AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS & AVIONICS

21AE62
Module-2
Syllabus
Engine Systems:
Fuel systems for Piston and jet engines
Components of multi engines
Lubricating systems
Starting and Ignition systems

Auxiliary System:
Basic Air cycle systems
Vapour Cycle systems
Oxygen & pressurization systems,
Fire protection systems
De-icing and anti-icing systems.
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References
• https://www.pilotmall.com/blogs/news/aircraft-fuel-system-design-the-breakdown
• https://www.aviator.zone/pireps/2021/1/25/engine-parts-every-pilot-should-know
• https://learntoflyblog.com/aircraft-systems-fuel-induction-systems/
• https://aerotoolbox.com/fuel-system/
• https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/p/turbineengine-ignition-systems-since.html
• https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235010079_Communication_Needs_Assessment_
for_Distributed_Turbine_Engine_Control_Postprint
• https://youtu.be/GzhdxSsoT0g
• https://safeblog.org/2016/02/28/hypoxia-in-flight/
• https://www.aircraftsystemstech.com/2017/05/aircraft-air-conditioning-systems.html
• https://skybrary.aero/articles/passenger-cabin-fire
• https://www.weather.gov/source/zhu/ZHU_Training_Page/icing_stuff/icing/icing.htm

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Types of Engines and Compression Systems
Engines are customarily divided into groups or types depending upon:
1. The working fluid used in the engine cycle.
2. The means by which the mechanical energy is transmitted into a propulsive force.
3. The method of compressing the engine working fluid.

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Comparison of Fuel Consumption for three types of engines
The basic parameter for describing the fuel economy of aircraft engines is usually specific fuel
consumption. Specific fuel consumption for turbojets and ramjets is the fuel flow (lbs/hr)
divided by thrust (lbs), and for reciprocating engines the fuel flow (lbs/ hr) divided by brake
horsepower. These are called “thrust specific fuel consumption” and “brake specific fuel
consumption,” respectively.

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Components of a Piston Engine Cylinder and Ignition Systems

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Components of a Piston Fuel System

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Components of a Piston Lubrication System

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Components of a Turbine Engine

But which one is it? The other two are left for you
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Components of a Turbine Engine Ignition System
Turbine ignition systems are operated mostly for a brief
period during the engine-starting cycle. It is used to ignite
the fuel in the combustor and then it is switched off.
The typical turbine engine is equipped with a capacitor-
type, ignition system consisting of two identical
independent ignition units operating from a common
electrical power source: the aircraft battery, 115 AC, or its
permanent magnet generator.
A high-voltage is supplied to arc across a wide igniter
spark gap, providing the ignition system with a high
degree of reliability under widely varying conditions of
altitude, atmospheric pressure, temperature, fuel
vaporization and input voltage.

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Components of a Gas Turbine Fuel System
The fuel system is one of the more complex aspects of the gas turbine engine. It must be
possible to increase or decrease the power at will to obtain the thrust required for any
operating condition. In turbine-powered aircraft, this control is provided by varying the flow of
fuel to the combustion chambers.
The quantity of fuel supplied must be adjusted automatically to correct for changes in ambient
temperature or pressure. If the quantity of fuel becomes excessive in relation to mass airflow
through the engine, the limiting temperature of the turbine blades can be exceeded, or it will
produce compressor stall and a condition referred to as rich blowout.

The fuel nozzles form part of the fuel system and atomize or vaporize the fuel so that it ignites
and burns efficiently. This means that the fuel must be injected into the combustion chambers
in a combustible condition during engine starting and that combustion must be sustained while
the engine is accelerating to its normal idling speed. 11
Gas Turbine Fuel System Schematic

https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=zqeQmlB-DFM&ab_channel=RoddyMcNamee 12
Fuel Control Unit (FCU)
Control of power or thrust is achieved by regulating the fuel flow into the combustor. On turbo
jet or turbo fan engines thrust can be controlled by setting an engine pressure ratio or, in the
case of the larger commercial fan engines, by controlling fan speed.
The relationship between the air flow induced through the engine and the fuel supplied is,
however, complicated by changes in altitude, air temperature and aircraft speed.
The engine speed must be controlled from idle to maximum rating. Overspeed must be avoided
to reduce stresses in the rotating assemblies, and overtemperature must be avoided to prevent
blade damage and to reduce thermal creep. The engine must be allowed to accelerate and
decelerate smoothly with no risk of surge.
The FCU, has been designed to accommodate control inputs from external electronic devices.
Electrical valves in the FCU can be connected to electronic control units to allow more precise
and continuous automatic control of fuel flows in response to throttle demands, using
measurements derived from the engine, to achieve steady state and transient control of the
engine.

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FCU/FMU Block Diagram

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Engine Control Systems
The number of variables that affect engine performance is high and the nature of the variables
is dynamic, so that the pilot cannot be expected constantly to adjust the throttle lever to
compensate for changes, particularly in multi-engine aircraft.
Electric control functions electrically requires devices to sense engine operating conditions and
to perform a controlling function. The input signals provide information from the aircraft and
the engine to be used in control algorithms, while the output signals provide the ability to
perform a control function.

Spot the
Differences!

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FADEC
Most modern civil engines use a Full Authority Digital
Engine Control System (FADEC), mounted on the fan casing
to perform all the functions of powerplant management
and control. The FADEC is a data acquisition and high
performance control law processing system implemented in
an environmentally hardened avionics package.

FADEC works by receiving multiple input variables of the

current flight condition including air density, throttle lever
position, engine temperatures, engine pressures, and many
other parameters. The inputs are received by the EEC and
analyzed up to 70 times per second. Engine operating
parameters such as fuel flow, stator vane position, bleed
valve position, and others are computed from this data and
applied as appropriate.
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Sensors and actuators of FADEC system

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Components of a Gas Turbine Lubrication System
The lubrication system in an aircraft
engine is vital for ensuring smooth
operation and preventing excessive
wear and tear on critical
components.
Sensors are included in the oil
system to provide warnings of low
oil pressure and high oil
temperature.
Monitoring of particles in the oil
can be performed by regular
inspection of a magnetic plug in the
oil reservoir or by counting
particles in the fluid in a
chip/particle detector.
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Starting and Ignition Systems for Turbine Engines
The ignition system consists of a high energy ignitor which is switched on for a period during
the start cycle. The ignitors initiate combustion of the fuel vapor in the combustion chamber.
An ignitor plug is supplied with electrical energy by an ignition exciter that produces stored
energy from 1 to 6 joules depending on the type required.
High energy systems are used for starting, and low energy systems can be provided to maintain
engine ignition during aircraft operations in heavy rain, slushy runways or icing conditions.

https://youtu.be/GzhdxSsoT0g
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Atmospheric Conditions in Flight

The most common reaction to hypoxia is a feeling of

euphoria. An affected pilot will not usually feel “sick” or
disabled but more typically feel “high” (feeling real good)!!!

Accidental loss of cabin pressure in an aircraft above 20K feet

with no supplemental oxygen leads to unconsciousness within
15-20 seconds and brain death may follow in 4-5 minutes. 20
Aircraft Air Conditioning Systems
At a typical cruise altitude of 11,000 m (36,000 ft), the air temperature is usually about −55°C
(−65°F). The atmospheric pressure is only about 1/5th that at sea level and the partial pressure
of the oxygen (PO2) is only about 4.7 kPa (0.69 psi) compared with 21 kPa (3.1 psi) at sea level
and is far below what is necessary to sustain human life.

The minimal cabin pressure is set by FAR-25, is to “provide a cabin pressure altitude of not
more than 8000 ft [2,440 m]” under normal operating conditions which corresponds to a cabin
pressure of 75 kPa (10.9 psi). The rate of change in cabin pressure altitude is limited to not
more than 5 m/s (about 1,000 ft/min). The temperature of the air that must be provided to the
cabin can be determined from the steady-state heat balance for an aircraft cabin. The FAR-25
requirement of 0.25 kg/min per person for outside air.

There are two types of air conditioning systems commonly used on aircraft. Air cycle air
conditioning is used on most turbine-powered aircraft. It makes use of engine bleed air or APU
pneumatic air during the conditioning process. Vapor cycle air conditioning systems are often
used on reciprocating aircraft. 21
Basic Air Cycle Systems
An air cycle machine is a system that’s designed to cool and dehumidify the air that enters an
airplane’s cabin. The air cycle system is often called the air conditioning package or Pack. The
air cycle system is supplied by air processed through two packs that regulate airflow and
temperature as required. The air cycle system is supplied with air by bleed air tap-offs on each
engine compressor section or from the APU pneumatic supply. Bleed air from the pneumatic
manifold is directed into a primary heat exchanger of Packs.

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Air Cycle Refrigeration Systems
Air cycle refrigeration systems are used to cool engine bleed air down to temperatures
required for cabin and equipment conditioning. Since engine bleed air is generally available,
air cycle refrigeration is used for cooling and cabin pressurization requirements in an
integrated system.

The basic system consists of a cold air unit and a heat exchanger. The engine compressor is
used to increase the air pressure with a corresponding increase in temperature. The
temperature is then reduced in the ram air cooled heat exchanger.

Air cycle systems limitations:

Very large air flows are required in high heat load applications which require large diameter
ducts which are detrimental to engine performance
Large aircraft drag penalties are incurred due to the need for ram air cooling

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Basic Air Cycle Layout (bootstrap System)

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Vapour Cycle Systems
The vapour cycle system is a closed loop system where
the heat load is absorbed by the evaporation of a liquid
refrigerant. The refrigerant then passes through a
compressor with a corresponding increase in pressure
and temperature, before being cooled in a condenser
where the heat is rejected to a heat sink. The
refrigerant flows back to the evaporator via an
expansion valve.

Although vapour cycle systems are very efficient their

applications are limited due to problems such as their
limited temperature range and heavy weight compared
to air cycle systems. The maximum operating
temperatures of many refrigerants are between 65 °C
and 70 °C, which is significantly less than the
temperatures which are required for aircraft operation. 25
Pressurization Systems
Cabin pressurization is achieved by a cabin pressure control valve which is installed in the cabin
wall to control cabin pressure to the required value depending on the aircraft altitude by
regulating the flow of air from the cabin.

Pressurization and air conditioning systems are dependent on the following:

• Aircraft altitude: The actual height above sea level at which the airplane is flying.
• Ambient temperature: The temperature in the area immediately surrounding the airplane.
• Ambient pressure: The pressure in the area immediately surrounding the airplane.
• Cabin altitude: Used to express cabin pressure in terms of equivalent altitude above sea level.
• Differential pressure: The difference in pressure between the pressure acting on one side of a
wall and the pressure acting on the other side of the wall.

The cabin pressure altitude is maintained at approximately 8,000 ft at the maximum designed
cruising altitude of the airplane, and prevents rapid changes of cabin altitude which may be
uncomfortable or injurious to passengers and crew. Pressurization of also protects persons
against the effects of hypoxia. 26
Cabin Pressure vs Aircraft Altitude
Taking the structural limitations of the aircraft into consideration, the cabin altitude (cabin
pressure) must vary with aircraft altitude (ambient pressure) in order to provide appropriate
cabin environmental conditions for survival and comfort of the crew and passengers based on
the physiological requirements.

Depressurization in the cabin can be one of three types:

Explosive depressurization: Depressurization occurs in
under 0.1 seconds.
Fast depressurization: Happens in over 0.5 seconds.
Gradual depressurization: Depressurization occurs in a very
progressive manner so the only way to detect it is through
instruments. 27
Aircraft Decompression and Oxygen Systems
Decompression is defined as the inability of the airplane's
pressurization system to maintain its designed pressure
differential. This can be caused by a malfunction in the
pressurization system or structural damage to the
airplane. The primary danger of decompression is
hypoxia. Unless proper utilization of oxygen equipment is
accomplished quickly, unconsciousness may occur in a
very short time. Another hazard is that of being tossed or
blown out of the airplane if near an opening.

In aeroplanes two independent oxygen systems are used:

Pressurized oxygen: It is oxygen which has been
introduced inside pressurized bottles. This system is used
by pilots and provides more autonomy.
Chemical oxygen: Solid oxygen is used by passengers. It’s
an easy system to keep and has long-life. 28
On-Board Oxygen Generating System (OBOGS)
On-Board Oxygen Generating System (OBOGS) centric Life Support System to provide enhanced
physiology protection to aircrew of high altitude and high speed fighter aircrafts. OBOGS
replaces Liquid Oxygen System (LOX) by utilizing bleed air from the aircraft engine and
separating its components using molecular sieve (Zeolite) Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)
technology. The system consists of two molecular sieve beds with oxygen plenum to provide
breathing gas to aircrew continuously.

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Fire Sources in Aircraft
Typical zones on aircraft that have a fixed fire detection and/or fire extinguisher system are:
Engines and auxiliary power unit (APU)
Cargo and baggage compartments
Lavatories on transport aircraft
Electronic bays
Wheel wells
Bleed air ducts

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Types of Fires and Extinguishers

Which extinguisher to use on a

Lithium Battery fire inside the
cabin?

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Fire Detection and Suppression
The most likely place for a fire to start is the engine compartment. Detection systems are
usually installed where the engines and APUs are located. The system consists of a temperature
measuring sensors, which are located in different zones within the engine bay, a control unit
and a connection to the aircraft warning displays. Once a fire warning is observed, the engine
is shut down, fuel system is isolated and then extinguisher fluid is discharged into the bay.

Detection of fires within the aircraft cabin or flight deck usually depends on the ability of the
cabin or flight crew member to see or smell smoke. Smoke detectors are used to give early
indications of a fire inside enclosed spaces such as the lavatories and cargo hold. Some of the
common suppression tools used by crew are Fire protection gloves, fire blankets and hand-held
fire extinguishers. Automated systems may also be used in enclosed cabins.

The fixed fire extinguisher systems used in most engine fire and cargo compartment fire
protection systems are designed to dilute the atmosphere with an inert agent that does not
support combustion. The fire suppression is triggered using switches in the cockpit and it
releases a fluid such as BromoChloro-diFluoro-methane (BCF). 32
HRD Systems and Fire Switches
The fixed fire extinguisher systems used in most engine
fire and cargo compartment fire protection systems
use High Rate of Discharge (HRD) systems. Fire
extinguisher containers (HRD bottles) store a liquid
halogenated extinguishing agent and pressurized gas
(typically nitrogen). Most aircraft containers are
spherical in design, which provides the lightest weight
possible. However, cylindrical shapes are available
where space is a constraint.

The engine and APU fire switches are typically installed

on the center overhead panel or center console in the
flight deck. When an engine fire switch is activated, the
fuel control shuts off and the fire extinguishing system
is activated. A lock is installed on the switches that
releases only when a fire has been detected. 33
Aircraft Icing
Icing is caused either by the freezing of precipitation
on the aircraft structure or by supercooled liquid
water droplets solidifying on impact with aircraft
structure.

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Anti-icing Systems
Anti-icing systems are designed for activation before the
aircraft enters icing conditions to prevent the formation
of ice. Most anti-ice systems rely on heat to evaporate the
liquid water when it strikes the protected surface. In
turbine-powered aircraft, engine bleed air is commonly
used to supply the required heat. Piston powered aircraft
normally rely on electrical power to supply the heat.

Freezing point depressant fluid systems have also been

used for anti-icing. Specially formulated fluids usually
based on glycol from the leading edges of the airfoils. The
anti-icing fluid runs back over the protected surface. The
fluid prevents ice from forming because the freezing point
of the water/anti-icing fluid mixture is lower than that of
unadulterated liquid water. Similar fluid systems may be
used to prevent ice accretion on propeller blades and
windshields.
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Ground based Anti-icing Systems

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De-icing Systems
A de-icing systems remove ice after it has formed by using mechanical (principally pneumatic),
electrical and thermal methods. De-icing needs to be done only periodically when ice is being
removed, with some mechanical designs requiring relatively little energy overall. The main
drawback to the de-icing system is that, the aircraft will operate with ice formation for the
majority of the time in icing conditions. The only time it will be free of ice accretions will be the
time during and immediately after the use of the de-ice system.

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Icing Protection Systems

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