UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION

Definition

 Research is a systematic and structured process of inquiry, investigation, or study that

aims to advance knowledge, solve problems, or answer questions. It involves the
collection, analysis, and interpretation of data or information to generate new insights,
theories, or applications.
 Redmann & Mory defines research as systemized effort to gain new knowledge.
 Clifford Woody: Research comprises
i. Defining and redefining problems
ii. Formulating hypothesis or suggesting solution
iii. Collecting, organizing and evaluating data
iv. Making deductions
v. Reaching conclusions
vi. Carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis

Characteristics of Research

 Systematic Process: Research is a systematic and organized process that follows a

structured plan, method, or procedure. It involves a clear and logical sequence of steps
from problem identification to data analysis and interpretation.
 Objective and Unbiased: Research aims to be objective and free from bias or personal
opinions. Researchers should approach their work impartially and avoid letting their
beliefs or preferences influence the results.
 Empirical: Research relies on empirical evidence, which means it is based on observable
and measurable phenomena. Data is collected through direct observation, experiments,
surveys, or other methods.
 Logical and Critical: Research involves logical and critical thinking. Researchers evaluate
existing literature, formulate hypotheses or research questions, and use critical
reasoning to analyze data and draw conclusions.
 Structured Methodology: Research employs a well-defined methodology, including data
collection methods, data analysis techniques, and statistical tools (in quantitative
research) or interpretative frameworks (in qualitative research).
  Cumulative: Research builds upon existing knowledge and is cumulative in nature. New
studies often reference and extend the findings of earlier research, contributing to the
growth of knowledge in a field.
 Generalizable: Research aims to produce results that are not limited to a single case but
can be generalized to a broader population or context. This enhances the relevance and
applicability of the findings.
 Problem-Solving Orientation: Research is often problem-driven. It seeks to address
specific issues, answer questions, or provide solutions to problems, whether they are
scientific, social, or practical in nature.
 Replicable: Good research should be replicable, meaning that other researchers should
be able to replicate the study using the same methods and obtain similar results. This
helps verify the validity of the findings.
 Ethical: Research adheres to ethical guidelines and respects the rights and well-being of
research participants. Informed consent, confidentiality, and avoiding harm are essential
ethical principles.
 Subject to Peer Review: Quality research undergoes peer review by experts in the field
before it is published or accepted. Peer review ensures the validity and rigor of the
research.
 Innovative and Exploratory: Research often involves exploring new ideas, hypotheses,
or areas of study. It can lead to innovative discoveries or challenge existing knowledge.
 Time-Consuming: Research is typically a time-consuming process, as it involves
planning, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. It may also require revisiting the
research design in response to unexpected challenges.
 Context-Dependent: Research is context-dependent, and the methods and approaches
used may vary based on the nature of the research problem and the field of study.

Types of Research

1. Fundamental Research:
 Fundamental research often referred to as basic research or pure research is a
type of scientific inquiry that is driven by a curiosity about the world and a desire
to expand human knowledge.
 It is typically not directly tied to specific practical applications or immediate
problem-solving. Instead, fundamental research seeks to understand the
fundamental principles, mechanisms, and phenomena that underlie various
aspects of the natural and social world.
  It seeks to answer "why" and "how" questions about the natural and social
world.
 It may require long-term commitment and patience, as breakthroughs can take
years or even decades to materialize.
 Interdisciplinary collaboration is common in fundamental research.
 The primary goal of fundamental research is to contribute to the body of basic
knowledge in a specific field. It forms the foundation upon which further
research and practical applications can be built.
 Due to the exploratory nature of fundamental research, there is often a high
degree of uncertainty about the outcome.
 Examples: Studies in fundamental physics, such as the discovery of subatomic
particles, or investigations into the fundamental principles of genetics and DNA,
are classic examples of fundamental research that led to groundbreaking
discoveries.
2. Applied Research (Action Research):
 Applied research is a type of scientific investigation that aims to address specific
practical problems, challenges, or questions. Unlike fundamental research, which
seeks to expand theoretical knowledge, applied research is focused on using
existing knowledge to find practical solutions or to develop new applications.
 It frequently involves testing hypotheses or concepts in real-world settings to
assess their effectiveness and practicality. Applied research projects tend to have
shorter timeframes compared to fundamental research, as the goal is to address
immediate issues.
 Examples: Research aimed at improving medical treatments, developing new
technologies, enhancing product designs, or optimizing manufacturing processes
are all examples of applied research.
3. Quantitative Research: Quantitative research is a systematic and structured approach
to research that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to understand,
describe, or explain a phenomenon or answer research questions. It is often used in
social sciences, natural sciences, and other fields where data can be measured and
quantified. Examples: Market research surveys to understand consumer preferences,
clinical trials to assess the effectiveness of a new drug, and sociological studies
examining the relationship between income and education are all examples of
quantitative research.
i. Descriptive Research: Descriptive research is a type of research design that
involves systematically observing, documenting, and analyzing the characteristics
of a particular phenomenon, situation, or group. It seeks to provide an accurate
and comprehensive portrayal of the subject under study without attempting to
 explain or influence it. Examples: Surveys that describe the demographics of a
target audience, observational studies that document the behavior of animals in
the wild, or content analysis of news articles to identify prevalent themes are all
examples of descriptive research.
ii. Correlational Research: Correlational research is a type of scientific investigation
that focuses on examining the relationships or associations between variables
without attempting to establish causation. In other words, it seeks to determine
whether there is a statistical relationship between two or more variables and to
what extent they vary together. Examples: Studies exploring the relationship
between smoking and lung cancer, the correlation between student study time
and exam scores, or the association between employee satisfaction and
workplace productivity are all examples of correlational research.
iii. Experimental Research: Experimental research is a systematic and controlled
scientific investigation that aims to establish cause-and-effect relationships
between variables. It involves manipulating one or more independent variables
to observe their effects on one or more dependent variables while controlling for
potential sources of bias or error. Examples: Clinical trials testing the
effectiveness of a new drug, psychological experiments investigating the impact
of cognitive training on memory, and studies examining the effects of advertising
on consumer behavior are all examples of experimental research.
iv. Quasi-Experimental Research: Quasi-experimental research is a type of research
design that investigates cause-and-effect relationships, but unlike true
experimental research, it lacks full control over variables because it often
compares pre-existing groups exposed to different conditions or interventions.
This design is used when full experimental control is not possible, making it more
practical for real-world settings but with limitations in establishing causation.
Examples: Studies comparing the educational outcomes of students who
attended a new school program (without random assignment) or evaluating the
effectiveness of a smoking cessation program for individuals who self-select to
participate are examples of quasi-experimental research.
4. Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is an approach that explores and interprets
the depth, context, and meaning of human experiences and behaviors. It relies on open-
ended data collection methods like interviews and observations, seeks to uncover
patterns and themes, and prioritizes understanding the "why" and "how" of a
phenomenon. It often involves smaller, non-random samples and is valuable for its in-
depth insights but may lack generalizability. Examples: Qualitative research is used in
social sciences to understand the impact of social programs, in healthcare to explore
patient experiences, and in marketing to gain insights into consumer behavior.
 i. Historical Research: Historical research is the study of the past through primary
and secondary sources to understand and interpret historical events, people,
and societies. It involves careful analysis, critical thinking, and the construction of
historical narratives within a broader context. Researchers explore archives,
libraries, and other historical collections to uncover the complexities of history
and its impact on the present. Examples: Studies on the causes and
consequences of historical events, biographies of historical figures, analyses of
past social movements, or investigations into the development of ancient
civilizations are all examples of historical research.
ii. Ethnographic Research: Ethnographic research is a qualitative method that
involves researchers immersing themselves in a culture or social group to
understand their behaviors, perspectives, and practices. It relies on participant
observation, qualitative data, and in-depth engagement to provide a holistic
view of the group's culture. Researchers often live among the participants and
produce detailed, context-rich descriptions of their experiences and practices.
Examples: Studies of indigenous communities, urban subcultures, religious
groups, or workplace cultures are examples of ethnographic research.
iii. Phenomenological Research: Phenomenological research is a qualitative
approach that delves into the lived experiences and perspectives of individuals
to understand the essence and meaning of those experiences. It involves in-
depth interviews, analysis of narratives, and the suspension of researcher biases.
The goal is to capture the richness and depth of human experiences and their
core meanings. Examples: Studies that explore the experiences of cancer
patients facing end-of-life decisions, the essence of teacher-student
relationships, or the lived experiences of individuals with a specific mental health
condition are examples of phenomenological research.
iv. Narrative Research: Narrative research is a qualitative approach that focuses on
collecting and analyzing stories or personal accounts to understand individuals'
experiences, perspectives, and the meaning they attach to events. It emphasizes
the subjective nature of storytelling and seeks to provide a holistic
understanding of people's lives, identity, and cultural context through their
narratives. Examples: Studies that explore the narratives of cancer survivors,
immigrant experiences, war veterans, or the autobiographies of famous
individuals are examples of narrative research.
5. Exploratory Research: Exploratory research is a preliminary and open-ended research
approach used to gain insights, understand a research problem, and generate
hypotheses. It doesn't test hypotheses or provide definitive answers but lays the
foundation for more focused and conclusive research in the future. It's particularly
 valuable in exploring uncharted or complex areas of study. Examples: Exploratory
research can be used to understand emerging trends in a market, to explore the
experiences of a particular group of people, or to uncover new factors related to a
medical condition before conducting full-scale research.
6. Explanatory Research: Explanatory research is a research approach that aims to identify
and understand the causes and effects of a phenomenon, seeking to explain why and
how certain relationships exist. It involves testing hypotheses and conducting controlled
experiments to confirm or reject causal relationships between variables. This research
type is crucial for establishing evidence-based explanations. Examples: Studies that
investigate the impact of a new drug on a medical condition, the effectiveness of a
teaching method on student performance, or the causal factors contributing to a
particular social issue are examples of explanatory research.
7. Survey Research: Survey research is a method of gathering data from a sample of
individuals through structured questionnaires or interviews. It focuses on collecting
quantitative information, and the data is typically analyzed statistically to make
inferences about a larger population. Survey research is widely used in various fields for
assessing opinions, behaviors, and characteristics. Examples: Surveys are used in various
fields, including marketing research, public opinion polling, healthcare research, and
social sciences, to gather information on topics such as consumer preferences, political
opinions, patient satisfaction, and more.
8. Case Study Research: Case study research is a qualitative method that delves deeply
into a single case or a small number of cases, aiming to provide holistic insights into
complex real-life phenomena. It involves in-depth data collection, analysis, and a focus
on context, making it valuable for exploring unique or unusual cases and understanding
the intricacies of specific situations. Examples: Case studies can focus on a wide range of
topics, including the experiences of a specific patient with a rare medical condition, the
operations of a successful business, the impact of a social intervention program, or the
behavior of a unique community.

Research Process and Steps in Conducting Research

The research process involves a series of systematic steps that researchers follow to plan,
conduct, and report their research studies. T he specific steps can vary depending on the
research design and field of study.

1. Identify the research problem: This is where you define the specific issue or question
you want to investigate. It's the foundation of your research.
 2. Literature Review: Conduct a thorough review of existing research and literature
related to your research problem. This helps you understand the current state of
knowledge in your area of interest and identifies gaps in the literature.
3. Setting research questions, objectives and hypothesis: Based on your research problem
and the insights gained from the literature review, formulate clear research questions,
objectives, and hypotheses. Research questions guide your study, objectives outline
your goals, and hypotheses suggest the expected outcomes.
4. Choosing the study design: Select an appropriate research design or methodology that
aligns with your research objectives. Common designs include experimental, survey,
case study, ethnographic, etc.
5. Deciding the sample design: Determine how you will select participants or data sources
for your study. This involves decisions about the sample size, sampling method (e.g.,
random sampling, stratified sampling), and population to be studied.
6. Collecting data from the research sample: Collect data using the methods chosen in
your study design. This can involve surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, or
other data collection techniques.
7. Process and analyze the collected research data: After data collection, you'll need to
process and analyze the data. This step involves cleaning, organizing, and applying
statistical or qualitative analysis methods to extract meaningful insights from the data.
8. Writing research report and utilizing results: Summarize your research findings and
present them in a structured research report. The report typically includes sections like
an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
Researchers can use the results for practical applications, recommendations, or to
contribute to the body of knowledge in their field.

Applications of Research

Research plays a fundamental role in advancing knowledge and understanding in various fields
and has numerous practical applications. Some of the key applications of research include:

1. Scientific Advancement: Research is the driving force behind scientific discoveries and
innovations. It leads to the development of new theories, concepts, and technologies.
2. Medical and Healthcare: Research in medicine and healthcare contributes to the
development of new treatments, drugs, medical devices, and clinical practices,
improving patient care and health outcomes.
3. Education: Educational research informs teaching methods, curriculum development,
and policies to enhance the learning experience for students.
 4. Technology Development: Research fuels technological advancements in fields like
engineering, computer science, and materials science, leading to the creation of new
technologies and products.
5. Social Policy: Research informs the development of social policies and programs,
helping policymakers make informed decisions on issues like poverty, education,
healthcare, and social welfare.
6. Environmental Conservation: Environmental research contributes to our understanding
of ecological systems, climate change, and pollution. This knowledge informs
conservation efforts and environmental policies.
7. Market Research: Businesses use market research to understand consumer
preferences, market trends, and competition, which informs product development,
marketing strategies, and business decisions.
8. Psychology and Counseling: Psychological research provides insights into human
behavior, mental health, and therapy techniques, supporting the well-being of
individuals and communities.
9. Legal and Criminal Justice: Legal research informs legal arguments, policy development,
and the administration of justice. Criminological research contributes to crime
prevention and criminal justice policies.
10. Agriculture and Food Production: Research in agriculture and food science leads to
improved crop yields, pest control, and food safety, addressing global food security
challenges.
11. Archaeology and History: Research in archaeology and history helps uncover and
preserve historical knowledge and cultural heritage, contributing to our understanding
of the past.
12. Space Exploration: Scientific research in astronomy, astrophysics, and space science
drives space exploration and our understanding of the universe.
13. Engineering and Design: Research in engineering and design results in the development
of new technologies, infrastructure, and innovative solutions for various industries.
14. Public Health: Research in public health identifies health risks, tracks disease outbreaks,
and informs public health interventions and policies.
15. Environmental and Energy Sustainability: Research in renewable energy, sustainability,
and environmental conservation seeks to address global environmental challenges and
reduce the environmental impact of human activities.
16. Education and Training: Research supports professional development and training by
evaluating the effectiveness of training programs and educational approaches.
17. Social Sciences: Research in psychology, sociology, anthropology, and other social
sciences informs our understanding of human behavior, societies, and cultures.
18. Space and Earth Sciences: Research in geology, meteorology, and space sciences
contributes to our understanding of Earth's processes, climate change, and the
exploration of other planets.

Ethical issues in conducting research

Ethical considerations are paramount in conducting research to ensure the well-being, rights,
and integrity of participants and to maintain the trust and credibility of the research process.
Common ethical issues in research include:

1. Informed Consent: Researchers must obtain informed and voluntary consent from
participants. Participants should be fully informed about the study's purpose,
procedures, risks, benefits, and their right to withdraw without repercussions.
2. Privacy and Confidentiality: Researchers must safeguard the privacy and confidentiality
of participants. Identifying information should be kept confidential, and data should be
reported in a way that prevents the identification of individual participants.
3. Protection of Vulnerable Populations: Special care must be taken when involving
vulnerable populations such as children, the elderly, individuals with cognitive
impairments, and marginalized groups. Ethical guidelines and additional safeguards
apply to these populations.
4. Balancing Risks and Benefits: Researchers should assess and minimize potential risks to
participants. The benefits of the research should outweigh the risks.
5. Deception: Researchers should avoid deception or use it sparingly and only when
absolutely necessary. When deception is used, it should be revealed to participants as
soon as possible after data collection.
6. Conflict of Interest: Researchers should disclose any conflicts of interest, financial or
otherwise, that might bias their research or compromise objectivity.
7. Data Management and Sharing: Researchers must responsibly manage and store data,
making it accessible for verification by others. Research findings should be reported
accurately and honestly.
8. Harm Minimization: Researchers are obligated to minimize any potential physical or
psychological harm to participants. They should be prepared to provide appropriate
support and resources if harm occurs.
9. Fair Treatment and Respect: Researchers should treat participants with respect and
fairness, avoiding any form of discrimination or harm. They should be aware of cultural
and ethical considerations that may vary across populations.
10. Transparency and Honesty: Researchers should be transparent about their research
methods, funding sources, and any potential biases. Honesty and integrity in reporting
findings are critical.
11. Publication Ethics: Researchers must adhere to ethical standards when submitting
research for publication. This includes avoiding plagiarism, providing proper attribution,
and accurately reporting methods and results.
12. Peer Review and Collaboration: Researchers should engage in ethical peer review
processes and collaborate with colleagues in an ethical and respectful manner.
13. Animal Welfare: In research involving animals, ethical principles of care, proper
housing, and minimization of suffering must be followed.
14. Community Involvement and Consent: When conducting research within a community,
researchers should engage with community members, seek their input, and obtain their
consent when necessary.
15. Global Research Ethics: Researchers working internationally should consider the ethical
standards and cultural norms of the host country while adhering to their own
institutional guidelines.