Cities of Vesuvius – Pompeii and Herculaneum

Survey

Notes/Activities Sources Analysis

● The geographical setting and natural features of Campania

● Eruption altered the topography of the area

● Rome, Campania region→ Roads and sea routes
● Provincial towns within the wider region of Campania
● Ancient Campania was bounded in the north by the mountains of the Aurunci, in the east by the
Apennines and in the south by the mountain spur that ends in the Sorrentine peninsula.
● Mount Vesuvius→ Fertility of Campanian plains
● Phosphorus and potash
● Water retention+mineral rich=abundance of vegetation
● Campania renowned for beauty and fertile land

Natural features
Pompeii
● South of Mt Vesuvius
● Built on pre-existing lava flow→ Bay of Naples
● Approx 66 hectares
● 25-40m above sea level in antiquity→ overlooked River Sarno
● River safe to navigate by sea faring boats→ wider marsh estuary for commercial port
Herculaneum
● Built of pre-existing lava flow
● 7km away Mt Vesuvius
● Natural terrace, 20 metres above sea level
● 12-20 hectares
● Not a safe working harbour→ Beautiful coastal town
● Luxury villas
Natural resources
Pompeii
● Strategic harbour town→ crossroads between the outlaying areas of the
region of Campania
● Economic prosperity due to location (fertile and trade route)
● Bay of Naples had many safe anchorages→ Roman fleet never far away

● Natural water springs→ in abundance

● Used in aqueducts and public drinking fountains throughout the city
● Coastal sea breezes→ good for habitation
● Hot dry summer, mild wet winters with an early spring→ great for agriculture
● Natural vegetation grew along rivers: poplar, alder and willow trees; beech and oak trees along the
slopes of the mountain and the herb rosemary
● Pumice volcanic stone and solidified lava as millstones*. Also used to build roads and buildings
throughout both towns.
● The region of Campania was rich in agricultural produce. The farms produced; wheat, barley, cabbage,
broad beans, chickpeas, onions, peaches, apricots, lemons, cherries, plums, pears and figs.
● Sheep were also grazed on the slopes of the mountain and there is evidence of a textile industry.
● Many flowers grew in the area including roses = perfume industry. Olives =olive oil and perfume and
grapes= wine. Famous and desired products from the region of Campania.
● As a result both P+H were supported by a network of farms and estates. Both towns operated as market
towns.
● The marshy lagoon estuary of the Sarno River and the accessible Bay of Naples provided the towns with
an abundance of produce. Oily fish such as tuna, mackerel, anchovies and moray eels were caught in
the area.
● Pompeii became famous for the production of its strongly flavoured fish sauce garum.
● The sea salt was also a product that was collected and utilised in the preservation of fish.

Plans and Streetscapes

Pompeii
● Walls for fortification
● Grid system of streets - Giuseppe Fiorelli
● Main roads= Decumani
● Minor roads= cardini
 ● Blocks= Insulae
● Regions= Regios (9 regions)
● Main streets within Pompeii continuation of major roads from other towns
● Seven major gates in Pompeii: Herculaneum, Vesuvian, Cupuan, Nolan, Sarnus, Stabian, Marine→
Defense for the town

● Streets constructed of volcanic stone Tuffa.. Raised in the middle. Raised footpath→ Building
constructed at the edge of the path.
● Roads similar in size→ wheel axles→ One Direction! Pedestrian roads
● Public drinking fountains→ streetscapes
● Elaborately decorated with mythical creatures
● Keeping streets clean
● Stepping stones
● All roads lead to the forum→ temples, political buildings and market spaces

Herculaneum
● No need for regios
● Only have Insuale
● 11 Insulae
● Insula 1-VIII
● Insula Orientalis I
● Insula Orientalis II
● Suburban District

Pompeii - Districts
An entertainment district
● Amphitheatre
● Palaestra
Residential District
● Area around the central baths
Cultural district
● Large Theatre
● Odeon
Forum District
 ● Forum and it’s surrounds

Insulae do not have particular functions→ mixed

❖ Villas
❖ Homes
❖ Shops
❖ Crafts premises
❖ Service industry
❖ Entertainment
❖ Food manufacture
❖ Farming lands
❖ Orchards
❖ Temples
❖ Baths

- The eruption of AD 79 and its impact on Pompeii and Herculaneum

- Early discoveries and the changing nature of excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries

The Earthquake of AD62

→ 5th of Feb AD62
→ Seneca Natural Questions→ Part of Herculaneum had fallen down, people fled from Campania,
→ An inscription in Herculaneum records that Emperor Vespasian rebuilt the temple of the Mother of Gods.
Another inscription shows that the Proconsul Marcus Nonius Balbus also funded some rebuilding.
→ At Pompeii, the Forum temples were severely damaged and the baths needed extensive repairs.
→ 40s-50s Mauri had a theory→ elegant houses taken over by the merchant class→ Mary Beard, Joanne
Berry, John Dobbins
“For several days past there had been earth
Contestability about the eruption date tremors...but that night the shocks were so
August, October or November? violent that everything felt as if it were not
→ August→ Pliny’s account only shaken but overturned”
“We also saw the sea sucked away and
apparently forced back by the earthquake”
→ Other evidence suggest it took place at the end of the harvest season→ seasonal fruits, clothing and coins→ “Ashes were already falling, not as yet very
Commemorative coin for Emperor Titus 15th year as imperator thickly...a dense black cloud was coming up
→ Coins found deep in the stratigraphy of the ash. behind us, spreading over the earth like a
→ Questionable flood”
“The buildings were now shaking with violent
Pliny’s account shocks, and seemed to be swaying to and
→ Indirect account of the eruption. fro, as if they were torn from their
→ Two letters to Tacitus foundations
→ 32 km away at Misenum “Elsewhere there was daylight by this time,
→ 25 years after the event→ What are the implications of this? but they were still in darkness...which they
→ Motive of the letter- not to recount the events of the eruption but to recount the actions of his uncle and this relieved by lighting torches and various kinds
may have implications on the reliability as he wanted to establish Pliny the Elder as a hero. of lamp”
“A gleam of light returned, but we took to this
First phase: Plinian Phase to be a warning of the approaching flames
→ cloud ‘in the shape of a pine tree’ rather than daylight”
→ 35 km into the air, carrying ash, debris, pumice larger stones and “As a protection against the falling objects
superheated gas. As it expanded into the atmosphere it became less they put pillows on their heads and tied down
dense. with cloths’
→ Mushroom cloud and then ash falls “You could hear the shrieks of the women,
the wailing of infants, and the shouting of
→ Effect of initial ash fall→ ash and lapilli eastward towards Pompeii, men; some were calling to their parents, the
Sigurdsson noted that the puice-ash fallout was around 200-280 cm in others their children or wives, trying to
Pompeii recognise them by their voices”
“People bewailed their own fate, and there
were some who prayed for death in their
terror of dying. Many besought the aid of the
gods, but still more imagined there were no
gods left, and that the universe was plunged
into eternal darkness for evermore.”
Second Phase: Pelean Phase - Pliny the Younger
→ Huge eruptive column collapses→ implosion that damages the ring of the volcano.
→ clouds of gas surges (Pyroclastic surge) down the mountain at 100 km/hr - hot avalanche. Followed by the
pyroclastic flow at 20-50 m per hour.
First Surge
At Herculaneum→ knocked the tops off houses, all
inhabitants died instantly 400 degrees celsius.
Followed by pyroclastic flows, mudlike and enveloped the
whole town.
Temperature mixed with the absence of air→ carbonisation of
wood and other organic materials.
20 metres of tufa and the lava extended the shore line.

Fourth Surge: Destruction of Pompeii

→ first 3 surges did not reach the walls of Pompeii
→ During the ash fall some people would have died from asphyxiation or blunt trauma to the head.
→ Fourth surge of superheated gas, surge was lethal and people died of thermal shock.

→ Most people were found between the fourth and fifth surges. The 6th surge collapsed the buildings.

Aftermath of the Eruption

→ Suetonius in his Life of Titus-- appointed a board of former consuls to deal with the aftermath
→ There was a fund for rebuilding but the plans never came to fruition.
→ Building materials were salvaged from the site.
Pompeii - Asphyxiation, Blunt Force trauma
Herculaneum - Brain turned to glass in 400 degree

Name Date: Contribution

Giuseppi Fiorelli Pompeii excavation - 1863 - 1875 Created the system of uncovering
houses from top down.
Developed use of plaster casts to
fill the hollows left by decomposed
bodies
Numbering system - regiones,
insulae and domus
August Mau 19th century & 20th century - System of categorising
frescoes

- Art historian who world for

German archaeological
institute (located in Rome)
- Advocated for leaving
paintings on walls
Vittorio Spinazzola 1910 - 1934 Excavated the Via
dell’Abbondanza (Street of
Abundance)
- Reconstructed the facades
of houses and shops
 - Discovered the Fullery
(Laundry) of Stephanus
and the House of the
Gladiators
Amedeo Maiuri 1924- 1961 - He had knowledge of
pompeii before the eruption
of 79 AD
-

Representations of Pompeii and Herculaneum over time

Pompeii and Herculaneum have been represented by art, writers, filmmakers and poets, both factually and This painting of
fictionally, from the time excavations began in the 18th C. Vesuvius was
discovered
● Early representations focused on the neoclassical aspects of art and architecture. in1879 on a
● As discoveries continued 18th and 19th century representations focused on the human disaster wall in the
● In the 21st century, with the addition of further archaeological discoveries and technology the focus has Casa del
been on virtual reconstructions of the physical and human elements. Fiorelli’s plaster castes have Centenario,
become the iconic symbol of the Vesuvian disaster one of the
Novels largest houses
● Edward Bulwer-Lytton, E (1834): The last days of Pompeii - most famous Pompeii novel, structured like in Pompeii.
a crime story -- as an account of people's last moments of life, based on deductions about their activities Bacchus is
from the physical evidence. Multiple film adaptations. pictured
● Robert Harris (2003): Pompeii - A Novel – It is an historical fiction with a blend of fictional characters with standing before
the real-life eruption of Mount Vesuvius , especially notable for the author's references to various aspects the mountain;
of vulcanology and use of the Roman calendar at the time Vesuvius was covered in
vineyards.
Neoclassical Art
Mid-18th Century to Early-19th Century
● Neoclassical Art is a severe and unemotional form of art harkening back to the grandeur of ancient
Greece and Rome.
● Some examples will be shown on the next few slides...
Theodore Chasseriau
(1819-56)
● Description: Open Triclinium in the So-called House of Actaeon in Pompeii.
Ink and watercolor on paper, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
● The scene depicted is an open area within the House of Actaeon, more
commonly known as the House of Sallust; it was built during the second
century B.C. and rediscovered in excavations that took place between 1806
and 1809

Roman Columns
Capital Volules

Acanthus leaves/florals

Shaft

Base

Francois Mazois
‘Ruins of Pompeii’
● Engraved illustration from the second volume of Francois Mazois's Ruines
de Pompei, published in Paris in 1824
● Description: Xystus and Triclinium Beneath a Vine Arbor. Engraving from
Franqois Mazois, Les Ruines de Pompei (Paris, 1824)
 ● Description: Small Triclinium Beneath a Vine Arbor in Pompeii. Engraving from
Francois Mazois, Le Palais de Scaurus, 2nd ed. (Paris, 1822)

Giovanni Battista Piranesi

(1720-78)

● Description: The Tomb of the Istacidi, Pompeii

● The scene depicted here is located close to the Herculaneum gates and can still be found today.
● Everything is, however, rather more modest in appearance than this drawing would indicate

Romanticism
● Romanticism was an artistic and intellectual movement in the history of ideas that originated in late 18th
century Western Europe.
● It stressed strong emotion (which now might include trepidation, awe, and horror as visual experiences).
● Romanticism is also noted for its elevation of the achievements of what it perceived as heroic individuals
and artists.
● Some examples will be shown on the next few slides…
 Karl Pavlovich Briullov
[1799-1852]

Pierre Jacques Volaire

Vesuvius, c. 1770s, oil, Collection not known

The Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, c. 1770s, oil, Private Collection
Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes
● The Eruption of Vesuvius
● Valenciennes witnessed a Vesuvius eruption in August 1779, and he used his impressions in this
depiction of the eruption of 79 AD. He shows the death of Pliny the Elder on the shore at Stabie.

Pompeii in film
The Last Days of Pompeii

1913 1935 1960

Pompeii in Film...
Recent representations
● Pompeii: The Last Day (2003)
● A dramatized documentary that recreates of the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum when Mount
Vesuvius erupted in 79 AD.

● Pompeii (2014)
● A slave-turned-gladiator finds himself in a race against time to save his true love, who has been
betrothed to a corrupt Roman Senator. As Mount Vesuvius erupts, he must fight to save his beloved as
Pompeii crumbles around him

Virtual Reality
● Representation of past spaces through animation and reconstruction stills, particularly in the fields of
television and film.
● Based on the development of novel computing solutions to the modelling, representation and
interpretation of space in the archaeological past.
● Computer modelling provides a unique appreciation of the site and its context.

The House of Julius Polybius

● 10 min virtual-reality film
● The spectator is led to discover the many rooms of that palatial house in full detail, including the exact
position of everyday objects precisely as they were found minutes before the explosion of the volcano in
AD 79

The economy: role of the forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupations

Economy - a system of producing, distributing, and consuming wealth “Scaurus’ finest mackerel sauce from
Scaurus’ workshop
- Inscription on a garum container,
Pompeii
Excellent garum (of) A(u)lu(s) (Umbricius
Scaurus)
 - Inscription on a garum container,
Herculaneum
“To let, in the estate of Julia Felix…elegant
baths…shops with upper rooms, and
apartments
- Graffiti from the front wall of a house
in Pompeii
“Priscus the engraver wishes good fortune
to Campanus the gem cutter”
- Graffiti discovered inside a public
shrine, Pompeii
‘Lucius Ceius Separio. Freedman of Lucius,
Basilica a banker and his wife, Helvia, daughter of
Macellum - Marketplace Marcus, dedicated (this)
Tholos - Sold seafood - Tomb inscription, Pompeii

The mensa ponderaria. Bakery (Pistrina -Oven)

Measuring table
Location - Next to granary
 Bakery Bakery Mill
(Pistrina -
Mills)

Terentius Neo and his wife

Thermopolian
Farming Objects Fullery - Laundry

The dry cleaners of Pompeii used human urine (as it contained ammonia) to clean their togas. Clay jars were
positioned outside the shop; men would relieve themselves in these jars.

Urine pots
Street of Lupanare’s - Brothels

Pompeii was a commercial city and its economy was driven by the goods and services in the portside city.
Purchase goods at the market stalls in the forum, buy meat and fish at the macellum, taverns for a drink, bread
at bakeries, purchase foods at the thermopolia.

Services - Fullary: Togas fixed and laundered, Attend plays, watch gladiator fights at the amphitheatre and visit
local brothels.

Herculaneum was a resort town - smaller economy with fewer visitors.

the evidence provided by the range of sources, including site layout, streetscapes, public and private buildings, ancient writers, official inscriptions, graffiti, wall
paintings, statues, mosaics, human, animal and plant remains from Pompeii and Herculaneum, as relevant for:
– the economy: role of the forum, trade, commerce, industries, occupations

Social Structure
Social Structure Activities 2024
Classes - Slaves, Freedmen (Former slaves), Freeborn

Father/husband ← Household slaves

Important relationship = patron/client Excavated villas

Clients supported patrons in businesses and politics - Cieros villa in pompeii
- Agustus’s villa near Nola
Senatorial Elite - Villa of Papyri - owned by Caesar’s
● Top of the social period father in law Lucius Piso
● Not involved in politics
● Merely came to holiday in villas - Marcus Nonius Balbus
● Influence drawn from wealth and status
Opulent Villas - Evidence of wealth
Local elite Graffiti - Choose Marcus Casellius Marcellus:
● Wealthy landowners and merchants good aedile - great games
● Involved in local politics - had large villas on outskirts of city/outside city walls Pompei amphitheatre - Seating showing
● To be involved in politics had to be freeborn - some members were freedmen social standing

Freedmen
Economic Aulus Umbricius Scaurus
- Unpopular work e.g. fullaries - Freedman who became a successful
- Became successful businessmen garum manufacturer
Political - Became wealthy during garum
- No political rights business - owned a large villa
- Children were freeborn Inscription in the Temple of Isis
- Used wealth to advance son’s political career “Rebuilt by Numerius Popidius Celsinus

Slaves Statue in the house of Gavius Rufus

- Found in every aspect of society Fetters/shackles
- Economic backbone Frescoes
- Any tasks - Domestic service to hard labour
- Part of the familia Electoral notices written by women
Wealthy woman -
Women
 - Social position: Between slaves and freedmen - Julia Felix (Owned one of the largest
- Couldn’t vote/stand office estates in Pompeii)
- Influence politics through male family members - Poppaea Sabina
- Power came from wealth - Priestess Eumachia
- Could own and inherit property - Priestess Mamia
- Priestesses

Building of Eumachia

Inscription from the Entry to the Building of Eumachia - Depicted her wealth

Confirms that women could obtain wealth and influence despite having no political power.
Demonstrates that with her own funds she built it.
Highlights that wealthy women could influence the political standing of the men in their lives
Suggests that in conjunction with her statue she was the patron of the fullers guild

Statue - Statue built by fullers guild → Suggests she was the patron

- Although Pompeii and Herculanem had to follow imperial decrees from Rome, they were relatively self
governing

Magistrates:
The magistrates were the executive branch of the local political system. The executive branch was made up of
four magistrates, comprising two Duumviri and two Aediles. They were referred ti as the ‘board of four’ or
‘Quattuorvivi. To become a magistrate, a male citizen over 25 years old.
- Being a Magistrates did not give you money, as the magistrates had to be rich before hand. Instead the
role was used to gain power

Dummviri:
 - Senior/chief magistrate
- Term of office = 1 year (july - july)
- Responsible for the city's justice system (curia)
- Conducted the census every 5 years
- Sponsored public events
- Wore a toga with a purple border
Aedile :
- Junior Magistrates
- Term of office= 1 year (July- July)
- Responsible for public and religious buildings
- Supervised markets and maintaining infrastructure, e.g roads and water system
- Responsible for enforcing public order.
- Sponsored public events
- Wore a toga with a purple border

Ordo Decurionum
- The city council.
- Formed a legislative branch of the local government.
- To become a decurion a person needed to be a freeborn
- There were 80 - 100 members
- Had to live near the town
- Had to be over the age of 25
- Every 5 years, the Ordo Decurionum revied the list of decuriones
- Once you had a seat in the Ordo Decurionum, and you would hold this until death

Comitium
- The comitium was a roofless building in the forum and was where the People’s assembly gathered. The
purpose of the People’s assembly was to elect the Magistrates (both groups)
- It included all Roman citizens
- It met every march (elections for the Magistrates were held every march)
- It elected the Magistrates
- Comitium is located in the South-east corner of the forum in Pompeii
Everyday life: housing, leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water supply, sanitation

Valuable archaeological sources Domus or Atrium

● Roman domestic life
● Idea of development and changes that took place in urban and domestic life
● Social status
Houses generally display a regular plan and systematic use of space within the dwelling.
The wealthy had multi-roomed residences and the houses of the poorer (shopkeepers and craftsmen) lived in
one roomed apartments or in smaller dwelling behind their shopfront or on the above floor.
There is greater evidence for multi-storeyed buildings in Herculaneum in comparison to Pompeii.

Building materials
● 1st and 2nd centuries BC: limestone, dark grey Vesuvius lava stone, yellow and grey tufa, rubble and
brick
● After 80 BC we see a combination of lava blocks and grey tufa in a lattice pattern.
● After AD 62 the Pompeians seem to use whatever material available for construction. Why do you think
this is?
●
Housing Styles- Four main styles
● The Domus or atrium house (e.g. House of the Menander)
● The atrium-peristyle house (e.g. House of the Vettii)
● Insulae or apartment/lodgings houses (e.g. House of the Trellis)
● Villas (e.g. Villa of Mysteries)

Domus or atrium house

● Most common form of housing
● Single storeyed
● Excavations in Herculaneum shows evidence of some two storeyed
● Generally owned by the members of the senatorial or equestrian classes or local aristocracy

Atrium-peristyle house
● By the 1st century AD the peristyle had become the centrepiece of wealthy homes
● Visitory passed straight through the atrium into the peristyle.
● The peristyle then gave access to the dining room and the living rooms
 Atrium-peristyle house
Insulae or apartment/lodging houses
● Multi-storeyed apartments or tenements
● Varied from spacious apartments with a number of rooms to tiny cubicles only suitable for sleeping
● More evidence for multi-storeyed buildings have been found at Herculaneum rather than Pompeii
● The House of the Trellis in Herculaneum housed two families, one on each floor.
● Cheaply build out of wood and plaster
● Outside staircase to access above floor

Villas
● Large
● Luxurious
● Multi-roomed
● Outskirts of Pompeii and Herculaneum
● On the coast
● Wealthy citizens of Rome
● Holiday houses
● Stabiae had many seaside villas and was the location of the
villa belonging to Pliny the Elder’s friend, Pomponianus
Insulae or apartment/lodging houses
Everyday life: housing, leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water supply, sanitation

Issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilities

Warfare
● 1943- 150 bombs in air raids- destroyed many buildings including the palaestra and floor of the
ampitheatre.
● Director of Excavations- Mauri was hospitalised due to shrapnel wounds

Pollution
● Threat to both sites
● SMOG- affects colour of the frescoes, mosaics and statutes
● ACID RAIN- physically erodes- lack of adequate roofing

Corruption
● From first excavations, items looted by workers
● Local mafia group “CAMORRA” infiltrated positions of authority→ taking funds meant for conservation

Marcello Fiori Alia Wallace, Presenting Pompeii: Steps

● Special Commissioner for Excavations at Pompeii Towards Reconciling Conservation and
● Arrested Tourism at an Ancient Site
● Secured contracts for projects funded by the EU and Italian government “ At Pompeii, the Bourbons implemented a
● Inflated prices policy of leaving excavated buildings
● cheap and inadequate construction materials uncovered and open to the visitors, and
frescoes and mosaics were left in situ. These
● 8 million euro contract→ local restoration company→ Large Theatre decisions played a role in creating the
● Engineers employed were already blacklisted from profession- poor materials→ arrest of the owner open-air visitor attracted that Pompeii is
today. Unfortunately, they were also the
Security Guards beginning of many of the sites conservation
● Employed at Pompeii under the influence of ‘Camorra’ problems. Exposed to the elements, the site
● Turning a blind eye to thefts that will profit crime gang began to erode and exposed frescoes faded
quickly. Faded frescoes were often
Thefts by tourists “freshened up” for visitors by having water
 ● Opportunity crimes→ souvenir thrown on them and varnishes applied to
● Organised crimes protect them”

● 2003- two frescoes stolen from the House of the Chaste Lovers
● 2013- 33 kg piece of a fountain in the House of Ceii stolen in October
● 2014- Frescoe of the goddess Artemis “House of Neptune” hacked from a wall
● 2017- Bronze ornament stolen from a museum exhibit at Pompeii

Paraffin wax on frescoes → wax bound with paint→ moisture push

Very early tour guides would freshen up the appearance of the freoces by splashing water on them

Interestingly the frescoes haphazardly removed by the Bourbons have fared better in the dry climate of the
palaces than if they were left in situ.

The great pompeii project

● Security cameras
● Security guards increased
● whistleblower website

How did early excavators affect the preservation of Pompeii and Herculaneum?
Very early tour guides would freshen up the appearance of the freoces by splashing water on them.

Why were perspex panels placed over some frescoes? What effects has this had on their conservation?
Perspex cases have been constructed to protect frescoes and graffiti, however, this creates a humidity trap and
causes damage to the plaster.

Why are weeds a threat to the conservation project?

Over thirty different varieties of weeds have invaded the ruins of Pompeii and
Herculaneum. Their roots have caused cracking in thousands of square metres of
stonework, plasterwork and mosaics

Outline the consequences of the Camorra’s infiltration of Pompeii

Infiltrated positions of authority→ taking funds meant for conservation
How is the pigeon problem addressed?
Introduced three hawks to patrol the skies

Glossary
Main roads= Decumani
Minor roads= cardini
Blocks= Insulae
Regions = Regios (9 regions)
Fullonica: An ancient Roman version of a laundry! At fullonicas, fabrics were often prepared for selling and many people also brought their
garments for cleaning. Also sometimes referred to as fulleries.
Garum: A popular, stinky, super fishy and fermented ancient Roman fish sauce. It was a delicacy!
Liberti: The ex-slaves in ancient Rome, also referred to as freedmen.
Patronus: We don’t mean the Harry Potter type! In ancient Rome, a patronus was an individual of higher status (a patron!) who gave economic
or other assistance to a person of lower status in return for their support.
Pistrina: A pistrina was an ancient Roman bakery! It’s pretty easy to remember because it sounds relatively similar to pastry.
Thermopolium: The ancient Roman version of fast food joints. Hot food was stored in big bucket-like containers called dolia and people could
quickly order ready-to-eat meals.
Villa: Essentially a big, upper-class house. Purely reserved for the Roman elites.
Pyroclastic Surge: Pyroclastic surges are low-density currents of ash, pumice, crystals, and volcanic gases that are more dilute than
pyroclastic flows (Fast)
Pyroclastic flow: Pyroclastic flows are high-density currents of pumice, ash, blocks, and volcanic gas that rapidly move down the slopes of a
volcano. (Slow)
As (plural asses) - Roman coin of little value
Amicus - friend (implied equal status)
Programmata: Electoral Graffiti, slogans written on the side of buildings, these programmata included the candidate’s name, position and their
qualities (never personal qualities)
Magistracy: Government official
Vici: Different electoral regions/groups
Ouattuorviri: The board of Four
Decurion: Member of the Ordo Decurionum, also known as the local councillor
Populus: People who could vote
Peristyle: A covered colonnade or row of columns that surrounds an interior open space or garden.
Praedia: "land" or "estate." It can refer to a group of lands or properties. There are different types of praedia, such as praedia bellica, which are
lands seized during war, and praedia stipendiaria, which are lands belonging to the government.
Domus: A house, or place of dwelling
Atrium: Entry hall, The central court
Exedra: Three walled room painted with nature scenery
Tabernae: one-room shop for the sale of goods or for services (Tavern)
Tablinum: a room or alcove between the atrium and the peristyle of a Roman house for storing the family records on tablets. (Office)
Triclinium: a couch extending around three sides of a table used by the ancient Romans for reclining at meals (Dining room)
Duumvir - Chief magistrate
Alae: a military formation composed of conscripts from the socii, Rome's Italian military allies.
Aedile: either of two (later four) Roman magistrates responsible for public buildings and originally also for the public games and the supply of
corn to the city
Piscina: a stone basin near the altar in Catholic and pre-Reformation churches for draining water used in the Mass. (Pool)
Palaestra - any site of an ancient Greek wrestling school.
Curia: People’s assembly
Natalic:
Ientaculum: Breakfast, consisted of bread, fruit and cheese
Prandium: Lunch, consisted of meat eggs and bread
Cena: Dinner, consisted of a Number of courses including wine, ending with fruit