Rest and Motion (iii) For motion between two points,

If a body does not change its position as time displacement is single valued while distance
passes with respect to frame of reference, it is said depends on actual path and so can have many
to be at rest. values.
And if a body changes its position as time Speed and Velocity
passes with respect to frame of reference, it is said (1) Speed : The rate of distance covered with time is
to be in motion. called speed.
Frame of Reference : It is a system to which a (i) It is a scalar quantity having symbol  .
set of coordinates are attached and with reference to (ii) Dimension : [M0L1T–1]
which observer describes any event.
(iii) Unit : metre/second (S.I.), cm/second (C.G.S.)
Distance and Displacement (iv) Types of speed :
a) Uniform speed : When a particle covers equal
(1) Distance : It is the actual length of the path
distances in equal intervals of time, (no matter how
covered by a moving particle in a given interval of
small the intervals are) then it is said to be moving
time.
with uniform speed.
(i) If a particle starts from A and reach to C
through point B as
C (b) Non-uniform (variable) speed : In non-uniform
shown in the figure.
speed particle covers unequal distances in equal
Then distance
intervals of time.
travelled by particle 4m
 AB  BC  7 m
(c) Average speed : The average speed of a particle
(ii) Distance is a
A B
for a given „Interval of time‟ is defined as the ratio
scalar quantity. 3m
of total distance travelled to the time taken.
(iii) Dimension : Fig. 2.2 Total distance travelled s
Average speed  ; v av 
[M0L1T0] Time taken t
(iv) Unit : metre (S.I.)  Time average speed : When particle moves
(2) Displacement : Displacement is the change in with different uniform speed  1 ,  2 ,  3 ... etc in
position vector i.e., A vector joining initial to final different time intervals t1 , t2 , t3 , ... etc
position. respectively, its average speed over the total time of
(i) Displacement is a vector quantity journey is given as
(ii) Dimension : [M0L1T0] Total distance covered
vav 
(iii) Unit : metre (S.I.) Total time elapsed
(iv) In the above figure the displacement of the 1 t1   2 t 2   3 t 3  ......
d 1  d 2  d 3  ......
particle AC  AB  BC  | AC |
 =
t1  t 2  t 3  ...... t1  t 2  t 3  ......
 ( AB ) 2  (BC ) 2  2( AB ) (BC ) cos 90 o = 5 m  Distance averaged speed : When a particle
    describes different distances d 1 , d 2 , d 3 , ...... with
(v) If S 1 , S 2 , S 3 ........ S n are the displacements of a different time intervals t1 , t 2 , t 3 , ...... with speeds
body then the total (net) displacement is the vector v1 , v 2 , v 3 ...... respectively then the speed of particle
    
sum of the individuals. S  S 1  S 2  S 3  ........  S n averaged over the total distance can be given as
(3) Comparison between distance and Total distance covered  d 1  d 2  d 3  ......
 av 
displacement : Total time elapsed t1  t 2  t 3  ......
(i) The magnitude of displacement is equal to
d 1  d 2  d 3  ......
minimum possible distance between two positions. 
d1 d 2 d 3
So distance  |Displacement|.    ......
1 2 3
(ii) For a moving particle distance can never be
 If speed is continuously changing with time
negative or zero while displacement can be.
then
(zero displacement means that body after
motion has came back to initial position) v av 
 vdt
i.e., Distance > 0 but Displacement > = or < 0  dt
 
(d) Instantaneous speed : It is the speed of a e.g for t  0 ,Instantaneous velocity v   A1 and
particle at a particular instant of time. When we 
Instantaneous speed | v |  A1
say “speed”, it usually means instantaneous speed.
The instantaneous speed is average speed for Acceleration
infinitesimally small time interval (i.e., t  0 ). The time rate of change of velocity of an object is
Thus called acceleration of the object.
s ds (1) It is a vector quantity. It‟s direction is same
Instantaneous speed v  lim 
as that of change in velocity (Not of the
t 0 t dt
(2) Velocity : The rate of change of position i.e. velocity)
rate of displacement with time is called (2) Dimension : [M0L1T–2]
velocity. (3) Unit : metre/second2 (S.I.); cm/second2 (C.G.S.)

(i) It is a vector quantity having symbol v .
(4) Types of acceleration :
(ii) Dimension : [M0L1T–1]
(iii) Unit : metre/second (S.I.), cm/second
(C.G.S.) (i) Uniform acceleration : A body is said to have
(iv) Types of velocity : uniform acceleration if magnitude and direction of
the acceleration remains constant during particle
(a) Uniform velocity : A particle is said to have motion.
uniform velocity, if magnitudes as well as
direction of its velocity remains same and this is
(ii) Non-uniform acceleration : A body is said to
possible only when the particles moves in
have non-uniform acceleration, if either magnitude
same straight line without reversing its
or direction or both of them change during motion.
direction.
  
(b) Non-uniform velocity : A particle is said to  v v2  v1
(iii) Average acceleration : aa  
t t
have non-uniform velocity, if either of magnitude
or direction of velocity changes or both of them The direction of average acceleration vector is
change. the direction of the change in velocity vector as

 v
a
t
(c) Average velocity : It is defined as the ratio of
 
displacement to time taken by the body  v dv
(iv) Instantaneous acceleration = a  lim 
 t 0 t dt
Displaceme nt  r
Average velocity  ; v av    
Time taken t  dv d 2 x   dx 
By definition a   2  As v 
dt dt  dt 

(d) Instantaneous velocity : Instantaneous i.e., if x is given as a function of time, second time
velocity is defined as rate of change of position derivative of displacement gives acceleration
vector of particles with time at a certain instant of If velocity is given as a function of position, then by
time. dv dv dx d  dx 
  chain rule a     v. as v  
 r dr dt dx dt dx  dt 
Instantaneous velocity v  lim 
t  0 t dt (xi) Acceleration can be positive, zero or negative.
(e) If displacement is given as a function of time, Positive acceleration means velocity increasing
then time derivative of displacement will give with time, zero acceleration means velocity is
velocity. uniform constant while negative acceleration

Let displacement x  A0  A1 t  A2 t 2 (retardation) means velocity is decreasing with

 dx d time.
Instantaneousvelocity v   ( A0  A1 t  A2 t 2 )
dt dt

v   A1  2 A 2 t
For the given value of t, we can find out the
instantaneous velocity.
Various position -time graphs and their interpretation

P  = 0° so v = 0 i.e., line parallel to time axis represents that the

particle is at rest.

O T

P  = 90° so v =  i.e., line perpendicular to time axis represents that

particle is changing its position but time does not changes it means
the particle possesses infinite velocity. Practically this is not
O T possible.

P  = constant so v = constant, a = 0
i.e., line with constant slope represents uniform velocity of the
particle.
O T

P  is increasing so v is increasing, a is positive. i.e., line bending

towards position axis represents increasing velocity of particle. It
means the particle possesses acceleration.
O T

P  is decreasing so v is decreasing, a is negative

i.e., line bending towards time axis represents decreasing velocity of
the particle. It means the particle possesses retardation.
O T

P  constant but > 90o so v will be constant but negative i.e., line with
negative slope represent that particle returns towards the point of
reference. (negative displacement).

O T

P Straight line segments of different slopes represent that velocity of

B
A C the body changes after certain interval of time.

O T
S

T This graph shows that at one instant the particle has two positions,
O which is not possible.

P The graph shows that particle coming towards origin initially and
after that it is moving away from origin.
T
O
Various velocity -time graphs and their interpretation
Veloci

 = 0°, a = 0, v = constant
ty

i.e., line parallel to time axis represents that the particle is moving with constant
O velocity.

 = 90o, a = , v = increasing
Velocity

i.e., line perpendicular to time axis represents that the particle is increasing its velocity,
but time does not change. It means the particle possesses infinite acceleration.
Practically it is not possible.
O
Time

 = constant, so a = constant and v is increasing uniformly with time

Velocity

i.e., line with constant slope represents uniform acceleration of the particle.

O Time

 increasing so acceleration increasing

Velocity

i.e., line bending towards velocity axis represent the increasing acceleration in the body.

O Time
Velocity

 decreasing so acceleration decreasing

i.e. line bending towards time axis represents the decreasing acceleration in the body
O Tim
e
Velocit

Positive constant acceleration because  is constant and < 90o but initial velocity of the
y

O particle is negative.
Time

Positive constant acceleration because  is constant and < 90o but initial velocity of
Veloci

particle is positive.
ty

O
Time
Negative constant acceleration because  is constant and > 90o but initial velocity of the
Velocit

particle is positive.
y

O
Tim
e
Negative constant acceleration because  is constant and > 90o but initial velocity of the
Velocit

particle is zero.
y

O
Time
Veloci

Negative constant acceleration because  is constant and > 90o but initial velocity of the
ty

O Time particle is negative.

Equation of Kinematics falling towards the earth from a small altitude (h
These are the various relations between u, v, a, << R) is called free fall.
t and s for the particle moving with uniform An ideal example of one-dimensional motion
acceleration where the notations are used as : is motion under gravity in which air resistance and
u = Initial velocity of the particle at time t = 0 the small changes in acceleration with height are
sec neglected.
v = Final velocity at time t sec (1) If a body is dropped from some height
a = Acceleration of the particle (initial velocity zero)
(i) Equations of motion : Taking initial
s = Distance travelled in time t sec
position as origin and direction of motion (i.e.,
sn = Distance travelled by the body in nth sec downward direction) as a positive, here we have
(1) When particle moves with zero u=0
acceleration 2h v
t  
(i) It is a unidirectional motion with constant g g
speed.
(ii) Magnitude of displacement is always equal h v  2 gh
to the distance travelled.
(iii) v = u, s=ut [As a = 0] v
2
h 
(2) When particle moves with constant 2g

acceleration
v
(i) Acceleration is said to be constant when
both the magnitude and direction of acceleration Fig.
remain constant. 2.12
u=0 [As body starts from rest]
(ii) There will be one dimensional motion if a = +g [As acceleration is in the
initial velocity and acceleration are parallel or direction of motion]
anti-parallel to each other. v=gt …(i)
(iii) Equations of motion Equation of 1 2
h gt …(ii)
motion 2
(in scalar from) (in vector  2  2 gh …(iii)
from) g
   hn  (2n  1) ...(iv)
v  u  at 2
  u  at
(ii) Graph of distance, velocity and
1 2   1
s  ut  at s  u t  at 2 acceleration with respect to time :
2 2
   s v a
 2  u 2  2as v .v  u.u  2a.s
g
u v   1  
s t s  (u  v ) t tan =
 2  2 g


a   a t t t
sn  u  (2n  1) sn  u  (2n  1)
2 2 Fig.
(iii) As h = 2.13(1/2)gt2, i.e., h  t2, distance
Motion of Body Under Gravity (Free Fall)
covered in time t, 2t, 3t, etc., will be in the ratio of
The force of attraction of earth on bodies, 12 : 22 : 32, i.e., square of integers.
is called force of gravity. Acceleration produced (iv) The distance covered in the nth sec,
in the body by the force of gravity, is called 1
hn  g (2n  1)
acceleration due to gravity. It is represented by 2
the symbol g. So distance covered in 1st, 2nd, 3rd sec, etc.,
In the absence of air resistance, it is found will be in the ratio of 1 : 3 : 5, i.e., odd integers
that all bodies (irrespective of the size, weight or only.
composition) fall with the same acceleration near (2) If a body is projected vertically downward
the surface of the earth. This motion of a body with some initial velocity
Equation of motion :  u  gt
 1 2 through the same distance. Time of descent (t2) =
h  ut  gt  2  u 2  2 gh
2 time of ascent (t1) = u/g
g
hn  u  (2n  1)  Total time of flight T = t1 + t2 
2u
2 g
(3) If a body is projected vertically upward
(6) In case of motion under gravity, the speed with
(i) Equation of motion : Taking initial position
which a body is projected up is equal to the speed
as origin and direction of motion (i.e., vertically up)
as positive with which it comes back to the point of projection.
a = – g [As acceleration is downwards while As well as the magnitude of velocity at any point
motion upwards] on the path is same whether the body is moving in
So, if the body is projected with velocity u and upwards or downward direction.
after time t it reaches up to height h then (7) A body is thrown vertically upwards. If air
1 2 2 resistance is to be taken into account, then the
  u  g t ; h  ut  g t ;   u 2  2 gh ;
2 time of ascent is less than the time of descent. t2 >
hn  u 
g
(2n  1) t1
2
Let u is the initial velocity of body then time of
(ii) For maximum height v = 0
u u2
ascent t1  and h 
So from above equation u = gt, ga 2(g  a)
1 2 where g is acceleration due to gravity and a is
h gt and u 2  2 gh
2
v=0
retardation by air resistance and for upward
motion both will work vertically downward.
2h u
t   For downward motion a and g will work in opposite
h g g
u direction because a always work in direction
u 2 gh opposite to motion and g always work vertically
2 downward. a
u
h  1
2g So h  (g  a) t22 +
2
O t
2
Fig. u 1
2.14
  (g  a) t22 g
(iii) Graph of displacement, velocity and 2(g  a) 2
–a
acceleration with respect to time (for maximum u
 t2  Fig. 2.15
height) : (g  a)(g  a)

s (u2/2 Comparing t1 and t2 we can say that t2 > t1

v
g)
+ since (g + a ) > (g – a)
(u/ (2u/g
O g) t
) Motion with Variable Acceleration
–
(u/
g) – (i) If acceleration is a function of time
t v
t
a  f (t) then v  u   0 f (t) dt
It is clear that both quantities do not depend
   f (t) dt dt
t
upon the mass of the body or we can say that in and s  ut 
0
absence of air resistance, all bodies fall on the
surface of the earth with the same rate. (ii) If acceleration is a function of distance

(4) The motion is independent of the mass of the a  f (x )

x
then v 2  u 2  2  x 0 f (x ) dx
body, as in any equation of motion, mass is not
involved. That is why a heavy and light body when (iii) If acceleration is a function of velocity
released from the same height, reach the ground dv vdv
a = f (v) then t   u and x  x 0  u
v v

simultaneously and with same velocity i.e., f (v) f (v)

t  (2h / g) and v  2 gh .

(5) In case of motion under gravity, time taken to

go up is equal to the time taken to fall down