Chapter 3:

Enhanced Communication
TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING Networking is essential for enhancing communication processes within and
between organizations. It provides a platform for seamless and efficient
The Need for Networking exchange of information through various channels, enabling real-time and
- Sharing of Technology Resources asynchronous communication.
- Sharing of Data
- Distributed Data Processing and Client / Server Systems Networking technologies have revolutionized communication methods,
- Enhanced Communication offering diverse tools and platforms that cater to different communication
- Marketing Outreach needs and scenarios.

Sharing of Technology Resources Examples:

By connecting computers and devices within a network, resources that might 1. Video Conferencing for Enhanced Collaboration
be expensive or otherwise inaccessible to individual users can be effectively 2. Electronic Mail for Efficient Communication
shared and utilized.
Marketing Outreach
This enhances efficiency, reduces costs, and promotes collabirative work The connectivity provided by networks allows businesses to establish a strong
environments. online presence, interact with customers, and engage in targeted marketing
efforts. The Internet has become a prominent channel for reaching a global
Example: audience and promoting products and services.
1. Local Area Network (LAN) Sharing
2. File Server Software Sharing Examples:
1. E-commerce websites for online retail
Sharing of Data 2. Social media marketing for brand engagement
Through network connections, authorized users can access and retrieve data
from remote nodes, ensuring that critical information is readily available where AN OVERVIEW OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING
and when needed.
Networking
This capability improves decision-making, enhances collaboration, and - the electronic linking of geographically dispersed devices
accelerates business processes. - Networking is the electronic linkage needed for telecommunications.

Example: Telecommunication
1. Global Information Access via Web - The prefix "tele-" signifies operating over distances
2. Financial Data for Accountants and Executives - Telecommunications = communication over a distance.
- "Telecommunications" is the broadest term, encompassing voice and
Distributed Data Processing & Client / Server Systems data communication.
These approaches involve spreading computational tasks across multiple
computers, often located at different sites, to enhance efficiency and resource Teleprocessing
utilization. Networking connects these computers, allowing them to - involves distant computer processing, reliant on telecommunications.
communicate and collaborate effectively.
Functions of a Telecommunications Network
This interconnectedness is vital for data sharing, communication, and 1. Transmission - Movement of voice and/or data using network and
coordination between different components of the distributed system. underlying media.
2. Processing - Ensuring that error-free communication gets to right
Examples: destination
1. Online Collaboration Platforms
2. Client / Server General Ledger Accounting
 3. Editorial - Checking for errors and putting communication into abbreviation for a modulator/ demodulator (see Figure 3.1). Of course, the data
standardized format. must be reconverted from analog form back to digital form at the other end of
4. Conversion - Changing coding system or speed when moving from the transmission line, which requires a second modem.
one device to another.
5. Routing - Choosing most efficient path when multiple paths are
available.
6. Network Control - Keeping track of status of network elements and
checking to see if communications are ready to be sent.
7. Interface - Handling interactions between users and the network.

Key Elements of Telecommunications and Networking

- Analog versus digital signals
- switched versus private lines;
- the variety of transmission media available;
- the topology (or possible arrangements) of networks; the various types
of networks, including LANs and WANs;
- and the network protocols employed on these networks.
Speed of Transmission
Analog and Digital Signals • Bandwidth - is just the circuit capacity.
• Baud - is cycles per second.
Analog Signals
• Hertz - is the number of signals sent per second.
The telephone network has been an analog network,with voice messages sent
over the network by having some physical quantity (e.g., voltage) continuously • Baud - was formerly used for relatively slow speeds such as 2,400
vary as a function of time. This analog signal worked fine for voice transmission baud (2,400 bps) or 14,400 baud (14,400 bps),
because it required the significant variations provided by an analog signal • Hertz - Hertz(with an appropriate prefix) was used for higher speeds
(corresponding to variations in human speech characteristics) and was such as 500 megaHertz (500 million bps) or 2gigaHertz (2 billion bps).
insensitive to minor degradations in the signal quality.
Types of Transmission Lines
computer data consist of a string of binary digits, or bits—a string of zeros and Public Lines
ones—to represent the desired characters. The form of computer data does - The public telephone network, for example, is a switched-line system.
not mesh well with analog transmission. First, only two distinct signals— - When a communication of some sort (voice or data) is sent over the
representing zeros and one—need to be sent, and second, the data are telephone network, the sender has no idea whatroute the
extremely sensitive to degradations in signal quality. communication will take.

Digital Signals Private Lines

The second and longer-term solution to the problem of transmitting computer - Hertz(with an appropriate prefix) was used for higher speeds such as
data is to develop digital networksspecifically designed to directly transmit a 500 megaHertz (500 million bps) or 2gigaHertz (2 billion bps).
digital signal consisting of zeros and ones. - Within-building or within-campus lines for computer
telecommunications, for example, are usually private lines.
Digital networks have the advantages of potentially lower error rates and
higher transmission speeds, and modems are no longer necessary. Difference Among Simplex, Half-Duplex, And Full-Duplex Transmission.

Modem Simplex Transmission

The original solution, and one that is still used, is to convert the data from data can travel only in one direction. This one-way communication is rarely
digital form to analog form before sending it over the analog telephone useful, but it might be employed from a monitoring device at a remote site (e.g.,
network. This conversion is accomplished by a device called a modem, an monitoring power consumption) back to a computer.
Half-Duplex Transmission Satellite
data can travel in both directions but not simultaneously. A special variation of wireless transmission employs satellite communication
to relay signals over very long distances.
Full-Duplex Transmission
permits data to travel in both directions at once, and, therefore, provides Bluetooth
greater capacity, but it costs more than half-duplex lines. Harald Bluetooth

Transmission Media Bluetooth is short-range radio technology that has been built into a microchip,
Five Primary Media enabling data to be transmitted wirelessly at speeds up to 3 mbps (Version 2.1
1. Twisted Pair of Wires + EDR)—and eventually at speeds up to 24 mbps if a Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity)
2. Coaxial Cable connection is available (Version 3.0 + HS).
3. Wireless
4. Satellite (which is a special form of wireless) Fiber Optics
5. Fiber-Optic Cable The last and newest transmission medium— fiber-optic cabling—is a true
medium, not broadcast technology. Advances in optical technology have made
Twisted Pair it possible to transmit data by pulses of light through a thin fiber of glass or
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, typically about 1 fused silica.
millimeter thick, twisted together in a long helix.
Five Basic Network Topologies
Coaxial Cable (Coax) 1. Bus
is another common transmission medium. A coaxial cable consists of a heavy 2. Ring
copper wire at the center, surrounded by insulating material. 3. Star
4. Hierarchical of Tree
5. Mesh
Wireless
Wireless is not a transmission medium. Wirelessis broadcast technology in Bus
which radio signals are sent out into the air. Wireless communication is used The simplest topology is the linear or bus topology. With the bus, a single
in a variety of circumstances, including cordless telephones, cellular length of cable (coax, fiber, or twisted pair) is shared by all network devices.
telephones, wireless LANs, and microwave transmission of voice and data. One of the network devices is usually a file server with a large data storage
capacity.
RFID
RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID) - is a technology that uses Ring
radio waves to passively identify a tagged object. The ring topology is similar to the bus except that the two ends of the cable
are connected. In this case, a single cable runs through every network device,
Wireless LANS including (usually) a file server.
Wireless LANs are growing in popularity. They have the obvious advantage of
being reasonably easy to plan and install. Star
The star topology has a mainframe or midrange computer, a file server (usually
Microwave a microcomputer), or a networking device at its center, with cables (or media
Microwave has been in widespread use for long distance wireless of some type) radiating from the central device to all the other network devices.
communication for several decades. Microwave is line-of-sight transmission— This design is representative of many small-to-medium computer
there must be an unobstructed straight line between the microwave transmitter configurations, with all workstations and peripherals attached to the single
and the receiver. Because of the curvature of the earth, microwave towers midrange computer.
have to be built, typically about 25to 50 miles apart, to relay signals over long
distances from the originating transmitter to the final receiver. Hierarchical or Tree
This topology is sometimes called a hierarchical star because with some 3. Switched Ethernet - is a newer variation of Ethernet providing better
rearrangement (spreading the branches out around the central device), it looks performance at a higher price. The design is similar to shared
like an extension of the star Ethernet, but a switch is substituted for the hub and the LAN operates
as a logical star as well as a physical star.
Mesh
most devices are connected to two, three, or more other devices in a seemingly Token Bus
irregular pattern that resembles a woven net or a mesh. A single token (a special communication or message) is passed around the
bus to all devices in a specified order and a device can only transmit when it
Types of Networks has the token.
Computer Telecommunications Networks
It is almost easier to describe this initial type of network by what it is not. It is Token Ring
not a LAN, a backbone network, a WAN, or the Internet. What we are calling The third LAN standard is the token ring, originally developed by IBM, which
a computer telecommunications network is the network emanating from a combines a ring topology (seeFigure 3.4) with the use of a token as described
single medium, large, or very large computer or a group of closely linked for the token bus.
computers.
Wireless Local Area Networks
Local Area Networks Most wireless LANs in use today are of the Wi-Fi (short for wireless fidelity)
is first and foremost a local network—it is completely owned by a single variety, although WiMAX networks are beginning to appear (more on WiMAX
organization and generally operates within an area no more than 2 or 3 miles later). Wi-Fi LANs are rapidly proliferating. Wi-Fi technology has obvious
in diameter. LANs are data networks that generally have a high data rate of advantages for people on the move who need access to the Internet in airports,
several million bps or more. restaurants, and hotels and on university campuses.

Five Types of LANS In order to establish a wireless LAN, a wireless network interface card(NIC)
There are five types of LANS in use today—three types of wired LANs and two must be installed in each computer. The wireless NIC is a short-range radio
types of wireless LANs—for which standards have been developed by the transceiver that can send and receive radio signals. At the heart of a wireless
Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) and subsequently LAN is the wireless access point (WAP), which is a radio transceiver that plays
adopted by both national and international standards organizations. These five the same role as a hub in a wired Ethernet LAN.
LAN standards are officially designated as IEEE 802.3 (contention bus
design); IEEE 802.4 (token bus design); IEEE 802.5 (token ring design); IEEE WiMAX
802.11, including 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n (Wi-Fi wireless The newest type of wireless network is WiMAX (short for worldwide
design); and IEEE 802.16, including 802.16d and 802.16e (WiMAX wireless interoperability for microwave access), which is based on the IEEE 802.16
design). family of specifications.

3 Types of Wired Local Area Network Two Types of WiMAX

1. Contention Bus - The contention bus design was originally developed 1. FIXED WIMAX (IEEE 802.16d) : The IEEE 802.16d standard covers
by Xerox and subsequently adopted by Digital Equipment Corporation fixed-point wireless access, and it is used to connect a central access
(now part of Hewlett-Packard) and several other vendors. This design point to a set of fixed networks, such as from a branch office to a
is usually referred to as Ethernet, named after the original Xerox central office a few miles away.
version of the design. The contention bus is obviously a bus topology 2. MOBILE WIMAX (IEEE 802.16e) : By providing access to mobile
(see Figure 3.4), usually implemented using coaxial cable or twisted users, the 802.16e standard is designed to be direct competition for
pair wiring. Communication on an Ethernet LAN is usually half outdoor Wi-Fi networks.
duplex—that is, communication in both directions is possible, but not
simultaneously. Higher-Speed Wired Local Area Networks
2. Shared Ethernet - The original Ethernet design, now called shared LAN technology continues to advance as we move further into the twenty-first
Ethernet, employs a contention bus as its logical topology, but it is century. The top speed of a traditional Ethernet LAN is 10 mbps, but Fast
usually implemented as a physical star arrangement (see Figure 3.6). Ethernet, operating at 100 mbps, is now the most common form of Ethernet in
new LANs. Fast Ethernet uses the same CSMA/CD architecture and the same Router or Gateway
wiring as traditional Ethernet. A router, or a gateway (a sophisticated router), connects two or more LANs
and forwards only messages that need to be forwarded but can connect LANs
Gigabit Ethernet that use different protocols. For example, a gateway is used to connect an
Even newer and faster than Fast Ethernet is Gigabit Ethernet, with speeds of organization's backbone network to the Internet.
1 billion bps and higher. Gigabit Ethernet is often used in backbone networks,
to be discussed in the next section. Switch
A switch connects more than two LANs, or LAN segments, that use the same
Two Varieties of Gigabit Ethernet protocols. Switches are very useful to connect several low speed LANs (e.g.,
1. 1-gbps Ethernet, commonly called 1 GbE; a dozen Ethernet LANs running at 10 mbps) into a single 100-mbps backbone
2. and 10-gbps Ethernet, or 10 GbE. network (running Fast Ethernet).

Two Versions of 1 GBE when running over Fiber-Optic Cabling Wide Area Networks
1. 1000 Base-SX uses multimode fiber and: Today's more complex, more widely dispersed organizations need wide area
2. 1000 Base-LX uses either multimode fiber or single-mode fiber networks (WANs), also called long-haul networks, to communicate both voice
depending on the distances involved (up to 1,800 feet with multimode and data across their far-flung operations.
fiber or over 16,000 feet with single-mode fiber).
DDD and WATS
Backbone Networks Direct Distance Dialing (DDD) is available through a telephone company
Backbone networks or core network are the in-between networks--the middle such as AT&T, Sprint Nextel, or Verizon and can be used for voice and data
distance networks that interconnect LANs in a single organization with each communications between any two spots served by the telephone network.
other and with the organization's WAN and the Internet.
Wide Area Telephone Service (WATS) is also available, in which the
Telecommunications Hardware organization pays a monthly fee for (typically) unlimited long-distance
1. Hub telephone service using the ordinary voice circuits. WATS has the same
2. Wireless Access Point advantages and disadvantages as DDD.
3. Bridge
4. Router or Gateway Leased Lines
5. Switch These leased lines are generally coaxial cables, microwave, or fiber-optic
cables of very high capacity, and they are less prone to data errors than
Hub ordinary voice lines.
A hub, we know, is a simple device into which cables from computers are
plugged; it can also be used to connect one section of a LAN to another. Hubs The most common leased lines operate at a data transmission rate of 1.544
forward every message they receive to all devices or sections of the LAN mbps and are referred to as T-1 lines.
attached to it, whether or not they need to go there.
The newest and highest capacity leased lines (and also the most expensive)
Wireless Access Point are fiber-optic transmission lines, or SONET lines. Synchronous Optical
A wireless access point is the central device in a wireless LAN that connects Network (SONET)
the LAN to other networks.
Satellite
Bridge Satellite microwave communication has been used by a number of large
A bridge connects two LANs, or LAN segments, when the LANs use the same organizations to set up their WANs.
protocols, or set of rules (more on this later); a bridge is smart enough to
forward only messages that need to go to the other LAN. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
ISDN is a set of international standards by which the public telephone network
is offering additional telecommunications capabilities (including simultaneous
transmission of voice and data over the same line) to telephone users individual to carry out text-based communication in real time over the
worldwide. Internet
• Remote Login - Permits user to log into and perform work on a
ISDN is available in many areas of the world, using the same twisted pairs computer that is remote to the user's current location
already used in the present telephone network. • Usenet Newsgroups - Internet discussion groups, which are
essentially huge electronic bulletin boards on which group members
Two Types of Communication Channels can read and post messages
The B, or bearer, channel transmits voice or data at rates of 64 Kbps, faster • Listserv - Mailing list such that members of a group can send a single
than is possible using a modem. e-mail message and have it delivered to everyone in the group
• File Transfer protocol (FTP) - Permits users to send and receive
The D, or data, channel is used to send signal information to control the B files, including programs, over the Internet
channels and to carry packet-switched digital data. • World Wide Web, or the Web - Hypertext-based tool that allows the
user to traverse, or surf, the Internet, by clicking on a link contained in
Packet-Switched Networks one document to move to another document, and so on; these
Packet switching is a store-and-forward data transmission technique. documents might include video clips, recordings, photographs, and
Communications are sent over the common carrier network, divided into other images
packets of some fixed length, perhaps 300 characters.
Universal Resource Locator
A packet assembly/disassembly device (PAD) is used to connect the user When a user first logs into the Web, she is connected to a "home" server at
organization's internal networks (at each of its locations) to the common carrier her ISP or her own organization. She can then surf the Web by clicking on
network. hypertext links, or if she knows the address of the site she wishes to visit this
address is called the Universal Resource Locator (URL) she can enter the
Virtual Private Networks address directly into her browser.
A virtual private network (VPN) provides the equivalent of a private packet-
switched network (as discussed in the previous section) using the public Internet Applications
Internet. VPN data transmission rates vary from a low 56 kbps up to a very • Search Engine - An information retrieval program that permits the
high 40 gbps, all at a very reasonable cost compared to other alternatives, but user to search for content that meets a specific criterion (typically
the network's reliability is low. containing a given word or phrase) and retrieves a list of items that
match the criterion
Internet • Blog - A user-generated Web site where entries are made in journal
The Internet could be considered a gigantic WAN, but it is really much more style; blogs often provide commentary on a particular subject or serve
than that. The Internet is a network of networks that use the TCP/IP protocol as a personal online diary
(to be discussed later in the chapter), with gateways (connections) to even
• Wiki - A Web site that permits users to add, remove, or modify the
more networks that do not use the TCP/IP protocol.
content of the site, often without the need for registration, thus making
a wiki an effective tool for mass collaborative authoring
Four Basic Functions of Internet
• Social Networking Application - An application that permits users to
1. Electronic Mail
post information about themselves and to view information posted by
2. Remote Login
others
3. Discussion Groups
4. The Sharing of Data Resources • Twitter - A social networking and microblogging application that
enables its users to send and read messages known as tweets; tweets
Internet Applications are text-only messages of up to 140 characters that are posted on the
author's Twitter page and delivered to the author's subscribers, who
• Electronic Mail, or E-Mail - Easy-to-use, inexpensive, asynchronous
are known as followers
means of communication with other Internet users
• Web 2.0 - Taken as a group, these newer variations of discussion
• Instant Messaging (IM) - Synchronous communication system that
groups and communication tools are sometimes referred to as Web
enables the user to establish a private "chat room" with another
2.0, a phrase which refers to a perceived second generation of Web-
 based services that emphasize online collaboration and sharing Wireless to the Home
among users. Wireless to the home may be delivered via a citywide or neighborhood Wi-Fi
network, a WiMAX network, or a cellular 3G wireless connection. The data
Accessing the Internet transmission rates vary considerably for these wireless options, and so do the
How does an individual user access the Internet? In the workplace, most users costs
are connected to a LAN, which in turn is connected to the organizational
backbone network, and then to the Internet. Fiber to the Home
Fiber to the home is a newer alternative that is available only in a limited (but
From home or a small office, there are several alternatives. growing) geographical area. Verizon Communications is the largest provider
of fiber to the home service, which it calls FiOS Internet Service.
Broadband Connections (Five Newer, Higher-Speed Alternatives)
1. Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Intranets
2. Cable Modem Connection An important spin-off from the success of the Internet has been the creation of
3. Satellite Connection intranets within many large organizations. An intranet is simply a network
4. Wireless to the Home operating within an organization that employs the TCP/IP protocol. In most
5. Fiber to the Home cases, an intranet consists of a backbone network with a number of connected
LANs. Because the protocol is the same, the organization may use the same
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Web browser and Web server software as it would use on the Internet:
a service offered by telephone companies using the copper wires already however, the intranet is not accessible from outside the organization. It might
installed in homes and offices; it uses a sophisticated modulation scheme to or might not be possible for people within the organization to access the
move data over the wires without interfering with voice traffic-that is, both a Internet.
voice conversation and an Internet hookup can be active at the same time over
a single DSL line. DSL is sometimes called a "last mile" technology in that it is Internet Telephony Grows Stronger
used only for connections from a telephone switching station to a home or The Internet is not just for data Internet telephony, also called Voice over
office, not for connections between switching stations. Internet Protocol (VolP), is a major factor in telephone communications,
especially for corporations. Vol allows the user to make voice calls using a
Cable Modem Connection broadband Internet connection instead of a regular (analog) telephone line.
A cable modem connection is very competitive to in both price and speed. In The advantage of VolP is that it can significantly reduce telecommunications
this case, the service is obtained from the cable television company, and the costs.
data are transmitted over the coaxial cables already used by television. These
cables have much greater bandwidth than twisted pair copper wires, but Network Protocols
traditionally they transmitted data only in one direction from the cable television Network protocol, an agreed-upon set of rules or conventions governing
company to the home. communication among elements of a network, or, to be more precise, among
layers or levels of a network. In order for two network elements to communicate
Satellite Connection with one another, they must both use the same protocol. Therefore, the
A satellite connection, tends to be a more expensive option than the first two protocol truly enables elements of the network to communicate with one
alternatives, but for customers in rural areas it might be the only choice. another.
Satellite broadband connections can be one-way or two-way service. • For
one-way service, the customer must contract with a wired ISP for the uplink at Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model
dial-up speeds, while the satellite supports the downlink at speeds up to 10 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model, developed by the
mbps. For the downlink, the satellite transmits data to the computer via a International Organization for Standardization (ISO), would become the
satellite dish at the customer's home or office. • The two-way satellite service standard set of protocols. The OSI model defines seven layers each of which
transmits and receives signals directly via the satellite without needing a will have its own protocol (or protocols). The OSI model is only a skeleton, with
ground line to support the connection for the upstream portion of the standard protocols in existence for some layers, but with only rough ideas in
broadband service. other layers.
OSI REFERENCE MODEL. Because of the importance of the OSI model, and Internet2, as well as in the UNIX and Linux operating systems and in Microsoft
because it will give us a conceptual framework to understand how Windows. Most important, TCP/IP is the protocol used on the worldwide
communication takes place in networks, we will briefly discuss how data move Internet and on numerous intranets operating within organizations. TCP/IP, not
through the layers in the OSI model and the role of each of the layers. The OSI OSI, has become the de facto standard protocol for networking around the
model is very complex because it must support many types of networks (e.g., world.
LANs and WANs) and many types of communication (e.g., electronic mail,
electronic data interchange, and management reports). THE EXPLODING ROLE OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND
NETWORKING
Seven Layers of the OSI Reference Model
1. Application Layer - We will now turn to the role of each of the seven Four Areas of Operation
layers. The uppermost layer deals with the wide variety of 1. Online Operations
communications-oriented applications that are directly visible to the 2. Connectivity
user, such as electronic data interchange, file transfer, electronic mail, 3. Electronic Data Interchange and Electronic Commerce
and factory floor control. There will always be differences across 4. Marketing
different devices or systems, and a protocol implemented in soft-ware-
is required for each application to make the various devices appear Online Operations
the same to the network. dominant activities of many organizations have now been placed online to the
2. Presentation Layer - The presentation layer accepts as input the computer via a network
communication as internally coded by the sending device and
translates it into the standard representation used by the network. Connectivity
3. Session Layer - Through the session layer, users on different a very popular buzzword among major U.S. and international corporations
machines may establish sessions between them. For most Personal Workstations and Installed system in mobiles
applications the session layer is not used, but it would allow a user to
log into a remote computer or to transfer a file between two computers. Electronic Data Interchange and Electronic Commerce
4. Transport Layer - The transport layer receives the communication (of EDI is a set of standards and hardware and software technology that permits
whatever length) from the session layer, splits it into smaller blocks business documents to be transferred electronically between computers in
(called packets) if necessary, adds special header data defining the separate organizations
network connection(s) to be used, passes the packet(s) to the network
layer, and checks to make sure that all the packets arrive correctly at Electronic commerce (also called e-business) is a broad term that incorporates
the receiving end. If the network connection requires multiplexing for any use of telecommunications and networking to conduct commercial
its efficient use, the transport layer also handles this. activities
5. Network Layer - The network layer receives a packet of data from the
transport layer and adds special header data to it to identify the route Marketing
that the packet is to take to its destination. This augmented packet In addition to electronic commerce, telecommunications is being used for
becomes the frame passed on to the data link layer. many other applications in the marketing area.
6. Data Link Layer - Data are submitted to the data link layer in the form
of data frames of a few hundred bytes. Then the data link layer adds The Telecommunications Industry
special header and trailer data at the beginning and end of each frame, (a) carriers, who own or lease the physical plant (cabling, satellites,
respectively, so that it can recognize the frame boundaries. cellular towers, and so forth) and sell the service of transmitting
7. Physical Layer - The physical layer is concerned with transmitting bits communications from one location to another;
(a string of zeros and ones) over a physical communication channel.
(b) equipment vendors, who manufacture and sell a wide range of
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) telecommunications-related equipment, including LAN software and
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is not part of hardware, routers, hubs, wireless access points, switches,
the OSI reference model, although it roughly corresponds to the network and multiplexers, cellular telephones, and modems; and
transport layers. TCP/IP is used in many non-Internet networks, including
 (c) service providers, who operate networks and deliver services through
the network or provide access to or services via the Internet

Cloud Computing
means obtaining IT capabilities (i.e., hardware, software, or services) from an
outside vendor over a network, usually the Internet.

Three Basic Types of Cloud Computing

Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
-also called utility computing—provides the computing capabilities (i.e.,
servers, networks, storage, and systems software) to augment or replace the
functions of an entire in-house data center

Platform as a Service (PaaS)

-provides a development environment as a service—virtualized servers on
which users can run existing applications or develop new ones.

Software as a Service (SaaS)

- is the most widely known and widely used form of cloud computing.
- SaaS delivers a single application to its multiple users through a Web
browser.