TURNER

NSQF LEVEL - 5

3rd Semester

TRADE THEORY

SECTOR: Production & Manufacturing

DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF TRAINING

MINISTRY OF SKILL DEVELOPMENT & ENTREPRENEURSHIP
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL
MEDIA INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Post Box No. 3142, CTI Campus, Guindy, Chennai - 600 032
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Sector : Turner
Duration : 2 - Years
Trade : Turner 3rd Semester - Trade Theory - NSQF level 5

Copyright ©2018 National Instructional Media Institute, Chennai

First Edition : October 2018 Copies : 1,000
First Reprint : January 2019 Copies : 3,000

Rs.130/-

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication can be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the National
Instructional Media Institute, Chennai.

Published by:
NATIONAL INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA INSTITUTE
P. B. No.3142, CTI Campus, Guindy Industrial Estate,
Guindy, Chennai - 600 032.
Phone : 044 - 2250 0248, 2250 0657, 2250 2421
Fax : 91 - 44 - 2250 0791
email : [email protected], [email protected]
Website: www.nimi.gov.in

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 FOREWORD

The Government of India has set an ambitious target of imparting skills to 30 crores people, one out of every
four Indians, by 2020 to help them secure jobs as part of the National Skills Development Policy. Industrial
Training Institutes (ITIs) play a vital role in this process especially in terms of providing skilled manpower.
Keeping this in mind, and for providing the current industry relevant skill training to Trainees, ITI syllabus
has been recently updated with the help of Mentor Councils comprising various stakeholder's viz. Industries,
Entrepreneurs, Academicians and representatives from ITIs.

The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI), Chennai has now come up with instructional material to
suit the revised curriculum for Turner Trade Theory 3rds Semester in Production & Manufacturing
Sector . The NSQF Level - 5 Trade theory will help the trainees to get an international equivalency standard
where their skill proficiency and competency will be duly recognized across the globe and this will also
increase the scope of recognition of prior learning. NSQF Level - 5 trainees will also get the opportunities
to promote life long learning and skill development. I have no doubt that with NSQF Level - 5 the trainers
and trainees of ITIs, and all stakeholders will derive maximum benefits from these IMPs and that NIMI's
effort will go a long way in improving the quality of Vocational training in the country.

The Executive Director & Staff of NIMI and members of Media Development Committee deserve appreciation
for their contribution in bringing out this publication.

Jai Hind

RAJESH AGGARWAL
Director General/ Addl. Secretary
Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship,
Government of India.

New Delhi - 110 001

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 PREFACE

The National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) was established in 1986 at Chennai by then Directorate
General of Employment and Training (D.G.E & T), Ministry of Labour and Employment, (now under Directorate
General of Training, Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship) Government of India, with technical
assistance from the Govt. of the Federal Republic of Germany. The prime objective of this institute is to
develop and provide instructional materials for various trades as per the prescribed syllabi under the Craftsman
and Apprenticeship Training Schemes.

The instructional materials are created keeping in mind, the main objective of Vocational Training under
NCVT/NAC in India, which is to help an individual to master skills to do a job. The instructional materials are
generated in the form of Instructional Media Packages (IMPs). An IMP consists of Theory book, Practical
book, Test and Assignment book, Instructor Guide, Audio Visual Aid (Wall charts and Transparencies) and
other support materials.

The trade practical book consists of series of exercises to be completed by the trainees in the workshop.
These exercises are designed to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered. The trade
theory book provides related theoretical knowledge required to enable the trainee to do a job. The test and
assignments will enable the instructor to give assignments for the evaluation of the performance of a trainee.
The wall charts and transparencies are unique, as they not only help the instructor to effectively present a
topic but also help him to assess the trainee's understanding. The instructor guide enables the instructor to
plan his schedule of instruction, plan the raw material requirements, day to day lessons and demonstrations.

IMPs also deals with the complex skills required to be developed for effective team work. Necessary care
has also been taken to include important skill areas of allied trades as prescribed in the syllabus.

The availability of a complete Instructional Media Package in an institute helps both the trainer and
management to impart effective training.

The IMPs are the outcome of collective efforts of the staff members of NIMI and the members of the Media
Development Committees specially drawn from Public and Private sector industries, various training institutes
under the Directorate General of Training (DGT), Government and Private ITIs.

NIMI would like to take this opportunity to convey sincere thanks to the Directors of Employment & Training
of various State Governments, Training Departments of Industries both in the Public and Private sectors,
Officers of DGT and DGT field institutes, proof readers, individual media developers and coordinators, but for
whose active support NIMI would not have been able to bring out this materials.

R. P. DHINGRA
Chennai - 600 032 EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
National Instructional Media Institute (NIMI) sincerely acknowledges with thanks for the co-operation and
contribution extended by the following Media Developers and their sponsoring organisations to bring out this
Instructional Material (Trade Theory) for the trade of Turner (NSQF Level-5) under the Production &
Manufacturing Sector for ITIs.

MEDIA DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE MEMBERS

Shri. A. Vijayaraghavan _ Assistant Director of Training (Retd.)

ATI, Chennai-32.

Shri. R. Purushothaman _ Assistant Director (Retd.) (Mechanical Engg)

MSME, Chennai-32.

Shri. M. Sampath _ Training officer (Retd.)

CTI, Chennai-32.

Shri. A. Natarajan _ Training Officer

Govt. ITI, Coimbatore.

Shri. N. Sampath _ Assistant Training Officer

Govt. ITI, Ambathur.

Shri. Dhayalamoorthy _ Assistant Training Officer

Govt. ITI, Tiruvannamalai.

Shri. Sampath Kumar _ Assistant Training Officer

Govt. ITI, Chennai-32.

Shri. S. Balasubramanian _ Assistant Training Officer

Govt. ITI, Chennai-32.

Shri. D.N. Srinivasa Shetty _ Junior Training Officer

Govt. ITI, Bangalore -29.

Shri. Chandrahasa _ Junior Training Officer

Govt. ITI, Mysore - 570007.

Shri. Srinivasa Naik _ Junior Training Officer

Govt. ITI, Mysore - 570007.

Shri. K. Srinivasa Rao _ Joint Director,

Co-ordinator, NIMI, Chennai-32.

Shri. V. Gopalakrishnan _ Assistant Manager,

Co-ordinator, NIMI, Chennai - 32.

Shri. N. Sundararajan _ Assistant Manager,

Co-ordinator, NIMI, Chennai - 32.

NIMI records its appreciation for the Data Entry, CAD, DTP operators for their excellent and devoted services in
the process of development of this Instructional Material.
NIMI also acknowledges with thanks the invaluable efforts rendered by all other NIMI staff who have contributed
towards the development of this Instructional Material.

NIMI is also grateful to everyone who has directly or indirectly helped in developing this Instructional Material.

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 INTRODUCTION
TRADE THEORY

This manual of trade theory consists of theorectical information for the First Semester couse of the Turner Trade.
The contents are sequenced accoring to the practical exercise contained in the manual on Trade practical.
Attempt has been made to relate the theortical aspects with the skill covered in each exercise to the extent
possible. This cor-relation is maintained to help the trainees to develop the perceptional capabilities for
performing the skills.

Module 1 Form Turning 125 Hrs

Module 2 Turning with lathe attachements 175 Hrs
Module 3 Boring 100 Hrs
Module 4 Thread cutting 125 Hrs
Total 525 Hrs
The Trade Theory has to be taught and learnt along with the corresponding exercise contained in the manual
on trade practical. The indications about the corresponding practical exercise are given in every sheet of the
manual.

It will be preferable to teach/learn the trade theory connected to each exercise atleast one class before
performing the related skills in the shop floor. The trade theory is to be treated as an integral part of each
exercise.

The material is not the purpose of self learning and should be considered as supplementary to class room
instruction.

TRADE PRACTICAL

The trade practical manual is intented to be used in workshop . It consists of a series of practical exercies to
be completed by the trainees during the First Semester course of the Turner trade supplemented and
supported by instructions/ informations to assist in performing the exercises. These exercises are designed
to ensure that all the skills in the prescribed syllabus are covered.
The manual is divided into four modules. The distribution of time for the practical in the four modules are given
below.

The skill training in the computer lab is planned through a seriess of practical exercises centred around some
practical project. However, there are few instance where the individual exercise does not form a part of project.

While developing the practical manual a sincere effort was made to prepare each exercise which will be easy
to understand and carry out even by below average traninee. However the development team accept that there
is a scope for further improvement. NIMI, looks forward to the suggestions from the experienced training faculty
sfor improving the manual.

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 CONTENTS

Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.

Module 1: Form Turning

3.1.88 Form tools function - types and uses 1

3.1.89 Dial test indicator - construction - used for checking the forms 7

3.1.90 Jigs & fixtures - types and uses 11

3.1.91 Cutting Tool Material 15

3.1.92 Tool life and quality of a cutting tool material 17

3.1.93 Checking of taper with Sine bar and Roller 19

3.1.94 Cutting speed and feed, turning time, depth of cut calculation 24

Module 2: Turning with lathe attachments

3.2.95 Face plate - accessories used on face plate, angle plate 36

Angle plates 37

Balancing - its necessity 39

3.2.96 Surface finish symbol used on working blue prints 40

Surface texture measuring instruments 43

Machining symbols 44

Lapping 46

3.2.97 Preventive maintenance - its necessity 49

Documentations - 1 53

Marking off and marking table 57

3.2.98 Roller and revolving steadies - necessity - construction - uses 59

3.2.99 Different types of attachements used in lathe 61

Special attachments used in centre lathe 63

Copying attachment 65

3.2.100 Various procedures of thread measurements 66

Thread measurement (effective diameter) 68

Thread measurement (minor diameter) 71

Screw thread measurement (flank angle and form) 73

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Lesson No. Title of the Lesson Page No.

Module 3: Boring

3.3.101 Toolmaker’s button and its parts 75

3.3.102 Telescopic gauge - construction - uses 78

3.3.103 Inside micrometer - metric - construction 79

3.3.104 Inside micrometer - Inch 81

3.3.105 Care for holding split bearing, fixture and its uses 82

Module 4: Thread cutting

3.4.106 Calculation involving fractional thread (odd and even) 84

Simple and compound gear trains 86

Gear calculation for cutting metric thread on British lathe and vice versa 87

3.4.107 Multiple thread function, use 91

3.4.108 Multi-start thread and methods 93

3.4.109 Calculation involving shape of tool (Square thread tool) 96

3.4.110 Helix angle and its effects on threading tool clearance angles 100

LEARNING/ ASSESSABLE OUTCOME

On completion of this book you shall be able to

• Recognise, understand typical turning operations like Form turn-
ing, taper turning, boring etc.,
• Draw and organise work to make Morse Taper plug, Taper sleeves,
executing complex job involving face plate, angle plate etc.,
• Execute turning of crackshaft, turning of long shaft using lathe
attachments such as revolving steady, roller steady etc.,
• Perform eccentric boring, stepped boring with in 50 micron accu-
racy level and use of inside micrometer, telescopic gauges etc for
measurement.
• Execute metric and British standard thread cutting, multi start
thread cutting, making use of change wheel calculation, and
checking of threads.
• Understand the use and applications of all types of lathe attach-
ments.

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 SYLLABUS

Third Semester Duration: Six Month

Week Ref. Learning Professional Skills Professional Knowledge

No. Outcome (Trade Practical) (Trade Theory)
with Indicative hours
Plan & set the 88. Form turning practice by Form tools-function-types and
53 machine parameter to hand. (8 hrs.) uses,
produce precision 89. Re-sharpening of form tools Template-purpose & use. Dial
engineering using bench grinder. (2 hrs.) test indicatorconstruction
component to 90. Tool machine handle turning & uses
appropriate accuracy by combination feed. (15 hrs.) Calculation involving modified
by performing rake and
different turning clearance angles of lathe tool
operation. at above and
[Appropriate below the center height.
accuracy - ±0.02mm/ Subsequent effect of
(MT - 3) (proof tool setting.
turning); Different Jig and fixture-definition, type
turning operation – and use. Chip
Plain turning, taper breaker on tool-purpose and
turning, boring type
threading, knurling,
grooving, chamfering
etc.]

54-55 -do- 91. Turn Morse taper plug

Cutting tool material-H.C.S.,
(different number) and
HSS, Tungsten.
check with ring gauge
Carbide, Ceramic etc, -
/ suitable MT sleeve. (25
Constituents and
hrs.)
their percentage. Tool life,
92. Make revolving tail stock
quality of a
centre- Bush type (C-40).
cutting material.
(Proof machining) (25 hrs.)

-do- 93. Make Morse taper sleeve Checking of taper with sin bar
56 and rollercalculation
and check by taper plug
gauge. (25 hrs.) involved

57 94. Make mandrel/ plug gauge Cutting speed, feed, turning time,
-do- depth of
with an accuracy of
±0.02mm using tungsten cut calculation, cutting speed
carbide tools including chart (tungsten
throw-away tips. (25 hrs.) carbide tool) etc. Basic
classification of
tungsten carbide tips.

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58-59 Set & Produce 95. Setting and turning operation Accessories used on face plate –
components on involving face and angle plate their uses.
irregular shaped (25 hrs.) Angle plate-its construction & use.
job 96. Make angle plate using face Balancing-its necessity.
using different plate. (25 hrs.) Surface finish symbols used on
lathe working
accessories. blueprints- I.S. system lapping,
[Different honing etc.
Lathe accessories:
-
Face plate, angle
plate]

60-61 Plan and set the 97. Holding and truing of Preventive maintenance, its
machine using lathe Crankshaft – single throw necessity,
attachment to (Desirable). (50 hrs.) frequency of lubrication. Preventive
produce maintenance schedule., TPM
different utility (Total Productive Maintenance), EHS
component/ item as (Environment, health, Safety)
per drawing. Marking table-construction and
[Different utility function.
component/ item – Angle plate-construction, eccentricity
Crank shaft (single checking.
throw), stub arbour
with accessories
etc.]

62 -do- 98. Turning of long shaft using Roller and revolving steadies,
steady rest (within 0.1 mm). Necessary, construction, uses etc.
(25 hrs.)

63-64 -do- 99. Use of attachments on lathe Different types of attachments

for different operations. (25 used in lathe.
hrs.) Various procedures of thread
100. Turning standard stub arbor measurement thread screw pitch
with accessories collar, tie gauge.
rod, lock nut. (25 hrs.) Screw thread micrometer,
microscope etc.

Set the machining

65 101. Perform eccentric boring Tool maker’s button and its parts,
parameters and
and make male & female construction and uses, telescopic
produce & assemble
eccentric fitting. (15 hrs.) gauge its construction and uses.
components by
102. Position boring using tool
performing different
maker’s button. (10 hrs.)
boring operations
with
an appropriate
accuracy. [Different
boring operation –
eccentric boring,
stepped boring;
appropriate
accuracy
- ±0.05mm]

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 66 -do- 103. Boring and stepped boring Inside micrometer principle,
(within ± 0.05 mm) (15 hrs.) construction graduation, reading,
104. Cutting of helical grooves in use etc. (Metric & Inch.)
bearing and bushes (Oil groove)
(10 hrs.)

67-68 -do- 105. Turning & boring of split bearing

– (using boring bar and fixture ) Care for holding split bearing.
(50 hrs.) Fixture and its use in turning

69 -do- 106. Cutting thread of 8 and 11 TPI. Calculation involving fractional

(25 hrs.) threads. Odd & even threads

Multiple thread function, use,

-do- 107. Multi start thread cutting
70 different between pitch & lead,
(B.S.W.) external & internal.
formulate to find out start, pitch,
(25 hrs.)
lead. Gear ratio etc.

71 -do- 108. Multi start thread cutting Indexing of start - different

(Metric) (External & internal). methods tool
(25 hrs.) shape for multi-start thread.
Setting of a lathe
calculation for required change
wheel

72 -do- 109. Multi-start thread cutting, Calculation involving shape of

square form (Male & tool, change wheel, core dia etc.
Female). (25 hrs.) Calculation involving shape, size
pitch, core dia. Etc.

73 -do- 110. Make half nut as per standard Helix angle, leading angle &
lead screw. (25 hrs.) following angles.
Thread dimensions-tool shape,
gear, gear calculation, pitch,
depth, lead etc.

74-75 Implant training / Project work (work in a

team)
1. Pedestal bearing
2. crank shaft
3. arbor with clamping nut
4. mandrel with jaw
5. Eccentric with connecting rod
6. Taper mandrel with sphere
7. Lever Handle

76-77 Revision

78 Examination

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13. Plan and perform 85. Balancing, mounting & Lubricant-function, types, sources
basic dressing of grinding wheel of lubricant. Method of lubrication.
maintenance (Pedestal). (5 hrs.) Dial test indicator use for
of lathe & grinding 86. Periodical lubrication parallelism and concentricity etc. in
machine and procedure on lathe. (10 hrs.) respect of lathe work Grinding
examine their 87. Preventive maintenance of wheel abrasive, grit, grade, bond
functionality. lathe. (10 hrs.) etc.

In-plant training / Project work

14.
1. Drill extension socket
2. conical brush
3. V-belt pulley
4. Tail Stock Centre (MT – 3)
5. Taper ring gauge
6. Sprocket
7. Socket spanner

15.
Revision

16. Examination

Note: -
1. Some of the sample project works (indicative only) are given against each semester.
2. Instructor may design their own project and also inputs from local industry may be taken
for designing such new project.
3. The project should broadly covered maximum skills in the particular trade and must
involve some problem solving skill. Emphasis should be on Teamwork: Knowing the
power of synergy/ collaboration, Work to be assigned in a group (Group of at least 4
trainees). The group should demonstrate Planning, Execution, Contribution and
application of Learning. They need to submit Project report.
4. If the instructor feels that for execution of specific project more time is required than he
may plan accordingly to produce components/ sub-assemblies in appropriate time i.e.,
may be in the previous semester or during execution of normal trade practical.
5. More emphasis to be given on video/real-life pictures during theoretical classes. Some
real-life pictures/videos of both conventional & CNC turning operation, production of
different components, turning of complex job, etc., may be shown to the trainees to give a
feel of Industry and their future assignment.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.88
Turner - Form Turning
Form tools function - types and uses
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• distinguish between plain turning and form turning
• state the necessity of form turning
• brief the methods of form turning
• check forms with radious gauges
• understand use of templates
• learn the calculation of effective rake, clearance angle, setting
• understand type of chip breakers & it uses.

Tools Function

The plain turning process is capable of generating cylin-

drical, conical and flat surfaces whereas the form turning
process is intended for generating concave, convex profiles
or the combination of both on the work piece. The figure
shows the different types of forming obtained on the
workpiece with the help of the form tools.

Purpose of form turning

Form turning is mainly used for making the handles to

provide better grip for handling purposes.

It provides additional decoration on the product.

Concave forming is mainly used in ball bearing races, as

a seat for ball or roller pin.

Form turning is largely employed in the manufacture of

automobile engineering components.

Methods of turning formed surfaces

Formed surfaces can be turned by:

- using form tools
- using templates
Form tools are ground so that the profile or contour of the
- free hand form turning. cutting edge corresponds to the desired shape. If the tool
Form turning tools (Figs 1 & 2) bit is ground accurately, an accurate form is reproduced on
the workpiece. If the form must be held to fine tolerances,
it is wise to check the accuracy of the cutting edge on an
optical projector. For mass production purposes, carbide
tipped form tools are used. When a form tool requires
sharpening, it is important that the grinding occurs only on
the top of the cutting edge. Otherwise, the shape and
accuracy of the form will be altered. When forms are
produced manually, constant checking of parts against the
master template is necessary.

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Form turning using a template (Fig 3)

Very accurate profiles or contours may be produced by

using templates. The main parts involved in this method
are the:
- cutting tool
- template
- follower.
A follower is fastened to the cross-slide to follow the contour
of the template. The accuracy of the template determines
the accuracy of the form produced. The template is
mounted on the back of the lathe. With these
arrangements, the tool has to be moved by hand using
cross and longitudinal feeds.

They are made of hardened sheet metal each to a precise

radius. They are used to check the radii by comparing the
radius on a part with the radius of the gauges.

Fig 1 shows the application of a fillet gauge to check the

Free hand form turning (Figs 4a & 4b) radius formed externally. Fig 2 shows the application of a
radius gauge to check the fillet formed on a turned
Free hand turning is generally used only when a few parts component. The other typical applications are:
are required and when it would be uneconomical to pro-
vide templates and follower. A very high skill is needed to
produce accurate forms on the workpiece. This method
involves simultaneous control over the carriage and the
cross-slide. Also it involves coordination of both the hands
of the operator.

Types of form Tool

1 Flat form tool
2 Circular form tool
3 End form tool

Radius and fillet gauges

Components are machined to have curved formation on
the edges or at the junction of two steps. Accordingly
they are called radius and fillets. The size of the radius
and fillet is normally provided on a drawing. The gauges
used to check the radius formed on the edges of diameters
are called radius gauges and the radius formed at the
steps are checked with fillet gauges . In other words these
gauges can check the concave and convex forms on the
component.

2 Production : Turner (NSQF Level-5) : RT for Ex No. 3.1.88

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 Some sets have provisions to check the radius and fillet
on each blade. (Fig 6)

And some sets have separate sets of blades to check the

- Checking the corner radius of a part being filed to shape. radius and fillet. (Fig 7)
(Fig 3)

Each blade can be swung out of the holder separately,

and has its size engraved on it. (Fig 8)

- Checking a radius formed by a milling cutter. (Fig 4)

Fillet gauges are available in sets to check the radii and

fillets from:

1 to 7 mm in steps of 0.5 mm
7.5 to 15 mm in steps of 0.5 mm
15.5 to 25 mm in steps 0.5 mm.
Individual gauges are also available. They usually have
internal and external radii on each gauge and are made in
sizes from 1 to 100 mm in steps of 1 mm. (Fig 9)
The radius and fillet gauges are available in sets of several
blades which fold into a holder when not in use. (Fig 5)

Production : Turner (NSQF Level-5) : RT for Ex No. 3.1.88 3

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Before using the radius gauge: Templates (Profiles)

- check that it is clean and undamage A template is made of good quality steel. It is used to
- remove burrs from the workpiece mark and check profiles (Figs 1,2, & 3)

- select the leaf of the gauge from the set corresponding Templates are used for rapid standardised marking out of
to the radius to be checked. complicated shape or irregular shape It is also used while
slotting or cutting complicated contours. The contoured of
Fig 10 shows that the radius of the fillet and that of the the template is case-hardened and can serve as a guide
external radius are smaller than the gauge. for marking.

Try a smaller gauge to determine the radius dimension.

File or machine the workpiece if it has to be of the radius

of the ga if you need to find the radius dimension.

Fig 11 shows that the radius of the fillet and that of the
external radius are larger than the gauge.

Try a larger gauge if you need to find the radius dimension.

If the workpiece has to be of the radius of the gauge you

may have to reject the workpiece.

Fig 12 shows the workpiece having the same radius as

that of the gauge that is being used for checking.

Templates save time in marking out and and result in

standarisation of work.

A template is a negative replica of the profile it checks.

4 Production : Turner (NSQF Level-5) : RT for Ex No. 3.1.88

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Calculation of the effective rake and clearance angles The effective
for tools set above or below the centre height top rake angle = 12° + 4° 34’
= 16° 34’
The setting of the tool with respect to the work axis affects
the value of the rake angle (a) and the clearance angle (b)
to which the tools is gound Fig 1. The effective
front clearance
angle = 6° + 4° 34’
= 1° 26’

Example Fig 3

If it is above the work centre, the clearance angle diminishes

and the rake angle increases, and there is a point at which
clearance disappears completely and the tool will not cut
but only rub on the surface of the work. Converely, if it
below the centre, it will increase the clearance angle and
decrease the rake angle.

Example Fig 2

Used on a job of 60 mm dia. The tool set at 2 mm below

the centre.

OB = 30 mm

AB = 2 mm

Sin θ = 2/30 = 1/15 = 0.066

θ = 3° 50’

The effective
top rake angle = 12° + 3° 50’
= 8° 10’

To determine the effective rake and clearance angles when The effective
turning a job of ∅ 50mm, the tool being set 2mm above
front clearance
the centre height, with the ground angles being as shown
angle = 6° + 3° 50’
in Fig 1, we have
= 9° 50’
OA = 25 mm
So the tool must be set at the centre of the work piece.
AB = 2 mm

Sin θ = 2/25 = 0.080

θ = 4° 34’

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 Subsequent effect of tool setting:

Tool point above the centre height - Tool will not cut, only
rubs.

Tool point below the centre height - Too digs, breaks, thro’
away job, damage tools & job.

Tool point just in line with centre height - effective cutting,

good finish and long life for tool.

Chip breaker - By clamping a piece of sheet metal in the path of the

coil.
Chip breaker is a means with which the continuous long - By a step type chip breaker in which a step is ground
curly chips are broken into comparatively small pieces on the face of the tool, along the cutting edge.
for easy handling, thus preventing it from becoming a
work hazard. - By a groove type chip breaker in which a small
groove is ground behind the cutting edge.
Types of chip breakers (Fig 1) - By a clamp type chip breaker in which a thin carbide
plate or clamp is brazed or screwed on the face of
- Step type - built in the tool.
- Groove type - built in
Throw-away tip tool-holders are provided with chip breakers.
- Clamp type - mechanical
Necessity for breaking the chips
The common methods of breaking the chips in normal
shop practice are summarized here. Long and unbroken chips produced while turning ductile
materials are difficult to handle and injurious to the
operator. They should be broken into convenient lengths
for easy disposal and also to protect the finished
work-surfaces. Therefore, tools are provided with devices
to curl and break the chips. These devices, which are
called chip breakers are in the form of ground chip
breakers in the case of brazed carbide tools, and
external or pre–sintered chip breakers in the case of
disposable, indexable inserts. However, with high speed
steel tools, this problem may not arise because at low
cutting speeds the chip has often natural curl and tends
to be brittle enough to break on its own.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.89
Turner - Form Turning
Dial test indicator - construction - used for checking the forms
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the working principle of a dial test indicator
• identify the parts of a dial test indicator
• state the important features of a dial test indicator
• state the functions of a dial test indicator
• identify different types of stands.

What are dial test indicators

Dial test indicators are fine precision type of instruments

used for comparing and determining the variation in the
sizes of components. (Fig 1)

These instruments cannot give the direct reading of the

sizes like micrometers and vernier calipers. A dial test
indicator magnifies small variations in sizes by means of
a mechanism & through a pointer on a graduated dial.
This direct reading of the deviations gives an accurate
picture of the conditions of the parts being tested.

Principle of working

The principle of a dial test indicator is the magnification

of a small movement of the plunger by converting it
into rotary motion of a pointer on a circular scale. (Fig 2)

For converting linear motion of the plunger into rotary motion

of the pointer, a rack and pinion mechanism is used.

Types

Two types of dial test indicators are in use according

Many dial test indicators read plus in a clockwise
to the method of magnification.
direction from zero and minus in a counter clockwise
direction to give plus and minus indications.
- Plunger type (Fig 3)
- Lever type (Fig 4)

Constructional features

An important feature of the dial test indicator is that the

scale can be rotated by a ring bezel, enabling it to be
readily set to zero.
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The lever type dial test indicator

In the case of this type of dial test indicators the

magnification of the movement is obtained by a
mechanism of lever and scroll. (Fig 5)

It has a stylus with a ball type contact operating in

the horizontal plane.

This can be conveniently mounted on a surface

gauge stand and can be used in places where the plunger
type dial test indicator application is difficult. (Fig 6)

Uses (Figs 7 to 11)

- To compare the dimensions of a workpiece against

a known standard.
- To check plane surfaces for parallelism and flatness.
- To check parallelism of shafts and bars.
- To check concentricity of holes and shafts.
- To check the radial/axial runouts
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 Magnetic stand with flexible post. (Fig 13)

General purpose holder with cast iron base

Stands (Fig 14).

Dial test indicators are used in conjunction with stands

for holding them so that the stand itself may be placed
on the datum surface or machine tools.

The following are the three types of stands available.

Magnetic stand with universal clamp. (Fig 12)

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10 Production : Turner (NSQF Level-5) : RT for Ex No. 3.1.89
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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.90
Turner - Form Turning
Jigs & fixtures - types and uses
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the advantages of using jigs & fixtures
• state what is a jig and a fixture
• list the different types of jigs & fixtures
• state the features of a turning fixure.

Definition - type - uses Drilling jigs are used to drill, ream, tap and for other
allied operations as shown on the component. (Fig 3)
Jigs and fixtures are the production tools used to
manufacture duplicate parts accurately. (Figs 1 and 2)

Advantages of using jigs and fixtures

Faster rate of production.

Easy to use even by an unskilled worker.

Layout and marking on individual parts eliminated.

Boring jigs are used to bore holes which are either too
large to drill or of odd size. (Fig 4)

What is a fixture?
A fixture is a production tool that locates and holds the
piece part. It does not control the cutting tools, but the
tools can be positioned before cutting with the help of
setting blocks and feeler gauges, etc. (Fig 5)

Definition of a jig
A jig is a special device which holds, supports, locates
and also guides the cutting tool during operation.
The two types of jigs are
– drilling jig
– boring jig.

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The commonly used fixtures are
– milling fixture
– turning fixture
– grinding fixture
– welding and assembly fixture, bending fixture, etc.

Features of turning fixtures

Some workpieces require special turning fixtures for quick

location and clamping. These are generally special
face-plates. Their swing should be lesser than the swing
of the lathe machine. The clamp arrangement should be
capable of withstanding the various forces developed
during operations (i.e) cutting force tangential to cutting Classification of drill jig
circle, axial and radial forces due to feed of the tool and
bending forces due to the pressure of the tool on the Drill jigs are broadly classified as
workpiece.
– plate jig and channel jig
Construction of boring and facing fixture (Fig 6) – solid jig
The workpiece rests on the angle plate face and its – post jig
boss is centralized with the machine axis by a sliding – sandwich jig
‘V’ block which can be operated with knurled screw
‘S’. The workpiece is clamped in position by two clamps – table jig
‘C’. The height of the angle plate, sliding ‘V’ and other – box jig
parts are kept less than the workpiece thickness ‘T’ to
prevent obstruction to facing tool ‘F’. The workpiece is – trunnion jig
bored through and one side of its hole is faced on this – latch jig etc.
fixture. The eccentric masses due to the workpiece,
angle plate and clamps are counter balanced by the Selection of a particular type of jig will be based on the
balance weight ‘B’. place where the drilling or its allied operation/operations
are to be performed and the shape of the piece part.

Plate jig and channel

A jig consists simply of a drill plate which rests on the

component to be drilled. For correct location, locating
pins are clamped in position. At times on heavier piece
parts even clamps will not be used. Generally a
base plate will not be available for these types of jigs.
(Figs 1, 2 & 3)

Turning fixture (Fig 7)

The workpiece is located on the earlier machined spigot
‘S’ and clamped against the fixture face by two swing-
ing hook bolt clamps ‘H’. The clamps are loosened,
and they swing anticlockwise to the position shown by
chain-dotted lines to clear the path of the workpiece
during loading and unloading. Because of even and
symmetrical distribution of mass around the centre
line of the fixture, no balance weights are necessary.

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Solid jigs

These can be used while drilling on small piece parts.

The body of these types of jigs is machined from solid
blocks of steel. (Fig 4) Table jig (turn over jig)

This is used when it is necessary to locate the piece

part from its face. For accurate seating of the jig on the
machine table four legs will be provided on this type of
jig. (Fig 7)

Post jigs

These are used for location from a bore. The post should
be as short as possible to facilitate loading, and at the
same time it must be long enough to support the
work- piece. (Fig 5)
Sandwich jigs

These are ideal for thin or soft piece parts which could
bend or warp while machining. In this type of jigs,
the piece part will be sandwiched between the base
plate and the drill plate. The drill plate has to be
located from a separate locator. (Fig 6)
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Box jig

This is made in the form of a box or frame work. The

piece part will be located and clamped at one
position when the piece part is to be drilled in many
directions. This jig is meant for small piece parts only.
(Fig 8)

Latch jig

This is provided with latch clamps for easy loading and

unloading. It is important that the latch must be positively
located and clamped so that the bush bores are exactly
perpendicular to the piece. (Fig 10)

Trunnion jig

This can be designed when a large or awkwardly

shaped piece part is to be drilled in many directions.
This is an extension of the box jig which is carried on
trunnions and rotated from station to station and
positioned using an indexing device. (Fig 9)

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.91
Turner - Form Turning
Cutting Tool Material
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the properties and uses of high carbon steel, HSS, stellite, carbide, ceramic and diamond
• state the properties of cemented carbide
• select the lathe with reference to the use of carbide.

Review of cutting tool materials Coated carbides

Various types of materials are used for making tools, A thin coating (extremely thin layer of 5 to 7 microns) of
and tips, each one having its advantages and titanium carbide is deposited over processed inserts.
disadvantages. They are dealt with below. So a good toughness is combined with very high wear
resistance in the inserts. In the same working condition,
High carbon steel (0.9% to 1.5% carbon) the cutting edge of a coated carbide insert may last for 3
to 4 times longer than that of a conventional carbide
This is useful for making cutting tools for light finishing insert. Also 40% higher cutting speeds can be used.
cuts and for machining soft materials. It is quite tough
but the cutting edge softens and wears quickly, due to Ceramics
the heat generated whilst cutting (at 250°C), and so a
fairly slow speed must be used. The latest development in the metal cutting tools is the
use of aluminium oxide, generally referred to as ceramics.
High speed steel (HSS)
Ceramic tools are made of aluminium oxide powder
Besides carbon, it contains tungsten, chromium, in a mould. Ceramic tool materials are made in the form
vanadium, molybdenum as alloying metals. It loses its of tips that are to be clamped on metal shanks.
hardness at 600°C. It is probably the most popular type
of tool material. It is tough enough to withstand most These tools have very low heat conductivity and extremely
cutting shocks, and retains its hardness at higher speeds high compressive strength, but they are quite brittle and
than high carbon steel. It will cut most materials quite have a low bending strength. For this reason, these
satisfactorily, and is useful for general purpose work. materials cannot be used for tools operating in interrupted
cuts with vibrations, as well as for removing a heavy
Stellite chip. But they can withstand temperatures up to
1200°C and can be used at cutting speeds 4 times that
This is a rather brittle, non-ferrous, cast alloy for cemented carbides and up to about 40 times that
comprising of cobalt, chromium, tungsten and carbon of high speed steel tools. Heat conductivity of ceramics
(1.8 to 2.5%) but it is very hard and withstands heat up being very low, the tools are generally used without a
to 1000°C. It is useful for machining hard, chilled coolant.
castings and similar materials.
Diamonds
Cemented carbide
The diamond is the hardest known tool material and
It is a compound of carbon, cobalt and tungsten or can be run at cutting speeds about 50 times greater than
titanium or tantalum or niobium. It is the hardest cutting that for HSS tool and at temperatures up to 1650° C. In
tool material normally used. It is capable of withstanding addition to its hardness, diamond is incompressible, is
temperature even above 1000°C. Several grades of of a large grain structure, and readily conducts heat
cemented carbide tools are available, each one of and has a low coefficient of friction.
which suits a particular material. It is important to
select the correct grade of tool for the material to be Diamonds are suitable for cutting very hard materials
turned; if not, an inferior surface texture may result. such as glass, plastics, ceramics and other abrasive
materials and for producing fine finishes. The maximum
The tools are either tipped with cemented carbide, depth of cut recommended is 0.125 mm with feeds of,
which is brazed on to a carbon steel shank or the tips say 0.05 mm.
may be of the throw away type.
To summarise, the two most commonly used tool
materials are the high speed steel and the cemented
carbide.

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High speed steel tools may be used when H.S.S. Perccentage

– working to great accuracy on small diameters H.S.S. (High speed steel)

– turning small diameters, if the machine is not capable 18% Tungsten
of running at a high r.p.m.
4% Chromium
– screw cutting
1% Vanadium
– intermittent cutting.
0.70% Carbon
Cemented carbide tools may be used when
Use of oil types of work on cutting tool material.
– a fast and higher rate of metal removal is needed
Ex; Lathe tool, Planer, Shaper drill, Milling cutters.
– cutting hard and non-ferrous materials
Molybdenum HIgh Speed Steel
– high speed thread cutting is involved.
6% Molybdenum 5% tungsten 4% chromium 2%
Comparative cutting speeds Vanadium
Recommended speeds will vary according to the following This above percentage of drilling very strong and with good
factors: the kind and hardness of material being cut, the cutting ability.
rate of feed, the depth of cut, the finish desired, the
rigidity of the machine, the rigidity of the work set up, Cobalt High Speed Steel
the type of cutting tool and the type of cutting fluid
used. 12% Cobalt, 20% Tungsten, 4% Chromium, 2% Vanadium

The lathe must be capable of running at high speeds, The following example is shown to determine the maxi-
since much higher speeds are used with carbide tools. mum cutting speed for a given tool life.
To obtain a good surface texture on small diameter work,
the machine must be rigid and in good condition.

Relative Properties Of Cutting Tool Materials

Reduction in Tool material Increase in

Impact rupture strength High carbon steel Initial cost of tool.

(Shock resistance) High speed steel Red hardness temps.
Resilience Wear resistance.
(Tool springs back to shape Cast alloys Brittleness.
under vibration.) Cutting speeds used.
Tool life between
Cemented carbide sharpenings.
Tool chipping with vibration.
Ceramics
Diamonds

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.92
Turner - Form Turning
Tool life and quality of a cutting tool material
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the relationship between cutting speed and tool life
• explain tool life index equation
• determine the maximum cutting speed for a given tool
• state the quality of cutting tool material
• distinguish the charteristics of cold hardness, redhardness and toughness
• state the factors for selecting tool material

Table
Tool life index

Material and conditions Tool material n

3 1/2% nickel steel Cemented carbide 0.2

3 1/2% nickel steel (roughing) Highspeed steel 0.14
3 1/2% nickel steel (finishing) Highspeed steel 0.125
High carbon, high chromium die steel Cemented carbide 0.15
High carbon steel Highspeed steel 0.2
Medium carbon steel High-peed steel 0.15
Mild steel Highspeed steel 0.125
Cast iron Cemented carbide 0.1

The following exampe is shown to determine the maximum = log 40 + (0.125 Log480)
cutting speed for a given tool life.
= 1.6021 + (0.125 x 2.681)

Example = 1.6021 + 0.3351

= 1.9372
The life of a lathe tool is 8 hours when operating at a
cutting speed of 40 m/min. Given that Vtn = C, find the
(ii) Determine Vmax for revised conditions
highest cutting speed that will give a tool lige of 16 hours.
Vmax
The value f n is 0.125.
Where t2 = 960 min
(i) Determine the value of Log C from initial conditions.
Log V max = Log C - n Log t2

C = Vt1n where = 1.9372 - (0.125 x log960)

V = 40 m/min = 1.9372 - (0.125 x 2.9823)

t1 = 480 min = 1.9372 - 0.3728

n = 0.125 = 1.5644

Log C = Log V + n Log t1 Vmax = 36.68 m/min

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Quality of a cutting tool materials Toughness

Tool materials The property possessed by a material to resist sudden

load that results during metal cutting is termed as
Metal cutting tool materials perform the function of cutting. ‘toughness’. This will avoid the breakage of the cutting
These materials must be stronger and harder than the edge.
material to be cut. They must be sufficiently tough to
resist shock loads that result during cutting operations. Points to be noted when selecting a tool material
They must have good resistance to abrasion and a
reasonable tool life. - Condition and form of material to be machined.
- Material to be machined.
The three most important basic qualities that any cutting
tool material should possess are: - Condition of the machine tool available.
- The total quantity of production and the rate of
- cold hardness production involved.
- red hardness - The dimensional accuracy required and the quality of
- toughness. surface finish.
- The amount of coolant applied and the method of
Cold hardness application.
It is the amount of hardness possessed by a material at - The skill of the operator.
normal temperature. Hardness is the property possessed
by a material by which it can cut other metals, and has Tool life
the ability to scratch on other metals.
The life of a cutting tool depends on so may
When hardness increases, brittleness also increases, and factors like material hardness, toughness
a material which is having too much of cold hardness is
coolent used recomended cutting speed and
not suitable for the manufacture of cutting tools.
feed. The table below indicates tool life index
Red hardness of various cutting tool.

It is the ability of a tool material to retain most of its cold

hardness even at very high temperature. During machining,
due to friction between tool and work, tool and chip, heat
is generated, and the tool loses its hardness, and its
efficiency to cut diminishes. If a tool maintains its cutting
efficiency even when the temperature during cutting
increases, then that metal possesses the property of red
hardness.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.93
Turner - Form Turning

Checking of taper with Sine bar and Roller

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• check the correctness of the known angle of the work
• calculate the height of slip gauges to build up the height for a given angle
• name the features of a taper which can be measured using precision rollers and slip gauges
• state the formula for measuring the angle of the taper
• calculate the angle of the taper.

A sine bar provides a simple means of checking angles to A dial test indicator is mounted on a suitable stand or
a high degree of accuracy. vernier height gauge Fig 2. The dial test indicator is then
set in first position as shown in the figure, and the dial is
The use of a sine bar is based on the trigonometrical set to zero. Move th dial indicator to the other end of the
function. The sine bar forms the hypotenuse of that triangle component (second position). If there is any difference
and the slip gauge height forms the opposite side of the then the angle is incorrect. The height of the slip gauge
angle Fig 1 pack can be adjusted until the dial test indicator reads the
same reading at both ends. The actual angle can then be
calculated and the deviation if any, will be the error.

Method of calculating the slip gauge height.

The value of sine of the angle is 0.4226

the angle = 25°.
Checking the corrrectness of a known angle
Examples
For this purpose first choose the correct slip gauge
1 What will be the angle of the workpiece is the slip gauge
combination for the angle to be checked.
pack height is 17.36 mm and the size of the sine bar
used is 100 mm? Fig 5
The component to be checked should be mounted on the
sine bar after placing the selected slip gauges under one
roller, with the other resting on the datum surface Fig 2.

To determine the height of slip gauges for an angle of

25 ° using a sine bar of 200 mm long Fig 3.

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The height of the slip required is 84.52 mm.

Note Small end diameter Fig 2.

The value of sine θ can be seen form mathematical tables. Large end diameter Fig 2.
(Natural Sine)

Use always accurate tables while working out sine bar

constants for standard lengths of sine bars.

Calculating the anlge of tapered components.

The height of the slip gauge used is 84.52 mm. The length
of the sine bar used is 200 mm.

What will be the angle of the component? Fig 4.

Check long the angle of the taper

For determining this angle two measurements are taken.

i.e. X and Y.

The meaurement Y is taken by placing the component

against a datum surface like the surface palte or the
marking table. Two precision rollers are then placed at the
smaller end resting on the datum surface and contacting
the workpeice Fig 3.

meaurement ‘X’ is taken by lifting and placing the rollers

A method used for checking the dimensions of the tapered on both sides with the help of two sets of slip packs having
components is by using precision rollers or balls along the same size.
with the slip gauges. Using this method the following
elements of the tapers can be checked. The measurement is then taken with a micrometer over
the rollers Fig 4.
Angle of the taper Fig 1.

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For Computing the taper angle the following trigonometrical
ratio is applied.

From the two meaurements taken and the height of the

slip packs the ratio is established by subtracting the
measurement ‘Y’ from ‘X’ and dividing it by two. This
corresponds to the distance AB.

The length AC corresponds to the size of the slip pack

used on one side.

Then the tangent of the taper angle is Referring to the log table under Natural Tangents we fine
θ = 3° 11’.

Hence included angle of the taper

Where X is the measurement ove rthe rollers placed on

the slip gauge height, Y is the meaurement over the rollers
at the smaller end and H is the slip gauge height.
Diameters at any position of tapered components can be
The included angle of the taper will be double the above determined when the angle of taper is known.
angle.
For inspection of tapered components for dimensional
Example
quality the following diameters are measured.
Calculate the included angle of the tapered component
shown in Fig 5. Small end diameter d Fig 1.

The measurement Large end diameter D Fig 1.

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Determining small end diameter Fig 2

The small diameter ‘d’ is = Y - 2 (S + r).

Y - is the diameter over the two precision rollers.

r - is the radius of the roller.

S - is the distance from the centre of the roller to

the end fo the component

Example

0 = 3° 11”

Y = 61.5 mm

r = (radius of roller) 6 mm

= 61.5 - 12 (1.0570+1)

= 61.5 - 12 x 2.0570

Calculating S Fig 3 = 61.5 - 24.6840 = 36.3160 mm

Determining the large diameter of taoer at any

desired height (H for example)

The formula is derived by taking into consideration the

meaurement over the rollers palced at a known height ‘H’,
the diameter of the roller and the angle of taper. The
diameter ‘D’ at larger end at height ‘H’.

= X - 2 ( S + r)

Example Fig 4

22 Production : Turner (NSQF Level-5) : RT for Ex No. 3.1.93

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 θ = 3° 11’ The length of the taper can be directly meaured by using a
vernier height gauge. Then the largest diameter of the taper
X = 69.3 mm is determined by computing the known values.

H = 70 mm If ‘M’ is the maximum diameter of the taper, ‘T’ is the

minimum diameter of the taper and L is the tapered length.
r = (radius of the roller) 6 mm
then M = T + 2L x Tan θ
Then the diameter of the taper at height H from the small
end.

= 69.3 - 12(1+1.0570)

= 69.3 - 24.6840 = 44.6160 mm

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.1.94
Turner - Form Turning

Cutting speed and feed, turning time, depth of cut calculation

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• distinguish between cutting speed and feed
• read and select the recommended cutting speed for different materials from the chart
• point out the factors governing the cutting speed and calculation of machining time
• state the factors governing feed.
• understand features of carbide tip tools.

Cutting speed (Fig 1) Example

The speed at which the cutting edge passes over the Find out the rpm of the spindle for a 50 mm bar to cut at
material, which is expressed in metres per minute is called 25 m/min.
the cutting speed. When a work of a diameter ‘D’ is turned
in one revolution the length of portion of the work in con-
tact with the tool is p x D. When the work is making ‘n’ V = N =
rev/min, the length of the work in contact with the tool is p
x D x N. This is converted into metres and is expressed
in a formula form as
= 159 r.p.m.

V = metre/min.

Where V = cutting speed in metre/min

p = 3.14

D = diameter of the work in mm.

N = r.p.m.

When more material is to be removed in lesser time, a Factors governing the cutting speed
higher cutting speed is needed. This makes the spindle
Finish required
to run faster but the life of the tool will be reduced due to
more heat being developed. Recommended cutting speeds
Depth of cut
are given in a chart form which provides normal tool life
under normal working conditions. As far as possible the
Tool geometry
recommended cutting speeds are to be chosen and the
spindle speed calculated before performing the operation.
Properties and rigidity of the cutting tool and its mounting
(Fig 2)
Properties of the workpiece material

Rigidity of the workpiece

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 Cutting speed 120m/min Length of metal passing Calculated
cutting tool in I revolution r.p.m. of spindle

78.56 mm 1528

157.12 mm 756

235.68 mm 509.3

Type of cutting fluid used Rigidity of the tool

Rigidity of the machine tool Coolant used.

Feed (Fig 3) Rate of metal removal

The volume of metal removal is the volume of chip that is

removed from the work in one minute, and is found by
multiplying the cutting speed, feed rate and the depth of
cut.

CUTTING SPEEDS AND FEEDS FOR H.S.S. TOOLS

Table
Material being turned Feed Cutting speed
mm/rev m/min

Aluminium 0.2-1.00 70-100

Brass (alpha)-ductile 0.2-1.00 50-80
Brass (free cutting) 0.2-1.5 70-100
Bronze (phosphor) 0.2-1.00 35-70
Cast iron (grey) 0.15-0.7 25-40
Copper 0.2-1.00 35-70
Steel (mild) 0.2-1.00 35-50
Steel (medium-carbon) 0.15-0.7 30-35
Steel (alloy high tensile) 0.08-0.3 5-10
Thermosetting plastics 0.2-1.00 35-50
The feed of the tool is the distance it moves along the
work for each revolution of the work, and it is expressed in
mm/rev.

Factors governing feed

Tool geometry

Surface finish required on the work

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Note The feed is selected to suit the finish required and the

For super HSS tools the feeds would remain the same, rate of metal removal.
but cutting speeds could be increased by 15% to 20%.
When carbide tools are used, 3 to 4 times higher
A lower speed range is suitable for heavy, rough cuts.
cutting speed than that of the H.S.S. tools may be cho-
A higher speed range is suitable for light, finishing cuts. sen.

Calculation involving cutting speed and feed

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• determine the spindle speed for turning jobs of different materials of different diameters with different tool
materials
• determine the turning time with the given data.

The selection of the spindle speed is one of the factors Example 2

which decides the efficiency of cutting. It depends on the
size of the job, material of the job and material of the Determine the spindle speed to be set for a hard cast iron
cutting tool. The formula to determine cutting speed is round rod of Ø 40 mm using a HSS tool.

DATA: The cutting speed for hard cast iron from the chart
Cs = metre/min. where D is in mm. is 15 m/min.

To determine the spindle speed(N) Ø = 40 mm

N = . N =

Example 1
=
Calculate the spindle speed to turn a MS rod of Ø 40 mm.

Using HSS tool data in the above problem, since the

material is mild steel and tool is HSS, the recommended =
cutting speed from the chart is 30 m min.

Ø = 40 mm
=

N = = 119.3 r.p.m.

=
The spindle speed should be set nearest to the calculated
r.p.m., on the lower side.

= Example 3

Calculate the spindle speed to turn a Ø40 mm MS rod

using a cemented carbide tool.
=
DATA: The cutting speed recommended for turning mild
steel using a carbide tool is 92 mtr/minute.
= 238.6 r.p.m.

The spindle speed should be set nearest to the calculated

r.p.m., on the lower side.

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Ø of job = 40 mm l = 100 mm

f = 0.2 mm
N =
n = 1

N = 238.6 r.p.m.
=

Time =
=
= 2.09 minutes
= 2 minute 5.4 seconds.
=
Calculation of the total machining time

= 731.8 r.p.m. Machining time

The spindle speed should be set to the nearest calculated The machining time in a lathe work can be calculated for
r.p.m.. particular operation if the speed of the job, feed and length
of the job is given.
Turning time calculation
Time taken for a complete cut
The time factor is very important to decide the manufac-
turing of the component as well as to fix the incentives to
the operator. If the spindle speed, feed and length of the = minutes
cut are known, the time can be determined for a given cut.
If the feed is ‘f’and length of cut is ‘l’, then the total number
of revolutions the job has to make for a cut is l/f. If ‘s’ is the feed of the job expressed in mm per revolution
and ‘L’ is the length of the job in mm, then number of
If N is the rpm, the time required for a cut is found by revolutions of the job required for a complete cut will
be: L ÷ s.

Time to turn = If the r.p.m. of the work is n, time taken to revolve the
job through L/s number of revolutions for a complete cut
will be

T =
= minutes
where ‘n’ is the number of cuts and ‘N’ is the r.p.m../
Example
Example 1
Find the time required for one complete cut on a piece of
A mild steel of Ø 40 mm and 100 mm length has to be work 350 mm long and 50 mm in diameter. The cutting
turned to Ø 30 mm in one cut for full length using a HSS speed is 35 metres per minute and the feed is 0.5 mm per
tool with a feed rate of 0.2 mm/rev. Determine the turning revolution.
time.

Cutting speeds = =
Turning time =

The r.p.m. for the above is calculated and found out as or n = = 222.5
238.6 r.p.m..
Number of revolutions required to cut the full length with

the given feed = 700

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Time required for one complete cut N3 = Rpm of 140m/min.

= = 3.14 minutes N3 = for finish cut =

Example
= 810 Rpm
Find the machining time required for 2 rough cuts and
1 finish cut by carbide tool on a workpiece of Ø 80 mm,
to a length of 350 mm. First depth of cut 7.5 mm, second
depth of cut 5 mm and last finish cut 2.5 mm and feed T3 for the finishing cut =
is 0.05 mm per revolution.
= 8.64 minutes
Cutting speeds 120 m/min. 130 m/min. 140 m/min.
Total machining time = T1 + T2 + T3
respectively.
= 14.65 min. + 11 min.+ 8.64
N = Rpm of 120 m/min. min.
= 34.31 minutes.
N1 =
Tungsten carbide tools

T1 = First rough cut machining time The throw-away carbide tool tips are the carbide in-
serts which are clamped mechanically. Throw-away tips
are in different shapes such as round, polygon etc.
When the cutting edge gets blunt a fresh cutting edge is
obtained by indexing or replacing the insert.
= 14.65 minutes
Different shapes of throw-away tips are available to
N2 = Rpm of 130 m/min. suit standard tool-holders, such as round, square,
triangle, polygon etc. (Fig 1).
N2 = for 2nd cut =

= = 637 Rpm.

T2 = Second rough cut machining time

= 11 minutes

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CLASSIFICATION:

Detail Example Alphabetical and numerical code

Basic shape S C Rhomboidal with 80° corner angle

D Rhomboidal with 55° corner angle
E Rhomboidal with 75° corner angle
K Parallelogram with 55° corner angle
L Rectangular
R Round
S Square
T Triangular
Clearance angle P C-7°, D-15°, E-20°, P-11°, 0°.

(Clearance angle where special specification is

necessary.)

Tolerance class U Allowed variation ± on

Tolerance Insert Inscribed Control

class thickness ( ‘s’ ) circle (‘d’ dia). dimension (‘m’)

A 0.025 mm 0.025 mm 0.005 mm

C 0.025 mm 0.025 mm 0.013 mm

E 0.025 mm 0.025 mm 0.025 mm

G 0.13 mm 0.025 mm 0.025 mm

H 0.025 mm 0.013 mm 0.013 mm

J 0.025 mm *0.05–0.13mm 0.005 mm

K 0.025 mm *0.05–0.13mm 0.013 mm

M 0.13 mm *0.05–0.13mm 0.08–0.18

U 0.13 mm *0.08–0.25mm 0.13–0.38

NOTE: This indicates that the tolerance is de-

pendent upon the size of the insert and shape;
hence no fixed values can be given.

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 A Without built-in chip breaker with central hole.
F With built-in chip breaker on both sides without central
hole.
Characteristics N G With built-in chip breaker on both sides with central hole.
M With built-in chip breaker on one side with central hole.
N Without built-in chip breaker and without central hole.
R With built-in chip breaker on one side without central hole.
X Special, needs drawing or specification.

Cutting edge length in mm. without decimal places. For single

Size 12
digit number ‘0’ is prefixed.

Thickness of insert in mm. without decimal place. For single digit

Thickness 03 number ‘0’ is prefixed.

For insert thickness 3.97 mm. symbol T3 will be used.

Insert with nose radius: Nose radius in 1/10 mm. For single digit
number ‘0’ is prefixed.
Nose 08
For round inserts with diameter according to metric series
symbol MO is used instead of “00”.

Inserts with planishing edge especially for milling: A-45°, E-75°,

F-85°, P-90°, approach angle D-15°, E-20°, N-0°, P-11° clear
ance angle on planishing edge.
A = 3°, B = 5°, F = 25°, G = 30°

For special nose design ‘ZZ’

Cutting edge condition This symbol is optional and need be specified only when
necessary.

* Standard land on WIDIA E Rounded cutting edge

inserts 0.1 to 0.2 mm x 20° F Sharp cutting edge
(exceptions S...25) is 0.3 to S Cutting edge with land and rounding
0.4 mm x 20°. Special land T Cutting edge with land *
must be specified (e.g 0.3 mm x
20° abbreviation land 3020).

Hand cutting R Right hand cutting N Right and

left hand
L Left hand cutting cutting.

Example S P U N 12 03 08 Additional optional specification of cutting edge

and direction of cutting.

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 Designation for carbide inserts

Example

S P U N 12 03 08

ADDITIONAL SPECIFICATION

BASIC
SHAPE
(SQUARE) NOSE RADIUS SIZE 0.8MM
CHARACTERISTICS
CLEARENCE ANGLE
(CLASS OF
11* THICKNESS 3MM
CHIP BREAKER)

TOLERANCE CLASS
0.13 MM
0.08-0.25 MM SIZE CUTTING EDGE
0.13-0.38MM LENGTH 12MM

Speed calculation for carbide tools

The cutting speeds and feeds for cemented carbide tools

are about 3 to 4 times the cutting speeds and feeds for
HSS tools. If this speed cannot be obtained on the lathe, the nearest
spped less than the calculated speed must be used.
An example of speed calculation
Refer to Table 2 for the cutting speeds.
A workpiece with a diameter of 80 mm is to be turned with
a cutting speed of v = 160 m/min.

What is the permissible headstock spindle speed?

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 Table 2 shows the materials to be machined with different cutting tool material
with recommended cutting speeds
TABLE 2
Cutting speeds for metals and plastics

Heavy cut Finishing cut

Material Cutting tool material
1 mpm 2 fpm 1 mpm 2 fpm

Free machining steels HSS cast alloy 35.0 115 91.4 300
carbide 76.2 250 144.8 475
122.0 400 205.7 675

Low carbon steels HSS cast alloy 30.5 100 79.2 260
carbide 65.5 215 129.5 425
106.7 350 190.5 625

Medium carbon steels HSS cast alloy 29.0 95 68.6 225

carbide 58.0 190 106.7 350
91.4 300 152.4 500

High carbon steels HSS cast alloy 24.2 80 61.0 200

carbide 53.3 175 91.4 300
76.2 250 137.2 450

Cast iron-soft grey HSS cast alloy 24.4 80 41.1 135

carbide 42.7 140 76.2 250
68.6 225 122 400

Brass and bronze - free HSS cast alloy 53.3 175 106.7 350
machining carbide 106.7 350 167.6 550
175.3 575 274.3 900

Aluminium HSS cast alloy 38.1 125 91.4 300

carbide 53.3 175 114.3 375
76.2 250 182.9 600

Plastics HSS cast alloy 30.5 100 76.2 250

carbide 45.7 150 114.3 375
61.0 200 152.4 500

Speeds should be adjusted ± 10 to 20% to suit the

cutting conditions.
1 m.p.m. Metres per minute
2 f.p.m. Feet per minute

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DIFFERENT TYPES AND SPECIFICATIONS OF
CARBIDE TOOLS

Cemented carbide tools are available as brazed tipped

tools and throw away tips held in specially designed
tool holders.

Standard shapes of carbide tipped turning and facing

tools are shown in figures.(ISO 1-9) Carbide tipped cut
off and boring tools are also available. These tools are ISO 5 Offset turning and facing tool
re sharpened as needed using special silicon carbide
and diamond wheels.

STANDARD TERMS FOR CARBIDE TOOLS AS

SPECIFIED IN ISO

ISO 1 Straight turning tool

ISO 6 Offset side cutting tool (Offset knife tool)

ISO 2 Cranked turning tool

ISO 7 Recessing tool (parting tool)

ISO 3 Offset facing tool

ISO 8 Boring tool

ISO 4 Wide nose square turning tool

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 TABLE 1
Classification of carbide tips according to their range of application. (IS: 2428 - 1964)

Increasing direction of the Range of application

Designation characteristic of
Identification Carbide tip Cutting Material to be machined Machining conditions
colour
S S
P01 Steel, steel casting, Precision turning and fine boring.
Cutting speed: high. Feed : low

P10 Steel, steel casting, Turning, threading and milling.

Cutting speed: high. Feed: low
or medium.

P20 Steel, steel casting, Turning, milling. Cutting speed

malleable cast iron, and feed: medium. Planing: with
forming long chips. low feed rate.
Resistance to wear
BLUE

Cutting speed

P30 Steel, steel casting, Turning, planing, shaping.

Toughness

malleable cast iron, Cutting speed: medium to low.

Feed

forming long chips. Feed: medium to high even if

operating conditions are
unfavourable.

P40 Steel, steel casting Turning, planing, shaping. Cut-

with stand inclusions ting speed: low. Feed: high.
or shrinkage cavities. Rake angle: high, for machining
under unfavourable conditions
and work on automatic machines.

P50 Steel, steel castings of Turning, planing, shaping. Cutting

medium or low tensile speed: low. Feed: high Rake
strength with sand inclu- angle: high, for machining under
sions or shrinkage under unfavourable conditions
cavities. and work on automatic machines.
S
M10 S Steel, steel castings Turning, cutting speed: medium to
manganese steel, grey high. Feed: low to medium.
cast iron, alloyed cast iron

M20 Steel, steel castings, Turning, milling.

Resistance to wear

austenite, manganese Cutting speed: medium.

Cutting speed

steel, grey cast iron sphro- Feed: medium.

Toughness

dised cast iron and malle-

YELLOW

Feed

able cast iron.

M30 Steel, steel casting, auste- Turning, milling. Cutting speed:

nite, steel grey cast iron, medium. Feed: medium.
heat resisting alloys. Feed: medium or high.

M40 Free cutting steel, low ten- Turning , profile turning, parting
sile strength steel, brass off especially in automatic
and light alloy. machines.
S S
K01 Very hard grey cast iron Turning, precision, turning,
Resistance to wear

chilled castings of hard- boring and milling.

Cutting speed
Toughness

ness up to 60 HRC.
RED

Feed

Aluminium alloys with high

silicon content, hardened
steel, plastics of abrasive
type, hard board and
ceramics.

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 K10 S Grey cast iron of hardness Turning, milling, boring,
more than 220 HB, mallea- reaming, broaching.
S
ble cast iron forming short
chips tempered steel, alum-
inium alloys containing
silicon, copper alloys, plast-
ics glass hard rubber, hard
cardboard, porcelain, stone.

K20 Grey cast iron of hardness Turning, milling, planing,

Resistance to wear

up tp HB, non-ferrous metals reaming, broaching.

Cutting speed
Toughness
such as copper, brass, alum-

Feed
inium; laminated wood of
abrasive type.

K30 Soft grey cast iron, low Turning, planing, shaping,

tensile strength steel, milling. Rake angle: large
laminated wood. even under unfavourable
conditions.

K40 Soft or hard natural wood, Turning, milling, planing,

non-ferrous metals. shaping. Rake abgle: large
even under unfavourable
machining conditions.

ISO 9 Corner boring tool (finishing)

The carbide tools are specified according to (1) the

operations (rough and finish) (2) right hand or left (3)
material being turned and machining conditions. Refer
to Table 1.

The method of referring to a straight ISO carbide toole

by a manufacturer is given in Fig 10.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.95
Turner - Turning with lathe attachments

Face plate - accessories used on face plate, angle plate

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the necessity of a face-plate in lathe work
• list the face-plate accessories
• explain the truing of the work on a face-plate.

Face-plate work The machined surface of a workpiece can be clamped to an

angle plate which is fastened securely to the face-plate.
Large, flat, engine bodies, irregular shaped workpieces
and castings, jigs and fixtures that cannot be gripped in Machining operations on the workpiece will then be parallel
a chuck may be clamped to a face-plate for machining or square with the machined surface. (Fig 3)
operations. (Fig 1)

A `V' block can be bolted securely to the surface of the

angle plate to hold round workpieces.
Face-plate (Fig 2)
Truing a workpiece with a dial indicator (Fig. 4)
A face-plate is similar to a drive plate except that it is as
Mount a dial indicator with an internal or external attachment,
large in diameter as the lathe will accommodate. It is fitted
as required on the tool post.
to the spindle nose and contains a number of Tslots or
elongated holes to accommodate bolts and clamps. When
the face-plate is mounted on the lathe spindle, its face is
at right angles to the centre line of the lathe.

Face-plate accessories

Since the type and shape of workpieces vary greatly, a

large number of face-plate accessories such as bolts,
clamps, parallels, step blocks and counterweights are
used to set up and fasten the work to the face-plate.
36
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Move the indicator into contact with the workpiece until the Continue tapping the workpiece until the indicator needle
needle registers approximately one and a half turns. registers no movement when the lathe spindle is rotated
by hand.
Rotate the lathe spindle by hand and note the high reading
on the dial indicator. Tighten all bolts securely and recheck the accuracy of the
set up.
Tap the workpiece with a hardwood block or brass rod until
the indicator registers half of the difference between the
high and low readings. To prevent damage to the indicator,
always tap the workpiece away from the indicator.

Angle plates
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the constructional features of different types of angle plates
• list the different types of angle plates
• state the uses of different types of angle plates
• state the grades of angle plates
• specify angle plates.

Constructional features

Angle plates have two plane surface, machined perfectly

flat and at right angles to each other. Generally these are
made of closely grained cast iron or steel. The edges and
ends are also machined square. They have ribs on the
unmachined part for good rigidity and to prevent distor-
tion.

Types of angle plates

Plain solid angle plate (Fig 1)

The slots are machined on the top plane surfaces to

accomodating clamping bolts. This type of angle plate
can be tilted 90° along with the work for marking and
machining. (Figs 3 & 4)

Among the three types of angle plates normally used. It

plain solid angle plate is the most common. It has the two
plane surfaces perfectly machined at 90° to each other
such angle plates are suitable for supporting workpiece
during layout work. They are comparatively smaller size.

Slotted type angle plate (Fig 2)

The two plane surfaces of this type of angle plate have

their slots milled. It is comparatively bigger in size than
the plain solid angle plate.

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 Grades

Angle plates were available in two grades-Grade 1 and

Grade 2. The grade 1 angle plates are more accurate and
are used for very accurate tool room type of work. The
grade 2 angle plates are used for general machine shop
work. In addition to the above two grades of angle plates,
precision angle plates are also available for insepction
work.

Sizes

Angle plates are available in different sizes. The sizes are

indicated by numbers. Table 1 gives the number of the
Swivel type angle plate (Fig 5)
sizes and the corresponding size proportions of the angle
plates.
This is adjustable so that the two surfaces can be kept at
an angle. The two machined surfaces are on two separate
Specification of angle plates
pieces which are assembled. Graduations are marked on
one to indicate the angle of tilt with respect to the Size 6 grade 1
other.When both zeros coincide, the two plane surface
The box plate wil be designated as
are at 90° to each other. A bolt and nut are provided for
locking in position. - box angle plate 6 grade 1 IS 623

Size 2 grade 2
This will be designated as angle plate 2 Gr 2 IS 623.

TABLE 1
(Grade 2 only)

Size No. L B H

1 125 75 100
2 175 100 125
3 250 150 175
4 350 200 250
5 450 300 350
Box type angle plate (Fig 6)
6 600 400 450
They have applications similar to those of other angle 7 700 420 700
plates. After setting, the work can be turned over with the
box enabling further making out or machining. This is a 8 600 600 1000
significant advantage. This has all the faces machined 9 1500 900 1500
square to one another.
10 2800 900 2200

38 Production : Turner (NSQF Level-5) : RT for Ex No. 3.2.95

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Balancing - its necessity
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the methods used for balancing the work
• explain the methods of checking for balancing the job.

Necessity of balancing the work The degree of balance required will depend upon the
accuracy desired and the speed of machining. Work
If the work is mounted on a face-plate in such a way that machined at a low speed does not need to be balanced
the centre of gravity of the work does not coincide with as accurately as work machined at a higher speed.
the lathe centre and if the lathe is operated, the out of
balance forces, set up vibrations causing chatter and poor
surface finish on the workpiece. To eliminate the vibration
the work on the face-plate must be counter- balanced.

Balancing is accomplished by bolting a weight, or weights

on the face-plate diametrically opposite. The amount of
the weight and its position is varied until a balance is
obtained.

To check the balance, first disconnect the spindle drive.

(Figs 1a and 1b)

Set the face-plate so that the balancing weights, the

workpiece and the lathe spindle are approximately in a
horizontal line.

If the weight falls below the horizontal line, it is too heavy

or too far out from the centre of the plate. If it rises, it is
too light or too close to the centre. In either case an
adjustment must be made until the balance weight remains
in the horizontal position.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.96
Turner - Turning with lathe attachments

Surface finish symbol used on working blue prints

Objective: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the meaning of surface texture
• distinguish between roughness and waviness
• state the need for different quality surface textures
• state the meaning of ‘Ra’ value
• interpret ‘Ra’ and roughness grade number in drawings.

When components are produced either by machining or by

hand processes, the movement of the cutting tool leaves
certain lines or patterns on the work surface. This is known
as surface texture. These are, in fact, irregularities,
caused by the production process with regular or irregular
spacing which tend to form a pattern on the workpiece.
(Fig 1)

The components of surface texture

Roughness (Primary texture) The requirement of surface quality depends on the actual
use to which the component is put.
The irregularities in the surface texture result from the
inherent action of the production process. These will Examples
include traverse feed marks and irregularities within them.
(Fig 2a) In the case of slip gauges (Fig 3) the surface texture has
to be extremely fine with practically no waviness. This will
Waviness (Figs 2b & 2c) help the slip gauges to adhere to each other firmly when
wrung together.
This is the component of the surface texture upon which
roughness is superimposed. Waviness may result from The cylinder bore of an engine (Fig 4) may require a certain
machine or work deflections, vibrations, chatter, heat degree of roughness for assisting the lubrication needed for
treatment or warping strain. the movement of the piston.

For sliding surfaces the quality of surface texture is very

important.

40
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 ‘Ra’ Values

The most commonly used method of expressing the

surface texture quality numerically is by using Ra value.
This is also known as centre line average (CLA).

The graphical representation of Ra value is shown in

Figures 6 & 7. In Figure 6 a mean line is placed cutting
through the surface profile making the cavities below and
the material above equal.

The profile curve is then drawn along the average line so that
the profile below this is brought above.

A new mean line (Fig 7) is then calculated for the curve

obtained after folding the bottom half of the original profile.

When two sliding surfaces are placed one over the other,
initially the contact will be only on the high spots. (Fig 5)
These high spots will wear away gradually. This wearing
away depends on the quality of the surface texture.

The distance between the two lines is the ‘Ra’ value of the
surface.

The ‘Ra’ value is expressed in terms of micrometre

(0.000001) or (m); this also can be indicated in the
corresponding roughness grade number, ranging from N1 to
N12.
Due to this reason it is important to indicate the surface
quality of components to be manufactured. When only one ‘Ra’ value is specified, it represents the
maximum permissible value of surface roughness.
The surface texture quality can be expressed and assessed
numerically.

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 Lay: Symbols for designating the direction of lay are shown and interpreted in table 1.

TABLE 1

Example showing Interpretation Direction of tool marks

__ Lay approximately parallel to

__ the line representing the surface to
which, the symbol is applied.

⊥ Lay approximately perpendicular

to the line representing the surface
to which the symbol is applied

X Lay angular in both direction to line

representing the surface to which
the symbol is applied.

M Lay multidirectional.

C Lay approximately circular relative to the

centre of the surface to which the
symbol is applied.

R Lay approximately radial relative to the

centre of the surface of which the symbol
is applied.

P Lay particulate, non-directional, or

protuberant.

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Surface texture measuring instruments
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• distinguish the features of mechanical and electronic surface indicators
• name the parts of a mechanical surface indicator
• brief the features of electronic surface indicators (taly-surf).

The use of surface finish standards which we have seen

earlier is only a method of comparing and determining the
quality of surface. The result of such measurement very
much depends on the sense of touch and cannot be used
when a higher degree of accuracy is needed.

The instruments used for measuring the surface texture

can be of a mechanical type or with electronic sensing
device.
There are different types of electronic surface measuring
Mechanical surface indicator: devices; one type of such an instrument used in workshops
is the taly-surf.
This instrument consists of the following features. (Fig 1)
Taly-surf (Electronic surface indicator): This is an
electronic instrument for measuring surface texture. This
instrument can be used for factory and laboratory use.
(Fig 3)

– Measuring stylus
– Skids
– Indicator scale The measuring head of this unit consists of a stylus (a)
– Adjustment screw and a motor race (b) which controls the movement of the
instrument head across the surface. The movement of the
The stylus is made of diamond, and its contact point will stylus is converted to electrical signals. These signals
have a light radius. are amplified in the surface analyser/amplifier (c) which
calculates the surface parameter and presents the result
When the stylus is slowly traversed across the test surface on a digital display or in the form of a diagram through a
the stylus moves upward or downward depending on the recorder (d).
profile of the surface. (Fig 2) This movement is amplified
and transferred to the dial of the surface indicator. The
pointer movement indicates the surface irregularities.

When using a mechanical surface indicator, measurement

must be read as it is moved over the surface, and then a
profile curve is drawn manually to compute the mean value.

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Machining symbols
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• read the values of surface roughness
• interpret the surface roughness values.

Letter symbols for tolerances:

Indication of surface roughness values in table 1.

TABLE 1

Sl. No. Roughness value Roughness grade Roughness Manufacturing process

Ra in microns Number Symbol

1. 50 N12 ∼ Flame cutting, hacksaw cut, bandsaw

cut, shot blast etc.

2. 25.0 N11 ∇ Sand casting, planning, shaping

12.5 filling etc.

3. 6.3 N9 Milling, drilling, die casting, turning,

3.2 N8 ∇∇ forging, boring etc.
1.6 N7

4. 0.8 N6 Centreless grinding, cylindrical grinding,

0.4 N5 ∇∇∇ cold rolling, internal grinding, extrusion,
0.2 N4 surface grinding, broaching, hobbing
EDM, reaming etc.

5. 0.1 N3
0.05 N2 ∇∇∇∇ Super finishing, lapping honning etc.
0.025 N1

Surface symbol indication: 3 If the material removal is not permitted, a circle is added
to the basic symbol. (Fig 3)
1 The basic symbol consists of two legs of unequal length
inclined at approximately 60°. (Fig 1)

4 If some special characteristics have to be indicated, a

line is added to the larger leg. (Fig 4)
2 If the material removal by machining is required, a bar
is added to the basic symbol. (Fig 2)

44 Production : Turner (NSQF Level-5) : RT for Ex No. 3.2.96

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5 Indication of surface roughness: b Indicating the surface treatment or coating. Unless
otherwise stated, the numerical value of the
a Surface roughness obtained by any production roughness, applies to the surface roughness after
method. (Fig 5) treatment of coating.(Fig 9)

b Surface roughness obtained by removal of material c Indicating the sampling length.(Fig 10)
by matching. (Fig 6)

d Direction of lay, surface pattern by the production

c Surface roughness obtained by without of material method employed.(Fig 11)
removal. (Fig 7)

e Indication of allowance in mm.(Fig 12)

6 Indication of special surface roughness characteristics:
a Indicating the production method.(Fig 8)

Surface texture:(Fig 13)

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Lapping
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the purpose of lapping
• state the features of a flat lapping plate
• state the use of charging a flat lapping plate
• state the method of charging a cast iron plate
• explain between wet lapping and dry lapping.

Lapping is a precision finishing operation carried out using Lapping abrasives: Abrasives of different types are used
fine abrasive materials. for lapping.

Purpose: This process The commonly used abrasives are:

– improves geometrical accuracy – Silicon Carbide

– refines surface finish – Aluminium Oxide
– assists in achieving a high degree of dimensional – Boron Carbide and
accuracy
– Diamond
– improve the quality of fit between the mating
components. Silicon carbide: This is an extremely hard abrasive. Its
grit is sharp and brittle. While lapping, the sharp cutting
Lapping process: In the lapping process small amount of edges continuously break down exposing new cutting
material are removed by rubbing the work against a lap edges. Due to this reason this is considered as very ideal
charged with a lapping compound. (Fig 1) for lapping hardened steel and cast iron, particularly where
heavy stock removal is required.

Aluminium oxide: Aluminium oxide is sharp and tougher

than silicon carbide. Aluminium oxide is used in un-fused
and fused forms. Un-fused alumina (aluminium oxide)
removes stock effectively and is capable of obtaining high
quality finish.

Fused alumina is used for lapping soft steels and non-

ferrous metals.
Lap materials and lapping compounds
Boron carbide: This is an expensive abrasive material
The material used for making laps should be softer than the which is next to diamond in hardness. It has excellent
workpiece being lapped. This helps to charge the abrasives cutting properties. Because of the high cost, it is used only
on the lap. If the lap is harder than the workpiece, the in specialised application like dies and gauges.
workpiece will get charged with the abrasives and cut the
lap instead of the workpiece being lapped. Diamond: This being the hardest of all materials, it is used
for lapping tungsten carbide. Rotary diamond laps are also
Laps are usually made of: prepared for accurately finishing very small holes which
cannot be ground.
– close grained iron
Lapping vehicles: In the preparation of lapping compounds
– copper
the abrasive particles are suspended in vehicles. This
– brass or lead helps to prevent concentration of abrasives on the lapping
surfaces and regulates the cutting action and lubricates
The best material used for making lap is cast iron, but this the surfaces.
cannot be used for all applications.
The commonly used vehicles are
When there is excessive lapping allowance, copper and
brass laps are preferred as they can be charged more – water soluble cutting oils
easily and cut more rapidly than cast iron.
– vegetable oil
Lead is an inexpensive form of lap commonly used for – machine oils
holes. Lead is cast to the required size on steel arbor.
– petroleum jelly or grease
These laps can be expanded when they are worn out.
Charging the lap is much quicker. – vehicles with oil or grease base used for lapping ferrous
metals.
46 Production : Turner (NSQF Level-5) : RT for Ex No. 3.2.96
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Metals like copper and its alloys and other non-ferrous
Excessive application of the abrasive compound
metals are lapped using soluble oil, bentomite etc.
will result in the rolling action of the abrasive
between the work and the plate developing
In addition to the vehicles used in making the lapping
inaccuracies.
compound, solvents like water, kerosene, etc. are also
used at the time of lapping.
The surface of the flat lap should be finished true by
scraping before charging. After charging the plate, wash off
Abrasive of varying grain sizes from 50 to 800
all the loose abrasive using kerosene.
are used for lapping, depending on the surface
finish required on the component.
Then place the workpiece on the plate and move along and
across, covering the entire surface area of the plate. When
The lapping compound consists of fine abrasive particles
carrying out fine lapping, the surface should be kept moist
suspended in a ‘vehicle’ such as oil, paraffin, grease etc.
with the help of kerosene.
The lapping compound which is introduced between the
Wet and dry lapping : Lapping can be carried out either
workpiece and the lap chips away the material from the
wet or dry.
workpiece. Light pressure is applied when both are moved
against each other. The lapping can be carried out manually
In wet lapping there is surplus oil and abrasives on the
or by machine.
surface of the lap. As the workpiece, which is being lapped,
is moved on the lap, there is movement of the abrasive
Hand lapping of flat surfaces: Flat surfaces are hand-
particles also.
lapped using lapping plate made out of close grained cast
iron. (Fig.2) The surface of the plate should be in a true
In dry method the lap is first charged by rubbing the
plane for accurate results in lapping.
abrasives on the surface of the lap. The surplus oil and
abrasives are then washed off. The abrasives embedded on
the surface of the lap will only be remaining. The embedded
abrasives act like a fine oilstone when metal pins to be
lapped are moved over the surface with light pressure.
However, while lapping, the surface being lapped is kept
moistened with kerosene or petrol. Surfaces finished by
the dry method will have better finish and appearance.
Some prefer to do rough lapping by wet method and finish
by dry lapping.

Honing

The lapping plate generally used in tool rooms will have Honing is a finishing process, in which a tool called hone
narrow grooves cut on its surface both lengthwise and carries out a combined rotary and reciprocating motion
crosswise forming a series of squares. while the work piece does not perform any working motion.
Most honing is done on internal cylindrical surface, such as
While lapping, the lapping compound collects in the automobile cylindrical walls. The honing stones are held
serrations and rolls in and out as the work is moved. against the work piece with controlled light pressure. The
honing head is not guided externally but, instead, floats in
Before commencing lapping of the component, the cast the hole, being guided by the work surface (Fig.3) It is
iron plate should be CHARGED with abrasive particles. desired that

This is a process by which the abrasive particles are 1 Honing stones should not leave the work surface
embedded on to the surfaces of the laps which are
comparatively softer than the component being lapped. 2 Stroke length must cover the entire work length.
For charging the cast iron lap, apply a thin coating of the In honing rotary and oscillatory motions are combined to
abrasive compound over the surface of the lapping plate. produce a cross hatched lay pattern as illustrated in Fig.3.

Use a finished hard steel block and press the cutting

particles into the lap. While doing so, rubbing should be
kept to the minimum. When the entire surface of the
lapping plate is charged, the surface will have a uniform
gray appearance. If the surface is not fully charged, bright
spots will be visible here and there.

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 The critical process parameters are

1 Rotation speed
2 Oscillation speed
3 Length and position of the stroke
4 Honing stick pressure

With conventional abrasive stick, several strokes are

necessary to obtain the desired finish on the work piece.
However, with introduction of high performance diamond
and CBN grits it is now possible to perform the honing
operation in just one complete stroke. Advent of precisely
engineered microcrystalline CBN grit has enhanced the
capability further. Honing stick with microcrystalline CBN
grit can maintain sharp cutting condition with consistent
results over long duration.

Super abrasive honing stick with monolayer configuration,

where a layer of CBN grits are attached to stick by a
galvanically deposited metal layer, is typically found in
single stroke honing application.
Honing tool With the advent of precision brazing technique, efforts can
be made to manufacture honing stick with single layer
Lay pattern produced by combination of rotary and oscillatory configuration with a brazed metal bond. Like brazed
motion. (Fig.4) grinding wheel such single layer brazed honing stick are
expected to provide controlled grit density, larger grit
protrusion leading to higher material removal rate and
longer life compared to what can be obtained with a
galvanically bonded counterpart.

The important parameters that affect material removal rate

(MRR) and surface roughness (R) are:

1 Unit pressure, P
2 Peripheral honing speed, Vc
3 Honing time, T
The honing stones are given a complex motion so as to
prevent every single grit from repeating its path over the
work surface.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.97
Turner - Turning with lathe attachments

Preventive maintenance - its necessity

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the need for preventive maintenance
• describe the functions of the P M department
• state the advantages of P M
• state the advantages of maintenance records and periodic inspection of machines.

The machine tools are of high precision, and are sensitive P.M. helps in prolonging the life of the machines and
and expensive. reduction in un-expected breakdowns.

They must be handled and maintained carefully in order to Functions of preventive maintenance department
give good and long service.
Periodic inspection of machines and equipments as per
The basic function of the maintenance department is the
upkeep of the machines and equipments in good operating the ‘Check- lists’. (Annexure I)
condition.
Lubrication of machines and equipments as per the
Earlier the maintenance of the equipment used to receive manufcaturer’s instruction manuals.
attention only when the equipment suffered some set-back
or breakdown as a result of some minor/major fault. Such Servicing and overhauling of machine and equipment as
breakdowns not only brought a serious production hold- per the P M schedule.
up but also used to upset the production flow of the industry
where the other equipment also had to stand idle. This Keeping basic records of each machine and equipment.
resulted in a more cautious approach to the maintenance (Annexure II)
of the equipment and this brought up the more scientific
way of tackling the maintenance problem, through Analysis of inspection reports and systematic review of
preventive maintenance.(P M ) reports of machines and equipments.

Preventive maintenance Periodic inspection of machines and equipments as

per the check-list
Preventive maintenance consists of a few engineering
activities which help to maintain the machine tools in good The check-list itemizes for the inspector all the points to
working order. be checked on individual machines. While preparing the
check-list of the machine, make sure that no machine
The basic activities of preventive maintenance are the: part or item that is omitted needs attention. The inspection
of machine tools like lathe and drilling machine includes
- periodic inspection of machines and equipments to the following.
uncover conditions leading to production breakdowns
or harmful depreciation
-
Driving system and feeding system
- Lubricating and coolant system
- upkeep of machines and equipments to avoid such
conditions or to adjust, repair or replace them while - Slides and wedges and gibs
they are still in the initial stages. - Belts, bearings, clutch, brake and operating controls
Advantages of preventive maintenance system - Guideways, lead screws and their mating parts

Less down time in production. After inspection of each machine, the inspector has to
make out the list of parts which need repairs or spares for
Improves quantity and quality of product. replacement.

Standby equipment is not needed which saves capital Frequency of inspection

investment.
The frequency of inspection depends on the age, kind of
Lower unit cost of manufacture. machine and its operating conditions. Frequent inspection
of machines and equipment may be expensive and
Reduces major and repetitive repairs of machines. frequency with long intervals may result in more
breakdowns. A good balance is needed to bring optimum
savings.
49
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Frequency of Lubrication Maintenance records (Annexure III)

The length of time a machine will retain its accuracy and Keep a detailed record of faults, failures, repairs and
give satisfactory service depends on the lubrication and replacements done for machines. It is useful to analyse
care it receives. It is essential that lubrication of machines the cause of a fault and rectification.
should be carried out systematically at regular intervals
as recommended in the service manual supplied by the Maintenance records analysis
machine manufacturer.
Systematic review and regular analysis of the equipment
The manufacturer’s manual contains all the necessary records will help to:
details like grade of oil, grease, oiling and greasing points
and also indicates the time intervals of lubrication. - re-design the weak part which gives repetitive trouble
- substitute with better material for high cost items
- minimise frequent breakdowns
- reduce the cost of production.

Preventive Maintenance Programme

Annexure - I
Name of the Machine : Location of the machine :
Machine Number :
Model No. & Make :

Check-list for machine inspection

Inspect the following items and tick in the appropriate column and list the remedial measures for the defective
items.

Items to be checked Good working/satisfactory Defective Remedial measures

Level of the machine

Belt and its tension

Bearing sound

Driving clutch and brake

Exposed gears

Working in all the speeds

Working in all feeds

Lubrication system

Coolant system

Carriage & its travel

Cross-slide & its movement

Compound slide & its travel

Tailstock’s parrallel movement

Electrical controls

Safety gaurds
50 Production : Turner (NSQF Level-5) : RT for Ex No. 3.2.97
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Inspected by

Signature

Name:
Date: Signature of in-charge

Equipment record Annexure - I

History sheet of machinery & equipment

Description of equipment:

Manufacturers’ address:

Supplier’s address:

Order No. and date:

Date on which received:

Date on which installed and placed:

Date of commissioning:

Size: Length X Width X Height

Weight:

Cost:

Motor particulars: Watts: r.p.m: Phase: Volts

Bearings/Spares record:

Belt specification:

Lubrication details:

Major repairs and overhauls

carried out with dates.

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 Annexure III

Maintenance Records

Sl.No Name of the machine Nature of fault rectified Date Signature of in-charge

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Documentations - 1
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• describe work organisation
• name the aspects of organisation of work
• state the common technical terms used in industry.

Total productive maintenance • Avoid wastage in a quickly changing economic

environment.
Designed to eliminate all nonstandard, non-planned
• Producing goods without reducing product quality.
maintenance with the goal of eliminating unscheduled
disruptions, simplifying (de-skilling) maintenance • Reduce cost.
procedures and reducing the need for "just-in-case"
• Produce a low batch quantity at the earliest possible
maintenance employees.
time.
Total quality management • Goods send to the customers must be non defective.

This is aimed towards zero defect or elimination of poor Similarities and differences between TQM and TPM:
quality in production. The quality concept of assuming the
best quality from inception to implementation throughout The TPM progran closely resembles the popular total
the production process. quality management (TQM) program. Many of the tools
such as employee empowerment, benchmarking,
An introduction to tatal productive maintenance (TPM) documentation, erc. used in TQM are used to implement
and optimize TPM. Following are the similarities between
What is total productive maintenenace (TPM)? the two.

It can be considered as the medical science of machines. 1 Total commitment to the program by upper level
Total productive maintenance (TPM) is a mainteneace mangament is required in both programmes.
prgram which invloves a newly defiened concept for
2 Employees must be empowered to initiate corrective
maintaining plants and equipment. The goal of the TPM
action, and
program is to markedly increase production while, at the
same time, increasing employee and unscheduled 3 A long range outlook must be accepted as TPM may
maintenance to a minimum. take a year or more to implement and is an on-going
process. Changes in employee mind-set toward their
Why TPM? job responsibilities must take place as well.

TPM was introduced to achieve the following objectives. The differences between TQM and TPM is summarized
The important ones are listed below. below

Category TQM TPM

Object Quallity (Output and effects) Equipment (Input and cause)

Mains of attaining goal Systenatize the management. It is Employees participation and it is

software oriented hardware oriented

Target Quality for PPM Elimination of losses and wastes.

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Types of maintenance :

1 Breakdown maintenance :

An Introduction to Tatal Productive Maintenance (TPM)

Increase the suggestions by 3 times. Develop Multi-skilled and flexible workers

Motives of TPM 1 Adoptation of life cycle approach for imporving the overall performance of prodiction
equipment.
2 Improving productivity by highly motivatd workers which is achieved by job enlargement.
3 The use of voluntary small group activities for identifying the cause of failure, possible
plant and equipment modifications.

Uniqueness of TPM The major difference between TPM and other concepts is that the operators are also
made to involve in the maintenance process. The concept of “/ production operators)
Operate, You (Maintenance department) fix” is not followed.

TPM Objectives 1 Achieve Zero Defects, Zero Breakdown and Zero accidents in all functional areas of
the organization.
2 Involve people in all levels of organization.
3 Form different teams to reduce defects and Self Maintenance.

Direct benefits of TPM 1 Increase productivity and OPE (Overall Plant Efficiency ) by 1.5 or 2 times.
2 Rectify customer complaints.
3 Reduce tge manufacturing cost by 30%.
4 Satisfy the customers needs by 00% (Delivering the right quantity at the right time,
in the required quality.)
5 Reduce accidents.
6 Follow pollution control measures.

Indirect benefits of TPM 1 Higher confidence level among the employees.

2 Keep the work place clean, neat and attractive.
3 Favorablechange in the attitude of the operators.
4 Achieve goals by working as team.
5 Horizontaldeployment of a new concept in all areas of the organization.
6 Share knowledge and experience.
7 The workers get a feeling of owning the machine.

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 T.P.M. PLANT WIDE STRUCTURE

TPM
T.P.M. Office Responsible
Plant Manager

Autonomous Planned Individual

5’s
Maintenance Maintenance Improvement

Early Training
Quality Equipment Safety People
Maintenance Management Development

An Introduction to Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)

PILLARS OF TPM
AUTONOMOUS MAINTENANCE

PLANNED MAINTENANCE

QUALITY MAINTENANCE

SAFETY, HEALTH AND

KOBETSU KAIZEN

ENVIRONMENT
JISHU HOZEN

OFFICE TPM
TRAINING

5S

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Pillar 1 - 5S :

TPM starts with 5S, Problems cannot be clearly seen when

the work place is unorganized. Cleaning and organising the
workplace helps the team to uncover problems. Making
problems visible is the first step of improvement.

Japanese Term English Translation Equivalent ‘S’ term

Seiri Organisation Sort

Seiton Tidiness Systematise

Seiso Cleaning Sweep

Seiketsu Standardisation Standardise

Shitsuke Discipline Self - Discipline

P Q C D S M in Office TPM : A committee is constituted for this pillar which comprises

representative of officers as well as workers. The committee
P - Production output lost due to want of material, Manpower is headed by Senior vice president (Technical). Utmost
productivity, Production output lost due to want of tools. importance to safety is given in the plant. Manager (Safety)
is looking after functions releated to safety. To create
Q - Mistakes in preparation of cheques, bills, invoices, awareness among employees various competitions like
payroll, Customer returns/warranty attributable to BOPs, safety slogans, Quiz, Drama, POsters, etc. related to
Rejection/rework in BOP’s/job work, Office area rework. safety can be organized at regular intervals.

C - Buying cost/unit produced, Cost of logistics - inbound/ Conclusion:

outbound, Cost of carrying inventory, Cost of
communication, Demurrage costs. Today, with competition in industry at an all time high, TPM
may be the only thing that stands between success and
D - Logistics losses (Delay in loading/unloading) total failure for some companies. It has been provel to bea
program that works. It can be adapted to work not only in
• Delay in delivery due to any of the support functions. industrial plants, but in construction, building maintenenace,
• Delay in payments to suppliers. transportation, and in a variety of other situations.
Employees must be educated and convinced that TPM is
• Delay in information. not just an another “program of the month” and that
mangement is totally committed to the program and the
S - Safety in material handling/stores/logistics, Sagety of extended time frame necessary for full implementation. If
soft and hard data. everyone involved in a TPM program does his or her part,
an unusually high rate of return compared to resources
M - Number of kaizens in office areas. invested may be expected.
Target : Environment health safety

1 Zero accident,
2 Zero health damage
3 Zero fires

In this area focus is on to create a safe workplace and a

surrounding area that is not damaged by our process or
procedures. THis pillar will play an active role in each of the
other pillars on a regular basis.

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Marking off and marking table
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• why marking off is necessary
• the function of witness marks
• the features of marking tables
• the uses of marking tables
• the maintenance aspects concerning marking tables.

Marking off

Marking off or layout is carried out to indicate the locations

of operation to be done, and provide guidance during rough
machining or filing.

Witness marks

The line marked on metal surfaces is likely to be erased

due to handling. To avoid this, permanent marks are made A marking table is very precise as an
by placing punch marks at convenient intervals along the
equipment, and should be protected from
marked line. Punch marks act as a witness against
inaccuracies in machining and hence, they are known as damage and rust.
witness marks. After use, the marking table should be cleaned
with a soft cloth.
Marking table (Figs 1 and 2) The surface of the marking table, made of cast
A marking table (marking-off table) is used as a reference iron, should be protected by applying a thin
surface for marking on workpieces. layer of oil.

Marking tables are of a rigid construction with accurately- Indicator reads twice the reading of ‘E’. The difference in
finished top surfaces. The edges are also finished at right the maximum and minimum readings of the dial test
angles to the top surface. indicator is called ‘throw’ (i.e.) throw = 2 E. (Fig 2)

Marking tables are made of cast iron or granite, and are

available in various sizes. These tables are also used for
setting measuring instruments, and for checking sizes,
parallelism and angles.

Eccentric turning
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• distinguish between eccentric turning and concentric turning
• identify the eccentricity of a turned job
• state the methods of turning eccentric jobs
• state the uses of eccentric turned jobs.

Method of identifying eccentricity Fig 3 shows the method of using the dial test indicator for
testing the trueness. If the diameters are eccentric, the
The eccentricity of a turned job is tested with the help of a dial test indicator gives different readings which amount to
dial test indicator. It is possible to test the offset of the ‘2E’. Thus, eccentricity ‘E’ may be obtained from the two
turned job when the job is being held on a 4 jaw chuck. readings. (Fig 3)

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 Uses of eccentric turned jobs
The other method of testing eccentricity is using a ‘V’
Block and a dial test indicator. In this method, one of the Eccentric turned jobs are largely used in automobile in-
diameters of the eccentric turning is supported in the ‘V’ dustry to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion.
block and the reading of the other diameter is obtained An eccentric-turned job is used in crankshafts. It is used
with the help of the dial test indicator. The difference in in power press, guillotine machines, and press brakes. It
the readings gives the throw ‘2E’. Thus eccentricity ‘E’ is also generally used in automatic controls.
may be determined by this method.
Concentricity
Method of eccentric turning
When different diameters are turned in the same axis, it is
External eccentric turning as well as internal eccentric said to be concentric turning. Figure 1 shows the two
boring may be accurately carried out on a centre lathe. diameters A & B lie on the same axis having the same
The figure shows the external eccentric and internal centre of rotation. If such jobs are tested with a dial test
eccentric jobs. indicator and ‘V’ Block, the dial test indicator shows a
constant reading.
It is possible to turn the eccentric turning with the help of
a 4 jaw chuck as well as using a lathe carrier and centres,
holding the work between centres.

When a 4 jaw chuck is used, a guide circle of the eccentric

axis is essential for truing the eccentric axis. This
requirement may be met by the marking process prior to
the eccentric turning. With the help of this circle, the
‘Offset’ may be easily made by using a surface gauge.
Thus the eccentric axis is located for external eccentric
turning and eccentric boring. (Fig 4)
Eccentricity
Eccentric turning by using a lathe carrier and centres is
When different diameters are turned on different axes, it is
done with the help of accurate marking. Before using
said to be eccentric turning. The figure shows that the
these accessories, the ‘offset’ has to be marked with the
diameters A & B lie on different centres and have a different
help of marking tools. Both the concentric and the offset
centre of rotations. The distance E between the centre of
centres have to be centre-drilled. By using these centre
rotation is the amount of ‘offset’ or ‘eccentricity’. If the
holes, it is possible to turn eccentric turning on the job.
diameter ‘A’ is tested with the dial test indicator by
supporting the diameter ‘B’ in the ‘V’ Block, the dial test
indicator reads twice the reading of ‘E’. The difference in
the maximum and minimum readings of the dial test
indicator is called ‘throw’ (i.e.) throw = 2 E. (Fig 1)

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.98
Turner - Turning with lathe attachments
Roller and revolving steadies - necessity - construction - uses
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state what is a steady rest
• identify and name the various types of steady rests
• state the uses of a steady rest
• identify the cat head and its use.

Steady rest uses

A steady rest is a lathe accessory used to give extra

support for a long slender workpiece in addition to the
centre support during turning.

The most common types of steady rests are:

- fixed steady rest

- follower steady rest (travelling steady).

Fixed steady rest (Fig 1)

The three adjustable pads can be moved radially in or out

by means of adjusting screws. The three pads are ad-
justed on a trued cylindrical face of the workpiece.

Follower steady rest (Fig 3)

A follower steady is fixed to the saddle of the lathe. As it

follows the tool, it gives support where cutting actually
takes place. In the follower steady, the support is continu-
ous to the entire length of cutting.

The figure shows the parts of a fixed steady rest.

A fixed steady rest is fixed to the lathe bed and it is sta-

tionary. It gives support at one fixed place only.

It consists of a frame containing three adjustable pads.

The base of the frame is machined to suit the inside ways

of the lathe bed. The top portion is hinged at the back to
permit the top to be lifted or assembled to the bottom half
for allowing the work to be mounted or removed. A fixed
steady can be clamped at any desired position on the
lathe bed by the base clamping screw. (Fig 2)

59
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The follower steady rest has usually two pads. One pad is
located opposite to the cutting tool and the other pad bears
the top of the workpiece to prevent it from springing up.
The figure shows a travelling steady rest in action .(Fig 4)

Cat head

If the job shape is not round or where we cannot turn a

true cylindrical surface on the job, it is not possible to
support the job, by a fixed steady rest. For these types of
jobs, a device called cat head is fixed on the workpiece.

The cat head is a type of bush. Its external surface is

round. Fig 5 shows a cat head. The middle portion is
cylindrical and free to rotate. The two ends have the
adjusting screws for holding and centering the work. After
centering the work the fixed steady is positioned, and pads Roller steady (Fig 8)
are adjusted to hold the cat head’s centre portion. When
the lathe is running the work revolves along with the ends This steady is similar to fixed steady. It is used to support
of the cat head whereas the centre portion is stationary. long thin and thick rods. Difference is that it has wheels is
(Fig 6) Another type of cat head, shown in Fig 7, is a place of three jaws where the job is set between the centres.
single piece and it rotates along with the job. This steady gives support to work and is easy to rotate
due to rollers.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.99
Turner - Turning with lathe attachments

Different types of attachments used in lathe

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the various operations performed in a centre lathe using different attachments
• state the features of the taper turing, milling and grinding attachments.

Taper turning attachment Milling attachment

Many modern lathes have a taper bar fitted at the back of This attachment is fitted on to the cross-slide of a lathe
the bed. This can be set to different angles to the in the place of the compound rest. Two types of milling
spindle axis. The bar carries a sliding block which, attachments are illustrated in Figures 2 & 3. The
during taper turning, is attached by a link to the back of attachment shown in Fig 2 holds the job at right angles to
the cross-slide, as shown in Fig 1. The lead screw of the milling cutter,which is mounted in the chuck or collet.
the cross-slide is released so that it no longer controls In the other type of attachment , the workpiece is held
the setting of the depth of cut and the slide is now free. between centres. The milling cutter and the indexing
When the saddle is moved along the bed, the cross-slide head are mounted on the compound rest. It is provided
follows the taper bar, so that the tool moves parallel to with a driving unit. Both these attachments have
the bar and a taper is produced. The top slide is provisions to feed in all the three directions, and it is,
swung through 90° to lie at right angles to the work so therefore, possible to perform operations like keyway
that it can be used to apply the depth of cut. cutting, angular milling, Tee slot cutting, and thread milling
etc.
The length of the taper bar enables accurate settings to
be carried out, with the help of the degree scale with an
angle vernier incorporated. The taper is produced by
the movement of the saddle under power feed, giving
improved and controllable surface finish and a long taper
is possible. It is, however, limited to the half-included
angle of the taper of about 15° (30° included angle).

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Grinding attachment Grinding hardened steel parts

With the help of a good electric grinding attachment Hardened steel parts should be carefully ground in order
the lathe can be used for re-sharpening reamers and to produce a smooth, accurate finish. The part
milling cutters, grinding hardened bushings and shafts, should be machined to within a few microns of the
and many other grinding operations. finished size before it is hardened. After hardening, all
the scales should be removed before grinding.
The V bed ways of the lathe bed should be covered with
a heavy cloth or canvas to protect them from dust and Remove only a few microns for every pass of the
grit from the grinding wheel, and the lathe spindle grinding wheel. If the part is ground too fast it may
bearings should also be protected. A small pan of become overheated and warp, or the temper may be
water or oil placed just below the grinding wheel will collect drawn.
most of the grit.
Longer parts, such as, shafts, bolts, spindles, etc.
A large, powerful grinder is most satisfactory for external are machined by longitudinal grinding. The workpieces
grinding. The wheel should be atleast 100mm in diameter are clamped between the centres. (Fig 6)
and the grinder should be mounted directly on the
compound rest of the lathe, as shown in Fig 4.

In addition to the proper selection of a grinding

wheel, the following has to be observed for economical
grinding; cutting speed of the grinding wheel, circumfer-
To obtain a good finish, the grinding wheel must be
ential speed of the workpiece, feed, depth of cut for each
balanced and must be dressed with a diamond dresser.
pause, and coolant. (Fig 7)
The grinding wheel must be dressed to keep it true and
free from particles of metal which become embedded in
the periphery of the wheel.

The diamond dresser consists of a small industrial

diamond mounted in a steel shank, as shown in Fig 5.
The dresser must be rigidly supported in a fixture for
truing the grinding wheel.

The diamond point of the dresser should be placed on

the centre, or slightly below centre and the revolving
grinding wheel passed across the diamond. Remove
about 0.02mm from the wheel for each cut and dress the
wheel till it runs true.

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Selection of grinding wheel The r.p.m. can be calculated or can be selected from a
table.
Straight grinding wheels are used for grinding shafts. As
a rule, soft wheels are more economical than hard Circumferential speed and r.p.m. of the workpiece
ones. Soft wheels remain sharp and cut more in spite of
faster wear. The circumferential speed is designated in m/min. It
affects the quality of grinding; if it is low, the cut will be
Sharpening reamers and cutters fine, if it is too high the cut will be coarse.

Reamers and milling cutters may be sharpened by grind- Calculation of the r.p.m.
ing in the lathe. Some reamers are first cylindrically
ground, then relieved by grinding with a tooth rest set V = circumferential speed of the workpiece in m/min.
slightly below centre, as shown in Fig 8 leaving a
d = diameter of the workpiece in mm.
land 0.05mm to 0.125mm wide. Other reamers and
most milling cutters are ground with about 2° relief. N = r.p.m. of the workpiece per min.

r.p.m. of the work piece =

Example
A shaft of St 50 with a diameter of 50 mm can be
ground. N is to be calculated.
Result : V = 15m/min. as per table.

= 239 r.p.m.

Cutting speed and r.p.m. of the grinding wheel The depth of cut for roughing may be 0.01 to
0.03 mm and for finishing 0.0025 to 0.005 mm.
The higher the cutting speed, the faster is the grind-
ing work. The recommended speeds must, therefore,
be followed. Higher speeds than the recommended ones
are also to be avoided, because the wheels clog, and
do not grind any more. The workpiece overheats and
the surface becomes inaccurate. In addition, there is
also the danger of accidents.

Special attachments used in centre lathe

Objective: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state various operations performed in a centre lathe using the gear cutting, spherical cutting and relieving
attachment.

Gear cutting on centre lathe

The gear cutting attachment mounted on the lathe will

cut spur and bevel gears. It may also be possible to do
linear indexing, external keyway cutting, splining, slotting
and all regular dividing head light milling works.

This attachment is very useful for cutting small gears

and work involving light machining. (Fig 1)

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Spherical turning attachment Relieving mechanism

This attachment is mounted on the cross-slide, and The mechanism for relieving a gear cutter is shown in
operates by a hand wheel rotating the top slide and tool Fig 5. A relieving shaft, driven from the headstock,
through a worm and worm wheel. The turning tool is drives a cross-shaft which turns the cam located in the
set by using slip gauges between the tool and a test cross-slide. The relieving slide carries the tool and is
bar fitted.(Fig 2) mounted on the cross-slide. A projecting follower
engages the cam and is spring-loaded. The rotation of
the cam is timed according to the number of teeth in the
cutter. The tool advancement is controlled by the cam
profile. The tool produces the spiral form on the tooth
periphery. When the tool reaches the end of its travel, it
is returned to its starting position by the spring and the
cycle is repeated.

The relieving shaft with its driving mechanism connect-

ed to the standard change wheels provides for dealing
with cutters up to a maximum of 20 teeth.

The use of the lead screw is necessary when hobs are

being relieved.

Relieving attachment

Figure 3 shows a form relieved milling cutter and Fig 4

exhibits the relieved portion in a cutter tooth.

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Copying attachment
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• identify the parts of a copying attachment
• state the function of the copying attachment
• state the uses of the copying attachment.

Parts of the copying attachment (Fig 1)

1 Rear tool slide 2 Master profile

3 Adjustable master head centre 4 Stylus
5 Fixed master head centre 6 Workpiece
7 Headstock drive centre 8 Running centre
9 Control lever for hydraulic slide

The functions of the copying attachment

The copying attachment is generally fixed to certain stand-

ard centre lathes. This attachment works on the hydraulic
system. Copying lathes are used to produce a
particular type of jobs in large quantity.

The job is held on a chuck or between chuck and centre

or in between centres. A masterpiece of the job to be
produced is held separately parallel to the job axis. The Uses of the copying attachment.
cutting tool used for turning the job is connected to a
stylus (tracer) which is switched on and the automatic – The attachment is used for form turning.
feed is engaged when the stylus will move from the tail
– It is used to produce a large number of duplicating
join stock to the headstock with an upward pressure.
parts.
Since the stylus is in contact with the outer surface of
the master piece, the movement of the stylus is guided – It is useful in production shops.
by the shape of the masterpiece. Hence, similar pieces
can be produced in large quantities with the help of the
copying attachment.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.2.100
Turner - Turning with lathe attachments
Various procedures of thread measurements
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the important elements of a thread to be considered while measuring/checking threads
• state the function of a screw pitch gauge
• identify the different types of thread gauges
• state the features checked by the ‘Go’ side of the screw plug gauge
• knowledge about screw thread micrometer and microscope.

The selection of measuring instruments used for checking - Major diameter

the threads depends very much on the accuracy
- Minor diameter/root diameter
requirement and the feature of the thread to be checked.
- Pitch
The accuracy requirement varies from a bolt used in
- Effective diameter
structural work to threads of a fine measuring
instrument. (Figs 1a and 1b) - Thread angle
- Form of root and crest

The above elements contribute to the strength and

interchangeability of the threads.

The most important elements to be checked are:

- the pitch of the thread

- the angle and
- the effective diameter.

Screw pitch gauge (Fig 3)

The surface of a screw has a complex shape. The

following elements (Fig 2) of a screw thread are to be
considered in thread measurement This gauge is mainly used to check the pitch of external
and internal threads. (Figs 4 & 5)

This consists of a number of blades with accurate

notches made to the profile and pitch of the thread.

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 The effective diameter(D2)

The minor diameter (D1)

The decision about the correctness of the pitch is taken

by comparing them by placing the appropriate blade on
the screw. Each blade has an indication about the size of
the screw and the pitch.
Thread ring gauge (Fig 8)
Example
This is used to check the external thread for its accu-
Thread gauges M20 x 1.75 mm. (Fig 6a) racy. ‘Go’, ‘No Go’ gauges are used to check whether
the thread is within tolerance.

Screw thread caliper gauge

This is used for checking external threads. This gauge

is a highly efficient type. This finds greater usage than
the ring gauge for checking external threads. In this,
the external threads are gauged with a caliper type
gauge with two sets of anvils (Fig 9) representing the
‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ conditions.

The screw thread plug gauge is used to check the

internal thread. (Fig 6b) It checks whether a thread
dimension is within its tolerance. The ‘Go’ side of the
gauge checks the following. (Fig 7)

The profile angle (b)

The pitch (P)

The major diameter (D)

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The ‘Go’ anvils have full thread form (Fig 10) and are The caliper gauge with roller type anvils
set to ensure no element of the thread is oversize. The
‘No Go’ anvils have truncated thread form (Fig 11) to This is another type of thread gauge. (Fig 12) The
ensure that the contact is made only on the flanks of ‘Go’ rollers have a full form of thread while the ‘No Go’
the thread and checks that the effective diameter of the rollers are truncated.
workpiece thread is not undersize. The gauges are ad-
justable and are set by means of master setting plugs.
The gauges can be used for right or left hand threads.

Thread measurement (effective diameter)

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the features of a screw thread micrometer
• state the features of the three-wire system of measurement with the help of tables
• select the best wire with the help of tables for using in the three-wire method.
The screw thread micrometer

This micrometer (Fig 1) is used to measure the effective

diameter of the screw threads. This is very similar to the
ordinary micrometer in construction but has facilities
to change the anvils.

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The anvils are replaceable and are changed according to The measuring wires are fitted in wire-holders which are
the profile and pitch of the different systems of threads. supplied in pairs. One holder has provisions to fix one
(Figs 2 & 3) wire and the other for two wires. (Fig 5)

While measuring the screw thread, the holder with

one wire is placed on the spindle of the micrometer and
the other holder with two wires is fixed on the fixed anvil.
(Fig 6)

The three-wire method

This method uses three wires of the same diameter for

checking the effective diameter and the flank form.
The wires are finished with a high degree of accuracy.

The size of the wires used depends on the pitch of Selection of ‘best wire’ (Fig 7)
the thread to be measured.
The best wire is the one which, when placed in the
For measuring the effective diameter the three wires thread groove, will make contact at the nearest to the
suitable for the thread pitch are placed between the effective diameter. The selection of the wire is based on
threads. (Fig 4) the type of thread and pitch to be measured.

The selection of the wire can be calculated and deter-

mined but readymade charts are available from which
the selection can be made. (Table 1 to 4).

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 Table 1 Table 2
Measurement with measuring wires. Metric
Measurement with measuring wires. Metric threads with fine pitch (M)
threads with coarse pitch (M)

Thread Basic Measuring Dimension

Thread Pitch Basic Measuring Dimension
designa- measure- wire dia. over wire
designa- measu- wire dia. over wire
tion ment mean
tion rement mean
P d2 W1 M1 d2 W1 M1
mm mm mm mm mm mm mm

M1 0.25 0.838 0.15 1.072 M 1 x 0.2 0.870 0.12 1.057

M 1.2 0.25 1.038 0.15 1.272 M 1.2 x 0.2 1.070 0.12 1.257
M 1.4 0.3 1.205 0.17 1.456 M 1.6 x 0.2 1.470 0.12 1.557

M 1.6 0.35 1.373 0.2 1.671 M 2 x 0.25 1.838 0.15 2.072

M 1.8 0.35 1.573 0.2 1.870 M 2.5 x 0.35 2.273 0.2 2.570
M2 0.4 1.740 0.22 2.055 M 3 x 0.35 2.773 0.2 3.070

M 2.2 0.45 1.908 0.25 2.270 M 4 x 0.5 3.675 0.3 4.142

M 2.5 0.45 2.208 0.25 2.569 M 5 x 0.5 4.675 0.3 5.142
M3 0.5 2.675 0.3 3.143 M 6 x 0.75 5.513 0.45 6.214

M 3.5 0.6 3.110 0.35 3.642 M 8 x1 7.350 0.6 8.285

M4 0.7 3.545 0.4 4.140 M 10 x 1.25 9.188 0.7 10.207
M 4.5 0.75 4.013 0.45 4.715 M 12 x 1.25 11.188 0.7 12.206

M5 0.8 4.480 0.45 5.139 M 14 x 1.5 13.026 0.85 14.278

M6 1 5.350 0.6 6.285 M 16 x 1.5 13.026 0.85 14.278
M8 1.25 7.188 0.7 8.207 M 18 x 1.5 17.026 0.85 18.277

M 10 1.5 9.026 0.85 10.279 M 20 x 1.5 19.026 0.85 20.277

M 12 1.75 10.863 1.0 12.350 M 22 x 1.5 21.026 0.85 22.277
M 14 2 12.701 1.15 14.421 M 24 x2 22.701 1.15 24.420
M 27 x2 25.701 1.15 27.420
M 16 2 14.701 1.15 16.420
M 30 x2 28.701 1.15 30.419
M 18 2.5 16.376 1.45 18.564
M 20 2.5 18.376 1.45 20.563
M 22 2.5 20.376 1.45 22.563
M 24 3 22.051 1.75 24.706
M 27 3 25.051 1.75 27.705

M 30 3.5 27.727 2.05 30.848

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Thread measurement (minor diameter)
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• name the different methods used for checking the minor diameter of external threads
• name the methods of measuring the minor diameter of internal threads
• state the features of the methods adopted for measuring the minor diameters of the internal threads.

The measurement of the minor diameter and checking

the form of the thread are important for producing accu-
rate threads.

Checking the thread minor diameter

Use of the vernier caliper

The knife edge of a vernier caliper can be used for

measuring the minor diameter - within a reasonable
degree of accuracy. (Fig 1)

Checking with the micrometer

Selection of the size of the prism is very important for
Two methods are adopted using the micrometers, accurate measurement.

- Using a Vee piece/prism and ordinary micrometer. The sizes of the prisms are indicated by A, B, C and D.
- Using special micrometers with pointed anvils.
Table 1 will help in determining the correct size of the
Using Vee piece/prism prism for the different types and pitches of the
threads.
In this method the minor diameter is determined by
using a Vee piece/prism of known dimensions from For determining the minor diameter, first measure the
the apex to the base. (Fig 2) The measurement is taken major diameter of the threaded piece.
over the work and the Vee piece. (Figs 3 and 4)
Then measure by placing one prism in the thread as
shown in Fig 4. It may be noted that one of the anvils
of the micrometer is on the prism and the other on the
major diameter of the thread.

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 Table 1 Direct accurate measurement of internal minor diameter
is a difficult task.
Thread form
Prism The commonly used methods are by using slip gauges
designa- Metric Unified BSW BA and precision rollers (Figs 7 & 8) and taper parallels and
ting size pitch threads/ No. micrometer. (Fig 9)
in mm inch
A 1.0-1.25 56-44 9-16
B 1.5-2.25 40-28 3-8
C 2.5-4.5 26-14 0-2
D 5.0-6.0 12-4

This will help to determine the core diameter of the thread.

The core diameter = Measurement over the prism – height
of the prism – single depth of the thread.

Using special micrometers

Using slip gauges and precision rollers
A special micrometer which can accommodate specially
shaped anvils is used for this. This directly measures While using slip gauges and precision rollers of
the minor diameter. It is important to ensure that the known diameter, the rollers are first placed diametrically
micrometer is placed perpendicular to the axis of the opposite the bore. (Fig 8)
thread being measured (Fig 5) for accurate
measurement.

Measuring minor diameter of internal threads

The knife edge of a vernier caliper can be used to

measure the minor diameter of an internal thread. Then the slip gauge pack is selected until it just
This cannot be adopted when very accurate measurements slides between the rollers.
are to be taken. (Fig 6)
The sum of the size of the slip gauge pack and the
diameters of the rollers is the minor diameter.

Using taper parallels

Precision tapered parallels can be inserted as shown in

Fig 9 and the measurement can be taken using a
micrometer.

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Screw thread measurement (flank angle and form)
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the method of checking the flank angle and form of the external threads
• state the method of checking the form and features of the internal threads.

The measurement of the flank angle and form of the

threads is carried out using the optical projection method.

The profile of the external screw thread is projected on

the screen (Fig 1) in a magnified form. The angle of the
image can be measured using the screen with a
protractor. The screen line and the flank image are accu-
rately aligned and the angles are measured. (Fig 2)

The form of the thread can be compared against the

projected image of the template (Fig 3) on the optical
projector screen.

Checking flank angle and form of an internal thread

A method adopted for checking the flank angle and form

of the thread is by preparing a cast form of the thread and
comparing the cast using an optical projector.

Dental wax or superfine plaster of paris can be used

for preparing the cast mould.

For preparing the cast form, the specimen is first cleaned

and then a thin film of oil is applied on the thread.

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Both ends are then blocked with metal pieces using
clamps. (Fig 4)

The plaster which is mixed to a thin cream

consistency is poured in the prepared thread cavity
(Fig 5).

After the plaster is set the metal strips are removed

and the cast taken out carefully.

The form of the thread thus obtained (Fig 6) is checked

using an optical profile projector.

Microscope

For thread measuring inspection generally tool maker’s

microscope is used, with attachments of thread inlays.
This instrument can read upto an accuracy of 10 microns.
In Fig 7 indicates the elements of microscope used for
thread inspection.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.101
Turner - Boring

Toolmaker’s button and its parts

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the construction of a toolmaker’s button
• state the use of toolmaker’s button
• state the method of boring accurately with reference to a datum.

Tools marker’s button uses In the component shown here, a hole of Ø 37 mm is to be

bored to a positional tolerance of 0.003 mm. The following
The toolmaker’s button is used for producing a bore to a procedure is to be followed.
high degree of positional accuracy with reference to both
the axes i.e. with reference to the two edges of the Procedure
workpiece.
Mark out the hole centre position with a height gauge.
Construction: Tool makers’s button consists of a hardened (Fig 3)
cylindrical ends, a washer, screw as shown in Fig 1.

A toolmaker’s button (Fig 1) is a hardened and ground

cylinder made of steel of 8, 10 or 12 mm diameter. The
ends of the button are accurately square to its cylindrical
axis. It has a 4 BA screw to hold the button in position on
the workpiece, allowing sufficient clearance between
the screw and the button hole, so that adjustments are
possible during the alignment.

At the marked centre position, drill and tap a 4 BA

threaded hole.

Fit a toolmaker’s button over this hole, but do not fully

tighten the holding screw. (Fig 4)

Application (Fig 2)

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Adjust the button position by piles of gauge blocks equal As the button has been positioned accurately on the
to T.P. (True position dimensions minus 5 mm button axis of the required hole, the work is now rotating on
radius as shown in (Fig 5) this axis.

Remove the button and drill the tapped hole, which

may be eccentric, to the required size, leaving machining
allowance for boring. (Fig 8)

While positioning the button, tap gently as shown in Now bore the hole to size i.e. Ø 37 mm
(Fig 6).
Performing this operation with the job held in a face plate
is better than using a four-jaw chuck. It is because of
the fact that the faceplate surface is square to the axis
of rotation, the work face is set square to the axis of
rotation with ease.

This method of button boring may be applied on to a job

with a number of holes to be located accurately. The
correct centres can all be preset with toolmaker’s buttons
and bored one at a time. (Figures 9 and 10) These figures
illustrate the method of marking and setting a jig plate
with two bores.

The job is first set on the face plate and hole No.1 is
centered and button-bored.

To shift the hole No.2 to the centre position, the job is

When the button position is correct, tighten the screw moved while strips remain fixed and slip gauges are
fully and ensure that the button position has not inserted between locating edges and strips. Then the
changed, due to tightening of the screw. hole No.2 is button-bored to the size.
Mount the work on the face plate (or in the 4 - jaw chuck)
and adjust the position of the work and not the button,
until the button runs true. Use a dial test indicator for
truing. (Fig 7)

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.102
Turner - Boring

Telescopic gauge - construction - uses

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• name the parts of a telescopic gauge
• state the constructional features of telescopic gauges.

Telescopic gauges are popular for fine work as they are

very rigid and have better ‘feel’.

Uses

Telescopic gauges are used for checking the sizes of holes,

slots and recesses.

Construction

Telescopic gauges are ‘T’ shaped. Each gauge consists

of a pair of teleschopic tubes or plungers connected to a
handle. (Fig 1) The plungers are spring - loaded to force
them apart. After inserting it in a hole or slot, the gauge
can be locked in position by turning the knurled handle. It
may then be withdrawn from the hole and measured with
a micrometer (Fig 2)
Telescopic gauges are available in a set of 5 Nos. to
measure holes from 12.7mm to 152.4mm (Fig 3)

No 1 12.7mm to 19mm
No 2 19.0mm to 31.7mm
No 3 31.7mm to 53.9mm
No 4 53.9mm to 88.9mm
No 5 88.9mm to 152.4mm

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.103
Turner - Boring

Inside micrometer - metric - construction

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• name the parts of an inside micrometer
• determine the reading of the bore or hole
• determine the reading with a spacing collar & extension rods
• determine the distance between internal parallel surfaces.

Construction

The inside micrometer is similar to an ordinary outside

micrometer but without the ‘U’ frame. (Fig 1) The
measurement is taken over the contact points. As the
thimble opens or closes, the contact points get opened
or closed. The inside micrometer consists of a sleeve,
thimble, anvils, a spacing collar and extension rods. It
is also equipped with a handle to measure deep bores.
The least count of the instrument is also 0.01 mm.
The inside micrometer is equipped with a 12 mm
spacing collar and 4 extension rods for measuring holes
of ranges 50-75mm, 75-100 mm, 100-125 mm and 125-
150 mm. The sleeve is marked with the main scale
and the thimble with the thimble scale. The barrel
has a limited adjustment of 13 mm. When the inside
micrometer is closed (when zero of thimble coincides
with the zero of the barrel), it is capable of reading the
minimum dimension of 25 mm. In addition to this, it is
possible to read up to 38 mm with the thimble opening to
the extreme right. In order to read further higher ranges,
a standard spacing collar of 12 mm width is to be added. Determining the size of a bore or hole
This facilitates the micrometer to read a maximum range
of 50 mm. (Fig 2) Reading of inside micrometer Fig 3 shows an inside
micrometer with a spacing collar and extension rod of
Similarly, each extension rod has to be used without 125-150 mm range. The size of the bore is 125 mm + 12
the collar for measuring a minimum range up to 13 mm mm + barrel reading + thimble reading which is equal to
variation and with the collar for a maximum range of 125 + 12 + 1.5 + 0.00 = 138.50 mm.
measurements. A clamping screw is also provided to
clamp the extension rod firmly.

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Determining the distance between internal parallel
surfaces

While checking parallelism between two surfaces of a

deep bore, a handle must be used along with the
inside micrometer. The figure shows the inside
micrometer with a handle. In order to ascertain the
parallelism, a minimum of two readings has to be taken,
i.e. one at the top surface of the deep bore and the other
at the bottom surface of the bore. If there is no difference
in the two readings, we may take it for granted that
the surfaces are perfectly parallel. Any variation in
the reading shows the bore has an error between the two
surfaces. (Fig 4)

Uses:

This instrument is generally used to measure accurately

the bored components, specifically it is used for checking
cylinder bores. It is also used for measuring internal
shoulders, checking ring gauges.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.104
Turner - Boring

Inside micrometer - Inch

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• determine the reading of inside micrometer inch
• calculate the least count of inside micrometer inch
• state the construction of inside micrometer inch.

The inside micrometer inch is similar to inside micrometer In addition to this, it is possible to read upto 1 1/2” with the
metric. This consists of a sleeve, thimble, avoids a stiching thimble opening to the extreme right. In order to rad further
coller and extension rods. It is also equiped with a handle higher ranges, a standard spacing coller of 1/2” width is to
to measure deep bores. The lease count of the instrument be added. This facilitates the micrometer to read a maximum
is 0.001”. range of 2”.

Reading of inside micrometer

Graduation of inside micrometer inch.

Value of one main scale division MSD = 0.100”

Vale of one sub division SD = 0.025”

Value of one thimble division TD = 0.001”

The inside micrometer inch is equiped with a 1/2” spacing
coller an 4 extension rods for measuring holes of ranges 2” Reading
- 3”, 4” - 5” and 5” - 6”. The sleeve is marked with the main
scale and the thimble with the thimble scale. The barrel has Main scale reading = 3 x 0.00 = 0.300”
a limited adjustment 1/2”. When the inside micrometer is
closed (zero of thimble coincides with the zero of the barrel) Sub division reading = 1 x 0.025 = 0.025”
it is capable of reading the minimum dimension of 1”.
Thumble division
coincide = 15 x 0.001 = 0.015”

Total = 0.340”

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.3.105
Turner - Boring

Care for holding split bearing, fixture and its uses

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state split bearing
• list the type of split bearing
• explain how to set the split bearing
• state care for holding split bearing.

Split bearing Holding of split bearing

Split bearing are principally used where the replacement of Methods of setting up to machine split bearings are broadly
spherical bearings would require costly additional work, the same for all sizes for it is essential to maintain
involving the removal of gears or couplings, the dismounting accuracy.
of drives or the dismantling of shaft power trains. The use
of split reduces the down time of machinery and plant. To make signal split bearings, can use drawn rectangular
brass holding two piecces together in the four-jaw chuck
Types of split bearing: with the joint line on the spindle axis. First each piece
should be faced in the chuck. Then two face must be field
• Flanged pattern Fig 1 smooth.

The flanged pattern are previously made out of brasses, in As shown in Fig 3 & 4 split bearing can be set up from their
which the journal of a shaft runs direct. They may also be outside diameters to finish the bores.
lined with white metal or babbit metal when they are used
in car engines.

• Parallel type Fig 2

The parallel type consist of steel shells lined with white

metal or harder alloy for heavy duty. This type may be
called shall bearings, thin - wall bearings or simply liners.
They are circular outside to fit in accurately machined
housings or the big ends of connecting rods.

Care for holding the split bearing

The joint line of the halves must be on the diameter line.

The outside must be circular and the bore concentric with

it.

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While designing the turning fixtures most care should be
taken to avoid projections for the operator’s safety.

The accuracy of the machine tool must be protected by

placing necessary balance weights in the fixture.

The over hang of the fixture should be minimum.

Lathe fixtures (Turning fixtures)

The standard work holding devices or fixures for lathe are:

• Three and four jaw chucks

• Collets
• Face plate A lathe fixture consists of a base, location and clamping
devices. A lathe fixture can be fixed to the either by holding
• Mandrels in the chuck jaws or fixing to a face plate.
• Milling vice
Basic Deisgn Principles for Turning or Lathe Fixtures:
If the job can be held easily and quickly in the above
mentioned standard devices, then there is no need for 1 To avoid vibration while revolving, the fixture should be
special work holding devices. However many jobs particuly accurately balanced.
casting and forging, because of their shapes, cannot be 2 There should be no projections of the fixture which may
conveniently held by any of the standard devices. It then causes injury to the operator.
becomes necessary to build a special work holding devices
for the jon. Such a device is called lathe fixture. 3 The fixture should be rigid and overhanging should be
kept minimum possible so that there is no bending
action.
4 Clamps used to fix the fixture to the lathe should be
designed properly so that they don’t get loosed by
centrifugal force.
5 The fixture should be as light weight as possible since
it is rotating.
6 The fixture must be small enough to that it can be
mounted and revolved without hitting the bed of the
lathe.

Uses:

A fixture in mainly used to hold a non cylindrical job so that

turning operation can be carried out.

It is mainly used for mass production purposes.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.106
Turner - Thread cutting

Calculation involving fractional thread (odd and even)

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• calculate change wheels for cutting vulgar fractional pitch threads (BritishSystem)
• calculate change wheels for cutting decimal fractional pitch threads (BritishSystem)
• calculate change wheels for fractional pitch threads by continued fraction method.

It is necessary to calculate the ratio of change gears

to cut fractional leads for worms, hobs etc. on a centre
lathe at times.

To obtain a formula; suppose it is required to cut a lead

of 1/4" on a lathe which has a lead of 1/2". If one to
one ratio were used between the driver and the driven
gears, the carriage would move 1/2" per revolution of If the lead to be cut is a whole number and a vulgar
the lathe spindle. Therefore, to cut a lead of 1/4" the fraction, change it to an improper fraction and apply the
ratio of the driver and driven gears must be as above formula.

Example

Calculate the change gears required to cut an oil groove

having 8 turns in 11 inches on a lathe with a lead screw
of 4 threads per inch.

Pitch of the groove x No. of threads/inch of lead screw

Expressed as a formula:-
=

= ratio of change gears =

Pitch groove =
or alternatively:-

inches

lead of screw to be cut x No. of threads/inch of lead screw

Gear ratio
=

Example

Calculate the change gears necessary to cut a thread

of 7/16" lead on a lathe with a lead screw of 4 threads
per inch.

lead of screw to be cut xNo. of threads/inch of lead screw

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 2nd fraction =

Example

Calculate the change gears required to cut a worm of

0.95 inches lead on a lathe with a lead screw of 6 threads
per inch.

lead to be cut xNo. of threads/inch of lead screw

=
Example
= 0.95 x 6
Calculate the change gears to cut a worm of 0.35 inches
lead on a lathe with a lead screw having 4 threads per
inch.
=
Lead to be cut x no. of threads/inch of lead screw

120
= x
= =0.35 x 4 20

Example

Calculate the change gears to cut 2BA threads (0.81mm

pitch) on a lathe which has a lead screw of 1/4 inch -
When the lead occurs as a decimal, it may be neces- pitch by the continued fraction method.
sary to use the method of continued fractions to obtain
a suitable approximation of the change gear ratio, for
which the change gears may be selected from the Ratio :
available set of gears.

Example

Calculate the change gears required to cut a worm of

0.55 inches lead on a lathe, with a lead screw of 6
threads per inch. This could be cut exactly if the 1/5 ratio were combined
with a 81T driver and a 127 T driven change gears.

If special gears are not available we have to obtain the

No. of threads/inch of lead screw =
nearest fraction by the continued fraction method.
For this nearest fraction gears may be selected from the
= 0.55 x 6 available set of gears.

Determining the convergents by the continued fraction

method.

1st fraction

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 81) 635 (7
567 The convergents are
______

68 ) 81 (1
The 4th convergent may be written
68
______

13 ) 68 (5
65
______ and this could be obtained with duplicate 25 T and 70 T
gears, a circumstance not unlikely, provided two similar
3) 13 (4 lathes are available.
12
The actual pitch obtained from this driver and driven gears
_____
is:
1) 3 (3

7 1 5 4 3
an error of 0.00005mm, which is equivalent to a total
1 0 1 1 6 25 81 pitch error of about 0.0016 mm (0.00006 in) over a
1 in. length of the thread. This is well within the permis-
0 1 7 8 47 196 635 sible limits of accuracy of an ordinary commercial lead
screw.

7 1 5 4 3

Simple and compound gear trains

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state what is a change gear train
• identify and name the different types of change gear trains
• distinguish between a simple gear train and a compound gear train.

Change gear train Fig 1 shows an arrangement of a simple gear train.

Change gear train is a train of gears serving the purpose of

connecting the fixed stud gear to the quick change gear-
box. The lathe is generally supplied with a set of gears
which can be utilized to have a different ratio of motion
between the spindle and the lead screw during thread cut-
ting. The gears which are utilized for this purpose com-
prise the change gear train.

The change gear train consists of driver and driven gears

and idler gears.

Simple gear train

A simple gear train is a change gear train having only one

driver and one driven wheel. Between the driver and the
driven wheel, there may be an idler gear which does not
affect the gear ratio. Its purpose is just to link the driver
and the driven gears, as well as to get the desired direc-
tion to the driven wheel.

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Fig 2 shows mountings of the driver and driven gears in a Compound gear train
lathe.
Sometimes, for the required ratio of motion between the
The driver gear and the driven gear are changed according spindle and the lead screw, it is not possible to obtain one
to the pitch of the thread to be cut on the job. driver and one driven wheel. The ratio is split up and then
the change gears are obtained from the available set of
gears which will result in having more than one driver and
one driven wheel. Such a change gear train is called a
compound gear train.

Fig 3 shows the arrangement of a compound gear train

Gear calculation for cutting metric thread on British lathe and vice versa
Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the formula of the gear ratio for cutting metric thread on a British lathe
• state the formula of the gear ratio for cutting British thread on a metric lathe
• solve the problems involving cutting metric thread on British lathe and vice versa.

Gear ratio for cutting metric thread on British lathe

The formula of the gear ratio for cutting metric thread on a

metric lathe is
A translating gear of 127 teeth is provided for cutting met-
ric thread on a British lathe. This gear wheel is used as
the driven wheel. The worked out example illustrates this
statement.
Now, for cutting metric thread on a British lathe, the lead
Gear ratio for cutting British thread on metric lathe
of the work to be cut in mm is converted to inches by
multiplying with the constant 5/127.
The general formula for cutting British thread on a British
lathe is
Because 25.4 mm = l”
1 mm = 1/25.4"
= 10/254
= 5/127"
Now for cutting British thread on a metric lathe the lead of
Therefore, the screw in mm is converted into inches by multiplying
with a constant of 5/127.
Gear ratio

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 When lathe constant is given

As a practice, it is advisable to have a larger wheel as a

driven gear as far as possible. But in this case the 127
teeth wheel has to be used as a DRIVER only. Find the gears required to cut 4.5 mm pitch in a lathe
having a lead screw of 6 T.P.l. Gears available from 20 to
Gear ratio for cutting metric thread on British lathe 120 teeth by 5 teeth range with a conversion gear of 127
using 63 teeth as driver wheel. teeth.

DATA
Instead of taking the constant =

Lead of work = 4.5 mm

is taken because 1 metre = 39.37".
T.P.l of L/s = 6 T.P.l
1 metre = 39.375" (approx.)
1
Lead of L/s =
1000 mm = 39.375" = 39 T.P.I

1
Lead of L/s =
1 mm = 6

Gear ratio
=

Gear ratio for cutting British thread on metric lathe using

the 63 teeth wheel as the driven wheel:
Now it is not possible to have a change gear train with a
simple gear train. So a compound gear train is used,

Lathe constant

Lathe constant is the number of threads per inch that can

be cut when the change gear ratio is 1 and the ratio be-
tween the main spindle gear and the fixed stud gear is
also 1.

On some machines the ratio of the spindle gear to the

fixed stud gear is more than 1 in which case the lathe
45 T & 60 T are drivers.
constant is equal to:
127 T & 20 T are driven.

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Problems involving cutting metric threads on British
lathe and vice versa

Find the gears required to cut a 3 mm pitch in a lathe

having a lead screw of 6 T.P.l. Gears available from 20 to
120 teeth by 5 teeth with a special gear of 127 teeth.
DATA
Lead of work = 3 mm
T.P.l on L/s = 6 T.P.l
127 T & 20 T are driver gears.
Lead of L/s =
30 T & 120 T are driven gears.

At the end of the first cut, stop the lathe. Mark the position
Gear ratio = = of the chuck and the lead screw with two fixed reference
marks on the headstock and the norton gearbox with a
chalk piece . Then disengage the half nut and bring back
the tool to the starting point and give a depth of cut. Start
= the lathe and observe the instant at which both the marks
of the lead screw and the chuck with their respective fixed
reference lines marked on the norton gearbox and
headstock coincide.

= Engage the half nut when both the marks are coinciding
simultaneously. The disadvantage of this method is it
requires skill to watch both the marks simultaneously; it
is time consuming.
=
Predetermined travel of carriage

90 teeth gear is driver. Predetermined travel of the carriage means the shortest
distance the carriage has to move to engage the half nut
127 teeth gear is driven. so that the thread on the lead screw and the thread on the
job are in unison.
Problems involving cutting British threads on metric
lathe The following example shows the calculation of predeter-
mined travel of the carriage.
Find the gears required to cut 6 T.P.l on job in a lathe
having a lead screw of 6 mm pitch. To cut 8 tpi on a job in a lathe having 6 tpi lead screw

Gears available from-20 T to 120 by 5 teeth range with a If the job makes 4 revolutions, the lead screw makes 3
special gear of 127 teeth. revolutions (8/6 = 4/3). For every 3 revolutions of the lead
screw the thread on the lead screw will be in unison with
DATA the thread on the job. For 3 revolutions of the lead screw
the carriage travels to a distance equal to 3 x pitch =
Lead of work = 1/6" 3 x 1/6" = 1/2 inch.
Lead of L/S = 6 mm This 1/2" is the shortest distance the carriage can travel
to engage the half nut. This is the predetermined travel.
Depending upon the threading length, an exact multiple of
Gear ratio = the predetermined travel of the carriage is chosen for mark-
ing on the bed. The carriage is allowed to travel only
between these two marks for engaging and disengaging
the half nut.

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By thread chasing dial Determine the predetermined travel of the carriage, then
interpret this in terms of graduation on the dial. Allow this
The chasing dial indicates the relationship between the predetermined travel of the carriage movement to occur
ratio of the number of turns of the work and the lead screw between the position of the graduations of the dial at which
with respect to the position of the cutting tool and thread the half nut can be engaged.
groove.
A detailed description of the chasing dial is dealt with, in
the next lesson.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.107
Turner - Thread cutting

Multiple thread function, use

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• understand about a multistart thread and its application
• understand about pitch and lead in a multistart thread.

Multiple thread function 2 Wherever higher mechanical advantage is required to

be obtained then the output should be more than the
Multi-start threads are generally used, for a greater nut input (E.g. Screw jacks used to lift vehicles).
advancement for each rotation. The advancement is linked
3 Wherever leak proof applicatons is needed
to number of pitches and the number of threads per inch.
Eg: Liquid container cap).
Hence it is possible to tighten and close the fasteners
with lesser nut movement. 4 Tight fitting applications.

Multistart thread user

1 Such threads are used on pen cap, flypress, thermoflask

cap, hand presser, telescopes, and camera focusing
devices.

Difference between Pitch & Lead

Pitch Lead

1 Pitch is defined as the distance between a point of thread Lead is defined as the advancement of mating part (next
to the another coreesponding point on the adjacent to bolt) in one complete (360°) rotation.
thread.
In the multistart thread lead is the product of the pitch and
2 In single start pitch is equal to lead divided by no of start number of starts of thread.
l = P x No of start

Difference between pitch and lead

Pitch is the distance from a point on one thread to the

corresponding point on the next thread.

Lead is the distance that a screw thread advances axially

in one rotation in a single start thread.

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Formulae
4 Inch (or) British thread on metric lead screw formula

5 British lead screw on metric thread change calculation

formula. (Translating gear 63 teeth)

Lead = Pitch x No of start

Gear ratio

1 Metric thread on metric lead screw. P = pitch to be cut mm.

N = No of T.P.I on lead screw

6 Metric lead screw on british. Thread change wheel cal-

culation formula (Translating gear 63 teeth) .

2 Inch thread on Inch lead screw (T.P.I)

3 Metric thread on Inch (or) British lead screw formula.

P = pitch to be cut in m
N = No of T.P.I on lead screw.
127 = Transmitting gear
(or) special gear.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.108
Turner - Thread cutting
Multi-start thread and methods
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the purpose of multi-start threads
• mention the various methods of identifying multi-start threads
• state the methods of cutting multi-start threads
• understand multi-start thread elements
• calculate gear ratio.

Metric multi-start threads are used where quick trans- - Moving the top slide to a new position
mission is required. Such threads are used on pen cap,
(compound slide)
fly press, thermos flask cap, hand presses, telescopes
and camera focusing devices. - Using thread chasing dial

The lead on a single start thread is equal to the pitch. 1 Dividing the first driver method
(Fig 1)
As regards the gear train it becomes necessary to
arrange the layout so that the first driver is a multiple of
the number of starts required. Thus for a double start
thread, the gear teeth must be divisible by two.

After finishing the first start, the lathe is stopped. One

tooth of the 1st driver and the space of the first driven gear
in which it is seating are marked. By counting the
number of teeth from the marked tooth of the 1st driver,
The lead on a double start thread is twice the pitch. make another mark on the tooth which is exactly 180°
(Fig 2) away. Loosen the swing plate and disengage the idler
gear from the 1st driver. Rotate the spindle by hand to
bring the second mark of the first driver to mesh in the
previously marked space of the 1st driven gear. The
lathe is now ready for cutting the 2nd start. This
procedure is applicable to cut threads of more than two
starts also. Figs 4 and 5 illustrate marking on change
gears.

The lead on a triple start thread is three times the

pitch. (Fig 3)

A triple start thread will advance 3 times the distance of a

single start thread for a single turn.

The threads are specified by stating the diameter, pitch

and number of starts.

Methods of cutting multi-start thread

- Dividing the 1st driver of the change gear train

- Using slotted face plate

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 The backlash must be eliminated in the top slide. After
rotating the hand wheel through the number of graduations
which is equal to the pitch, it is advisable to set the
graduated collar again to zero.

2 Method using slotted face-plate (Fig 6)

A slotted face-plate illustrated is used to cut threads of

2 starts, 3 starts, 4 starts etc.

Slots are provided on the face-plate at convenient dis-

tances. Two opposite slots to cut double start thread,
3 slots at 120 degree apart to cut 3 start thread and 4
slots at 90 degree apart to cut 4 start thread and so on
and so forth.

Using indexing drive–plates

A graduated indexing drive-plate is used (Fig 7) to cut

multi-start threads on the job. Here also the job is held
between centres with the help of a straight tailed dog
carrier.

3 Method by moving the top slide (compound rest) 4 The thread chasing dial method
(Fig 8)
The construction of the thread chasing dial enables to
The top slide may be used (Fig 8) for adjusting the tool cut 2-start, 4-start, 8-start and 16-start threads. This
to have the correct spacing while cutting multi-start purely depends upon the graduations marked on the
threads. After one start of the thread has been cut the dial and the number of teeth of the worm wheel.
top slide is moved a distance equal to the pitch of the
thread for the 2nd start. When this method is followed
the top slide must be parallel to the axis of the workpiece.

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Change wheel calculation for multi–start threads Example
Calculate the change gears to cut a 4-start thread having
In multi-start threads, the lead of the thread is equal to 12 TPI. The lead screw has 4 TPI
the pitch of the thread multiplied by the number of
starts. For example, in a double start thread, the lead of
the screw = 2 x pitch. In a triple start thread, the lead of
the screw = 3 x pitch and in a quadruple start, the
screw lead = 4 x pitch.

Example

Calculate the change gears to cut a 3-start thread hav-

ing a pitch of 1.5 mm; the lead screw has a pitch of 6
mm.

Lead of thread = pitch x number of starts The number of threads

= 1.5 x 3 = 4.5 mm. for which gears are = 3.
to be determined
Gear Ratio = 40 is the driver and 30 is the driven.

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.109
Turner - Thread cutting

Calculation involving shape of tool (Square thread tool)

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• understand the parameters for shaping the tool for square thread
• identify square thread and its elements
• identify different type of trapezoidal threads.

Determine width and angles required for grinding the ex- Calculation involving shape of tool [Internal square thread
ternal square threading tool tools]

The side clearance of the square threading tool is of prime

importance to prevent the tool from interfering or rubbing
against the vertical flank the thread.

1 Calculate the change gears to cut 2-start square thread

having a pitch of 3mm the lead screw has a pitch 5mm.

lead = pitch x No of start

Calculation of tool shape =3x2

The width of the nose of the square threading tool. Should = 6 mm

be equal to half of the pitch of the square thread.

w = 0.5 x p

= 0.5 x 3

Width of tool = 1.5 mm

Front clearance angle = 6° - 8° Core dia

Side relief angle Core diameter formula

1°° to 2° = a1 = a + (1° + 2°) Core diameters = Major dia - 2 x single depth

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1 Given data Designation

Major dia = 30mm A square thread of nominal dia. 60mm and pitch 9mm
shall be designated as Sq. 60 x 9 IS: 4694-1968. The
Pitch = 4mm dimensions a, b, e, p, H1, h1, h2 & d1 are changed as per
thread series (fine, normal & coarse).
To find
Modified square thread
Core dia
Modified square threads are similar to ordinary square
single depth = 0.6134 x pitch threads except for the depth of the thread. The depth of
thread is less than half pitch of the thread. The depth
= 0.6134 x 4 varies according to the application. The crest of the thread
is chamfered at both ends to 45° to avoid the formation of
= 2.4536mm burrs. These threads are used where quick motion is
required.
Core diameter = Major dia - 2x single depth
Trapezoidal threads
= 30 - 2 2.4536
These threads have a profile which is neither square nor
= 25.09 mm. ‘V’ thread form and have a form of trapezoid. They are
used to transmit motion or power. The different forms of
Square and trapezoidal threads trapezoidal threads are:
Square and trapezoidal threads have more cross-sectional - acme thread
area than ‘V’ threads. They are more suitable to transmit
motion or power than ‘V’ threads. They are not used for - buttress thread
fastening purposes. - saw-tooth thread

Square thread - worm thread.

Acme thread (Fig 2)
In this thread the flanks are perpendicular to the axis of
the thread. The relationship between the pitch and the This thread is a modification of the square thread. It has
other elements is shown in Fig 1. an included angle of 29°. It is preferred for many jobs
because it is fairly easy to machine. Acme threads are
used in lathe lead screws. This form of thread enables
the easy engagement of the half nut. The metric acme
thread has an included angle of 30°. The relationship
between the pitch and the various elements is shown in
the figure.

Square threads are used for transmitting motion or power.

Eg. screw jack, vice handles, cross-slide and compound
slide, activating screwed shafts.

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Buttress thread (Fig 3)

In buttress thread one flank is perpendicular to the axis of

the thread and the other flank is at 45°. These threads are
used on the parts where pressure acts at one flank of the
thread during transmission. Figure 3 shows the various
elements of a buttress thread. These threads are used in
power press, carpentry vices, gun breeches, ratchets etc.

Buttress thread as per B.I.S. (Fig 4)

This is a modified form of the buttress thread. Figure 4

shows the various elements of the buttress thread. The
bearing flank is inclined by 7° as per B.I.S. and the other
flank has a 45° inclination.

The equations associated with the dimensions indicated

in the two figures (Figs 6 and 7) are given below.

H1 = 0.75 P
Saw-tooth thread as per B.I.S. 4696 h3 = H1 + ac = 0.867 77 P
This is a modified form of buttress thread. In this thread, a = 0.1 P (axial play)
the flank taking the load is inclined at an angle of 3°,
whereas the other flank is inclined at 30°. The basic profile ac = 0.117 77 P
of the thread illustrates this phenomenon. (Fig 5) The
proportionate values of the dimensions with respect to the W = 0.263 84 P
pitch are shown in Figs 6 and 7.
e = 0.263 84 P - 0.1 P = W - a

R = 0.124 27 P

D1 = d - 2 H1 = d - 1.5 P

d3 = d - 2 h3

d2 = D2 = d - 0.75 P

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S = 0.314 99 Ao, where Ao = basic deviation (= upper The linear pitch of the worm thread must be equal to the
deviation) for external thread in the pitch diameter. circular pitch of the worm gear. When the worm gear is of
D.P. then the linear pitch of the worm thread in mesh is
Worm thread equal to p/DP. When the worm gear is of module teeth,
then the linear pitch of the worm thread is equal to module
This is similar to acme thread in shape but the depth of x p.
thread is more than that of acme thread. This thread is
cut on the worm shaft which engages with the worm wheel. In some of the lathes, a chart illustrates the position of
Figure 8 shows the elements of a worm thread. levers of the quick change gearbox together with the change
gear connections for cutting D.P. or module worm threads.

Knuckle threads

The shape of the knuckle thread is not trapezoidal but it

has a rounded shape. It has limited application. The
figure shows the form of knuckle thread. It is not sensitive
against damage as it is rounded. It is used for valve
spindles, railway carriage couplings, hose connections
etc (Fig 9).

The worm wheel and worm shaft are used in places where
motion is to be transmitted between shafts at right angles.
It also gives a high rate of speed reduction. The worm
wheel is generally cut by diametral pitch (D.P) or module
pitch cutters. Diametral pitch (D.P) is the ratio between
the number of teeth to the pitch diameter (P.D.) of the
gear.

Module is the ratio between the pitch diameter of the gear

and the number of teeth of the gear.

Production : Turner (NSQF Level-5) : RT for Ex No. 3.4.109 99

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Production & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 3.4.110
Turner - Thread cutting
Helix angle and its effects on threading tool clearance angles
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the features of a helix angle
• state the effect of a helix angle
• calculate the leading and following angles for a square threading tool taking the helix angle into
consideration.

The helix angle is the angle included between the direction Data given
of the thread crest and the plane perpendicular to the
axis. (Fig 1) This angle can be determined from the
following formula.

L
Tan θ =
π xd

Outside diameter Number of starts = 4

where q = Helix angle in
degrees
L = Lead of the thread in millimetres (or)
inches
π = Constant (3.14 or 22/7)
d = Pitch diameter of the thread in millimetres
(or) inches.

Calculations

Example

Calculate the helix angle of the threads cut on a

workpiece with the following data.

Helix angle = 13° approx.

Example

Calculate the helix angle of the thread cut on a job of 2"

diameter, with 1/8" pitch, 3-start square thread.

Data given

Diameter of the job = 2"

100
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 The helix angle = 3° 30'.

Helix angle of a thread and its effects

The helix angle of a thread and the angle of the

square threading tool, depends upon two factors.

- The helix angle changes for different leads on a

given diameter. The greater the lead of the
thread, the greater will be the helix angle.
- The helix angle changes for each different dia-meter
of thread for a given lead. The larger the diameter, The side clearance on the following side of the tool =
the smaller will be the helix angle. the helix angle of the following side of the thread –
the normal side clearance that will be ground on the tool.
Helix angle (Fig 2) (1° approximately). The following example illustrates this.
( Fig 2 may also clarify the above stated points.)
The helix angle is the angle included between the direction
of the thread crest and the plane perpendicular to the Example
axis.
Solution
This angle can be determined from the formula,
Lead or pitch = 1/4" = 0.250 in.

Single depth = 0.5 x pitch

0.500
Single depth =
4
When grinding a tool for cutting multi-start threads,
the helix angle of the thread is to be taken into consi-
= 0.5 x 0.25 = 0.125 in.
deration. The side clearances on the leading and the
Double depth = 2 x 0.125
following sides of the tool will have to be of different
values. The side clearance on the leading side of the tool = 0.250 in.
is always greater than that ground on the following side.
Minor diameter = 1.250 – 0.250
The side clearance on the leading side of the tool = the = 1.000 in
helix angle of the leading side of the thread + the normal
side clearance that will be ground on the tool (1° Tan of the helix angle of the thread at the leading side
approximately).

Lead angle

Lead angle of a square thread is obtained by adding 1°30’

as clearance to the helix angle. This follows the helix of a
thread and always greater than helix angle.
= 0.0795.
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The helix angle = 4° 33' d) Helix angle at core of dia thread
The tool bit’s leading side clearance angle
= 4° 33' + 1° = 5° 33'.

Tan of the helix angle of the thread at the following side of

the thread

e) Helix angle of thread

Therefore the helix angle of the thread at the following

side = 3° 38'.

Therefore the tool bit’s following side clearance angle =

3° 38'–1° = 2° 38'. f) Gear ratio

Calculation involving change wheel, core dia in multi

start thread cutting.

1 To be cut = 10 mm pitch square thead.

2 Dia = 62 mm
3 No of start = 2
100 teeth gear wheel may be keyed to the lath spindle
4 Lead screw pitch = 6 mm pitch. and 30 teeth gear wheel to the lathe lead screw.
Find Width of tool for a square thread
a Depth of thread to give 0.12 mm clearance
b Lead of thread
c Core diameter
d Helix angle at the core diameter
e Helix angle of thread
British standard withworth thread
f Gear ratio between the head stock spindle and the
lead screw. Angle = 55°
g Tool with angles at leading and trailing edges of the
tools. Its main dimension and general shapes.
Pitch =
Ans :
a) depth of square thread Depth = pitch x 0.6403
Radious = pitch x 0.1373
Core dia = D - (1.28 x pitch)
Depth of thread to give a clearance of 12 mm = 5+0.12 = D = outside dia. of bolt.
5.12 mm
Acme thread (Fig 3)
b) Lead of thread= pitch x no of start
Angle= 29°
= 10 x 2 = 20 mm
Depth = 0.5 x P + 0.01
c) Core diameter = out dia - 2 depth of thread
Plain portion of crest = 0.317 x P
= 62 - ( 2x 5.12 )
Plain portion at depth = 0.335 x P
= 62 - 10.24 = 51.76 mm
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Buttress thread (Fig 4)
Angle = 45°
One side = 90° Square thread (Fig 7)

Depth=0.75 x pitch Angle = 90°

width of crest and root = 0.125x Pitch Width of tool = 0.5 pitch
Depth = 0.5 pitch

Knuckle thread (Fig 5)

Metric 'V' thread (Fig 8)

Angle - 60°
Core dia
= Major dia - [2 x depth of thread]

Worm thread or brown and sharp worm thread(Fig 6)

Angle = 29°
Depth = 0.6866x pitch
Plain portion of crest = 0.31 x pitch
Plain portion at depth = 0.335 x pitch

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