peers as Mediators of Social Skills 177
Encouraging Developmental Play Behavior 178
The Importance of Play in Supporting Healthy Social and Emotional
Development 178
The Nature of Play 178
Development of Social Interaction Skills Through Play 179
Helping Children with Emotional and Behavioral Challenges 184
Individual Temperament 184
Children Who Lack Self-Control 185
Children Who are Reluctant to Participate 190
Use of Reinforcement 193
Give Credit Where Credit Is Due 193
Ignore Minor Disruptive Behaviors 193
Minimize the Use of Negative Consequences 194
Positive Behavior Support (PBS) 195
Using Behavioral Analysis to Understand Disruptive Behavior 196
Designing Positive Behavior Support Plans for Young Children
with Disabilities 197
The Pyramid Model 197
Use of Social Stories 199

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Special Considerations for Working with Children Who Have Been Abused
and Neglected 200
Summary 203

Chapter 7 Helping Young Children Develop Motor and Self-Help

Skills 204
The Development of Motor Skills 206
Sequential Trends of Motor Development 207
Helping Parents Understand 207
Reflexive Development 207
Developing Gross Motor Skills 208
Developing Fine Motor Skills 208
Atypical Motor Development 214
Problems in Muscle Development 215
Assessment of Motor Abilities 216
Infants and Toddlers 217
Severe Motor Impairments 218
General Considerations for Assessment of All Young Children 218
Play-Based Assessment 219
Physical Therapy Intervention 219
Role of Therapists 219
Approaches to Therapy 221
Sensory Integration 221
Positioning and Handling 223
Proper Lifting 223
Adaptive Equipment and Assistive Technology Devices 224
Development of Adaptive Behavior Skills 225
Use of Task Analysis 225
Dressing 227
Toileting 227
Feeding 228
Self-Feeding 230
Adapting the Environment 231
The Classroom or Center 231
The Home 231
Movement Education 232
Movement Skills and Music 233
Movement Skills and Imagination 234
Adaptations in Movement Education 234
Summary 237

Chapter 8 Nurturing Communication Skills 238

The Subskills of Language 239
Content, Use, and Form 239
Semantics 240
Syntax 240
Morphology 240
Phonology 241
Pragmatics 241

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Contents  

Contribution of Social Interaction Theories to Understanding Early

Communication Development 243
Stages of Development of Communication Skills in Young Children 244
Prelinguistic Communication 244
The Onset of Language 245
Combining Words 246
Necessary Conditions for the Development of Communication Skills 247
Characteristics That Can Interfere with Language Development 248
Characteristics That Can Interfere with the Production of Speech 250
Nurturing Speech, Language, and Conceptual Skills 251
The Important Role of Caregiver–Child Interaction 251
General Classroom Strategies that Encourage and Support
Communication 254
Beginning Where the Child Is 256
Conversing with the Child 256
Choosing What to Talk About 256
Listening 257
Developing Pragmatic Skills 257
Expanding Skills 257
Communication Interventions for Young Children with Intensive
Needs 257
Communicating with Children Who Have Severe Disabilities 260
Techniques for Teaching Expressive Communicative Behaviors: Output Strategies 261
Identifying Behaviors That Can Be Used Communicatively 261
Teaching Communicative Behaviors by Creating Opportunity and Need for
Communication 262
Teaching Communication Behaviors Through Applied Behavior Analysis 263
Augmentative and Alternative Communication Systems 265
Steps in Developing an AAC System 266
Classroom Strategies That Facilitate Augmentative Communication Skills 267
Using the Picture Exchange Communication System 269
Supporting Communication in Children with Hearing Loss 269
Specific Strategies for Working with Children with Hearing Loss 271
Facilitating Comprehension of Speech 271
Hearing Aids 272
Cochlear Implants: Amazing Advances in Technology 273
Supporting Spoken English 273
Children with Intermittent Hearing Losses 274
Supporting Communication in Children with Visual Impairments 274
Supporting Communication in Children with Autism Spectrum
Disorder 275
Use of Applied Behavior Analysis Approaches with ASD 275
Supporting Communication in Children with Severe Motor
Disabilities 276
Supporting Communication in Children with Language
Differences 277
Learning a New Language 277
Stages of Second-Language Learning 278
Dual-Language Learning and Home-Language Maintenance 278

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Planning Communication Intervention: Collaborative Consultation with

Speech-Language Specialists 279
Summary 281

Chapter 9 Encouraging the Development of Cognitive Skills and

Literacy 282
What is Cognition? 283
Basic Cognitive Processes 284
Attention 284
Perception 284
Discrimination 284
Memory 285
Development of Cognitive Skills 285
The Developmental Theory of Piaget 285
Demonstration of Cognitive Skills Through the Developmental Stages of
Children’s Play 289
Simple Object Manipulation 289
Exploratory Play 289
Functional Play 289
Symbolic Play 289
Supporting the Development of Cognitive Skills in Young Children 290
Intentionality 290
Means–End Behavior 291
Trial-and-Error Exploration 291
Object Permanence 292
Deferred Imitation 292
Supporting the Development of Cognitive Skills in Preschoolers 293
Developing Symbolic Representation Through Play 293
Cognitive Developmental Stages of Play 293
Problem Solving 294
Teaching Children Who Have Intellectual Disabilities 295
Characteristics of Children with Significant Intellectual Disabilities 296
Adapting Instruction 296
Facilitating Cognitive and Information-Processing Subskills Related to
Academic Achievement 297
Facilitating Children’s Engagement 299
Structuring Learning Experiences 301
Emergent Math and Science 302
Classification, Seriation, and Concept Development 303
Teaching Number Concepts 305
Avoiding Stereotyped, Labored Teaching of Concepts 306
Development of Literacy 307
The Precursors of Reading and Writing 308
Emergent Literacy Goal Areas 309
Developing Literacy in Daily Classroom Activities and Routines 310
Oral Language and Literacy for School Readiness 311
The Nature of School Language 312
Cultural Differences in Early Language and Literacy Experiences 312
Differences in Children’s Early Use of Narrative 312

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Cultural Differences in Early Caregiver–Infant Interaction 314

Cultural Differences in Uses of Print 314
Specific Strategies that Support Emergent Literacy Skills 315
Whole-Language Versus Phonological Approaches to the Development of Literacy 318
Developing Print Awareness and Sight-Word Vocabulary 321
A Brief Note on Early Writing 323
Summary 323

Chapter 10 Teaming: Collaboration, Problem Solving, and

Inclusion Support 324
Collaboration, Problem Solving, and Shared Decision Making 325
Communication Strategies: The Key to Successful Teaming 326
Problem Solving and Conflict Resolution 327
Dealing with Conflict: Perspective Taking and the Process of Conflict Resolution 327
Problem-Solving Case Study: Paulo 330
Models for Supporting Children with Special Needs in Inclusive
Settings 332
No Support 332
Use of One-to-One Assistant 332
Staff In-Service Models 333
Itinerant Consultation Model of Inclusion Support 333
A Note on Disability Specialists and Therapists in Itinerant Service-Delivery Roles 334
Specific Support Strategies Provided by Itinerants 334
Co-Teaching Approaches to Inclusion Support 338
Co-teaching Defined 338
Challenges of Co-teaching 338
Components of Effective Co-teaching 338
The IEP: The Key to Successful Inclusion 341
Communication and Collaboration in Co-teaching Models 343
Problem Solving and Conflict Resolution in Co-teaching Models 344
Administrative Issues 344
Stages of the Co-teaching Relationship 345
Effective Teaming with Interdisciplinary Specialists 345
Teaming with Paraprofessionals 346
Who Are the Paraprofessionals? 346
Designing and Defining Jobs 347
Communicating Expectations 350
Discovering and Using Special Skills and Talents 351
Defining the Teacher’s Responsibilities to Paraprofessionals 351
Being an Appropriate Role Model 352
Allowing for Sufficient Planning Time 353
Providing Constructive Feedback: Coaching and Mentoring the
Paraprofessional 354
Paraprofessionals as One-to-One Assistants 355
Supervision of One-to-One Assistants in Inclusive Settings 356
Guidelines for Use of One-to-One Assistants 356
Evaluating Paraprofessional Services 357
Using Self-Evaluations 357
Teacher-Initiated Evaluations of the Paraprofessional 357

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