‭ xponential Growth: Exponential growth is a type of population growth in which the number‬

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‭of individuals in a population increases at a constant rate, typically in a compounded manner,‬
‭over a given period of time. In exponential growth, each new generation is significantly larger‬
‭than the previous one.‬

‭ ontinuation of Exponential Growth: Exponential growth cannot continue indefinitely in‬

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‭natural populations. It is limited by factors such as resource availability, competition,‬
‭predation, disease, and environmental constraints. Eventually, a population reaches a‬
‭carrying capacity where the growth rate levels off.‬

‭ ogistic Growth: Logistic growth is a more realistic model of population growth that takes‬
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‭into account environmental limitations. It begins with exponential growth but then levels off‬
‭as the population approaches its carrying capacity, which is the maximum number of‬
‭individuals the environment can support.‬

‭ uman Population Growth: Humans have been following a pattern of exponential growth for‬
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‭most of their history. However, in recent times, the human population has started to‬
‭approach the limits of the planet's resources, and growth has slowed, indicating a transition‬
‭toward logistic growth.‬

I‭PAT or IPATS: IPAT or IPATS stands for Impact = Population x Affluence x Technology x‬
‭Sensitivity. It is an equation used to assess the environmental impact of human activities. It‬
‭helps understand the relationship between population size, economic affluence, technology,‬
‭and how sensitive the environment is to these factors. It provides insights into the drivers of‬
‭environmental change and can guide efforts to reduce environmental impact.‬

‭ ustainability: Sustainability refers to the practice of living in a way that meets the needs of‬
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‭the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their‬
‭own needs. This involves balancing economic, social, and environmental considerations.‬
‭Sustainable living includes conserving resources, reducing waste, and making choices that‬
‭minimize harm to the environment.‬

‭ iodiversity: Biodiversity, short for biological diversity, refers to the variety and variability of‬
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‭life forms, species, and ecosystems on Earth. It encompasses genetic diversity within‬
‭species, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity.‬
‭Three Levels of Biodiversity: a. Genetic Diversity: The variety of genetic information within a‬
‭species. b. Species Diversity: The number of different species in a particular area or‬
‭ecosystem. c. Ecosystem Diversity: The variety of different ecosystems or habitats in a‬
‭region.‬

‭ cosystem Services: Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans derive from healthy‬
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‭ecosystems. Examples include clean air and water, pollination of crops, regulation of climate,‬
‭and recreational opportunities.‬
‭ olves in Yellowstone: Reintroducing wolves to Yellowstone National Park had a cascading‬
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‭effect on the ecosystem. Wolves helped control the elk population, which in turn reduced‬
‭overgrazing of vegetation. This allowed the recovery of streamside vegetation, improved‬
‭habitat for beavers, and positively impacted various other species and ecological processes.‬
‭Species Richness and Abundance: Species richness refers to the number of different species‬
‭in a given area. Species abundance, or evenness, relates to how evenly the individuals within‬
‭a community are distributed among the different species.‬
‭Shannon and Simpson Diversity Index: Biologists use the Shannon diversity index and‬
‭Simpson diversity index to assess biodiversity. These indices provide quantitative measures‬
‭of species diversity within a community, considering both the number of species and their‬
‭relative abundances.‬

‭ hi-Square Test: A chi-square test is a statistical method used to determine if there are‬
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‭significant differences between observed and expected data in a sample or population,‬
‭allowing researchers to evaluate whether the differences are due to chance or a real‬
‭relationship.‬

‭ peciation: Speciation is the process by which new species evolve from existing species. It‬
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‭occurs when populations become reproductively isolated, preventing gene flow between‬
‭them. An example is the formation of a new species of finches in the Galápagos Islands due‬
‭to differences in beak shape and feeding habits.‬
‭Number of Identified Species: Around 1.7 million species have been identified and named.‬
‭The total number of species on Earth is estimated to be between 5 to 10 million or even‬
‭more.‬

‭ ost Species on Earth: Most species on Earth are insects.‬

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‭Vulnerability of Species: a. Endemic species may be vulnerable because their limited‬
‭geographic range makes them more susceptible to localized threats. b. Species with low‬
‭population numbers are vulnerable because they are more at risk of genetic drift, inbreeding,‬
‭and environmental fluctuations. c. Species that require a large amount of space may be‬
‭vulnerable due to habitat loss and fragmentation. d. Species that either move a lot or not at‬
‭all may be vulnerable if they cannot adapt to changing landscapes. e. Species with little‬
‭genetic variability are vulnerable because they lack the genetic flexibility to adapt to changing‬
‭conditions. f. Species that cannot adapt easily to changes may be vulnerable if their‬
‭environment undergoes rapid changes. g. Species that form large groups may be vulnerable‬
‭to threats that impact their entire population.‬

I‭mpact of Species Deaths: When too many individuals of a species die, it can lead to‬
‭population decline and, in extreme cases, extinction.‬
‭Extinction is the Fate of All Species: Extinction is a natural part of the Earth's history. Over‬
‭geological time scales, all species eventually go extinct due to various factors.‬

‭ ackground Extinction: Background extinction is the continuous, low-level extinction of‬

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‭species that occurs over geological time. It is not associated with major catastrophic events.‬
‭ ass Extinction: Mass extinctions are rare, large-scale events in Earth's history during which‬
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‭a significant percentage of species go extinct. There have been five major mass extinctions‬
‭in Earth's history.‬

‭Number of Mass Extinctions: There have been five major mass extinctions in Earth's history.‬

‭ otential for a 6th Mass Extinction: There is concern about a potential 6th mass extinction‬
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‭caused by human activities, such as habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change. Some‬
‭scientists argue that we may already be experiencing it.‬

‭ ifferences in the 6th Mass Extinction: The 6th mass extinction event could be different from‬
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‭previous ones because it is largely driven by human activities and is occurring at a much‬
‭faster rate than natural mass extinctions.‬

‭ Causes of Extinction: a. Habitat destruction b. Pollution c. Climate change d. Invasive‬

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‭species e. Overharvesting‬

‭ eading Cause of Extinction: Habitat destruction is considered the leading cause of species‬
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‭extinction.‬

‭ abitat Destruction: a. Urbanization: Conversion of land for cities and infrastructure. b.‬
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‭Fragmentation: Breaking up of continuous habitats into smaller, isolated patches. c.‬
‭Conversion: Transformation of natural habitats into agriculture, mining, or other land uses.‬
‭Converted Land Use: Most converted land is used for agriculture.‬
‭Impacts of Land Conversion: Land conversion for agriculture and other purposes can lead to‬
‭habitat loss, reduced biodiversity, soil degradation, and increased greenhouse gas‬
‭emissions.‬

‭ abitat Fragmentation: Habitat fragmentation negatively impacts species by reducing the‬

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‭available habitat, isolating populations, and increasing the edge effect, making species more‬
‭vulnerable.‬

‭ dge Effect and Extinction: Increased edge in a habitat can drive species to extinction‬
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‭because it exposes them to increased predation, invasive species, and environmental‬
‭stressors.‬

I‭sland Distance from the Mainland: Islands closer to the mainland tend to have a higher‬
‭number of species because they are more likely to receive species through colonization.‬
‭Island Size: Larger islands typically support more species because they can provide a‬