ALTERNATING CURRENT

Alternating current: It is the current which varies with time sinusoidally.

One cycle of a.c.
It is the complete variation of a.c from zero to positive maximum then to
negative maximum and back to zero.
Period of a.c.:
It is the time taken by an a.c. to complete one cycle of its variation. It is denoted by T. This time
is equal to the time taken by the coil to complete one rotation in the magnetic field.
Frequency of a.c.:
It is the number of cycles of variations of a.c. completed in one second. It is denoted by f. This
frequency is equal to the frequency of the coil rotating in the magnetic field.
Phase of a.c.:
We have I  I o sin t where Io is the peak value of alternating current,  is the angular velocity
of the coil at time t and I is the current.
t   is the angle between the direction of magnetic field and the normal drawn to the plane of the coil.
It represents the phase or state of variation of the a.c. is defined as the fraction of time period of a.c. that
has elapsed, since the current blast passed its zero value in the positive direction.
Phasor (or) Argand diagram:
It is the diagram which represents alternating voltage and alternating current of the same
frequency as rotating vectors in the anti-clock wise direction.
Instantaneous value of current:
It is the value of alternating current at a given instant bf time.
I  I o sin t
where I is the instantaneous value and Io is the peak value of alternating current.
Instantaneous value of alternating voltage:
V  Vo sin t
where V is the instantaneous value and Vo is the peak value of alternating voltage.
Peak value of a.c (or) amplitude of a.c.:
It is the maximum value of a.c in either half cycle of a.c.
Mean value of a.c (or) Average value of a.c.:
As current represent the rate of flow of charge, we define mean value of ac is the total charge
that flows through a circuit element in a given time interval divided by the time interval.
𝑄
𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑇 where Q is the charge flown in interval of time 0 -T s
𝑑𝑞 𝑇 𝑇
As 𝐼 = ⇒ 𝑑𝑞 = 𝐼𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑄 = ∫𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑡 and 𝑇 = ∫𝑜 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑇
∫𝑜 𝐼𝑑𝑡
∴ 𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑇
∫𝑜 𝑑𝑡
For an alternating current, mean value during one complete cycle is zero as there is a reversal in the
direction of current after half cycle.
𝑇
For complete cycle ∫𝑜 𝐼𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
Therefore, we shall find the mean vale of ac for a half cycle.
Mean value of a.c (or) Average value of a.c. for half cycle:
𝑇⁄ 𝑇⁄
2
∫𝑜 2 𝐼𝑑𝑡 2
𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑇 = ∫ 𝐼𝑑𝑡
⁄ 𝑇 𝑜
∫𝑜 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
2 𝑇⁄ 2𝐼𝑜 − cos 𝜔𝑡 2 2𝐼 𝑇
We have I  I o sin t ⇒ 𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 2
𝐼𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [ ] = − 𝑇𝜔𝑜 [cos 𝜔 2 − cos 0]
𝑇 𝑜 𝑇 𝜔 𝑜
2𝐼𝑜 2𝜋 𝑇 𝐼𝑜 2𝐼𝑜 2𝐼𝑜
=− 2𝜋 [cos − cos 0]= − [−1 − 1] = ⇒ 𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋
𝑇 𝑇 2 𝜋 𝜋
𝑇

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 1

Root mean square value (or) rms value of a. c.:
It is the square root of the mean of the squares of all the instantaneous values of alternating current
taken over a complete cycle.
𝑇 𝑇
∫ 𝐼 2𝑑𝑡 2 ∫𝑜 𝐼 2 𝑑𝑡 1 𝑇 1 𝑇 (1−cos2 𝜔𝑡)
i.e. 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ 𝑜 𝑇 ⇒ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑇 = ∫ 𝐼 2 sin2
𝑇 𝑜 𝑜
𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑇 ∫𝑜 𝐼𝑜2 2
𝑑𝑡
∫𝑜 𝑑𝑡 ∫𝑜 𝑑𝑡

𝐼2
𝑜 𝑇 𝑇 𝑜 𝐼2 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑇 𝐼2 𝐼𝑜2
=2𝑇 (∫𝑜 𝑑𝑡 − ∫𝑜 cos2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡) = 2𝑇 (𝑇 − [ ] ) = 𝑜 (𝑇 − 0) =
2𝜔 𝑜 2𝑇 2
𝐼𝑜
⇒ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 2
√
Relation between mean value and peak value:
2 2
Mean value = x peak value  Mean value of current I m  I o
 
2
Mean value of voltage Vm  Vo

Relation between rms value and peak value:
Peak value
rms value =
2
I
rms value of current I rms  o where Io is the peak value of current
2
V
rms value of voltage Vrms  o where Vo is the peak value of voltage
2
TP.2:(a) The peak voltage of an ac supply is 300 V. What is the rms voltage?
(b) The rms value of current in an ac circuit is 10 A. What is the peak current?
Circuit element:
The components used in the construction of circuits are called circuit elements. Resistors,
Inductors and Capacitors are the circuit elements.
When a sinusoidal alternating voltage is applied to a circuit, the resulting current is also sinusoidal
and has the same frequency as that of the applied voltage. However, there is phase difference between
applied voltage and the resulting current. While discussing a.c. circuits, our main points of interest are
(1) phase difference, (2) phasor diagram, (3) wave diagram and (4) power dissipated etc.
Pure resistor (or) ideal resistor:
It is a resistor which is free from induction effects. A wire doubled on itself such that the adjacent
parts are in opposite direction and nullifying the magnetic effect of each other is almost a pure resistor.
A circuit in which an ac source is connected across pure resistor is called pure resistive circuit.
Expression for the instantaneous current in an ac circuit with a pure resistor:
In the circuit diagram
R is the resistance of the resistor connected across an ac
source,
The alternating potential difference across resistor is
given by,
V  Vo sin t ---------- (1)
Where Vo is the peak value of potential difference and
 is the angular frequency.
V
Current in the circuit is given by I  ---------- (2)
R
V sin t
(1) in (2)  I  o  I  I o sin t ---------- (3)
R
V
where I o  o is the peak value of alternating current.
R

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 2

 From equations (1) and (3), it is observed that the phase difference between the current and voltage
is zero. It is shown in the phasor diagram.
Graphical representation (or) wave form of current and voltage in an ac circuit with a pure resistor:
From figure, it is observed that the potential difference and
the current will have zero, maximum and minimum values at the
same respective times. Hence the phase difference between the
current and voltage is zero.
Dissipated Power in a pure resistor:
In a pure resistor voltage and currents are in phase
V  Vo sin t
I  I o sin t
Work done in small time dt is dW = P.dt = (VI).dt
= (𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡) (𝐼𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
(1−cos2 𝜔𝑡)
 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜
2
2
𝑑𝑡
𝑊 1 𝑇
The average power 𝑃̅ = = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 𝑇 𝑇 𝑜
1 (𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 ) 𝑇 (𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 ) sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑇
= 𝑇 2
∫𝑜 (1 − cos2 𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 2𝑇
(𝑇 − [ 2𝜔
] )
𝑜
(𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 ) 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜
= (𝑇 − 0) =
2𝑇 √2 √2
 𝑃̅ = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
NP.1: A light bulb is rated at 100W for a 220 V supply. Find (a) the resistance of the bulb; (b) the peak
voltage of the source; and (c) the rms current through the bulb.
Solution:
(a) We are given P = 100 W and V = 220 V. The resistance of the bulb is
𝑉2
𝑅 = 𝑃 = 484 Ω
(b) The peak voltage of the source is 𝑣𝑚 = √2𝑉 = 311 V
(c) Since, P = I V
𝑃
𝐼 = 𝑉 = 0.454A
TP.1: A 100 Ω resistor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
(a) What is the rms value of current in the circuit?
(b) What is the net power consumed over a full cycle?

Pure inductor:
It is a coil of high inductance and negligible resistance.
A coil of a short length of thick copper wire wound on an iron core is almost a pure inductor.
A circuit in which an ac source connected across pure inductor is called pure inductive circuit.
Expression for the instantaneous current in an ac circuit with a pure inductor:
In the circuit diagram,
L is the inductance of the inductor (coil)
connected across an ac source.
The alternating potential difference across
the inductor is given by
V  Vo sin t ---------- (1)
Where Vo is the peak value of potential difference and  is the angular frequency.
Let e be the e.m.f. induced in the coil. On applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the circuit, we get,
V + e = IR
since for or pure inductor, resistance, R = 0
 dI   dI 
 V + e = 0  V +  L  = 0 e L 
 dt   dt 

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 3

 dI V
 L = V  dI = dt ---------- (2)
dt L
Vo sin t
(1) In (2)  dI = dt
L
Vo sin t
Integrating above equation with respect to time,  dI   L
dt

  cos t 
    I  L sin t  90 
Vo V Vo
I  sin t dt  I  o o

L L  

 I  I o sin t  90 o 

 I  I o sin  t   ---------- (3)
 2
Vo
Where I o  is the peak value of current.
L
From equations (1) and (3), it is observed that the voltage leads the current by 90 o. It is shown in
the phasor diagram.
Graphical representation (or) wave form of current and voltage in an ac circuit with a pure
inductor:
From figure, it is observed that the voltage leads the current by 90 o
in ac circuit containing a pure inductor.
Inductive reactance (XL):
The amount of opposition offered by the inductor to the alternating
current flowing through it is called inductive reactance.
V V
In case of pure inductive circuit, the peak value of current is given by I o  o  o
L X L
The quantity L analogous to the resistance and is called as inductive reactance denoted by XL.
XL = L  XL = 2fL  XL  fL    2f
Inductive reactance is directly proportional to the inductance and frequency of an ac.
For dc, f = 0  X L  0 i.e. the inductor offers zero reactance to the flow of dc but opposes ac.
Note:
1. Inductance of a straight thin wire is negligibly small. Because inductance depends on area of cross
section of the wire, for thin wire is negligible.
2. When an alternating current is passed through a moving coil galvanometer, it shows no deflection.
Because, a moving coil galvanometer measures average value of current, which is zero for ac over
every cycle, so galvanometer shows no deflection.
3. 220V a.c. has peak voltage of 220  2 =311V, while 220V dc has a peak voltage of 220V only,
so ac of same voltage is more dangerous than dc.
Dissipated Power in a pure inductor:
In a pure inductive circuit, the current lags behind the applied voltage by 90 o
The instantaneous voltage and current are
V  Vo sin t
I  I o sin t 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 sin( 𝜔𝑡 − 90𝑜 ) = −𝐼𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑡
Work done in small time dt is dW = P.dt = (VI).dt
= (𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡) (−𝐼𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡
(sin 2 𝜔𝑡)
 𝑑𝑊 = −𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑊 1 𝑇
The average power 𝑃̅ = 𝑇 = 𝑇 ∫𝑜 𝑑𝑊
1 (𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 ) 𝑇 (𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜) cos2 𝜔𝑡 𝑇
= −𝑇 ∫𝑜 (sin 2 𝜔𝑡 )𝑑𝑡 = [− ]
2 2𝑇 2𝜔 𝑜
(𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 ) 2𝜋 𝑇 (𝑉 𝐼 ) (𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 )
= 4𝑇𝜔
[cos 2
𝑇
𝑡] = 𝑜 𝑜
4𝑇𝜔
[cos 4𝜋 − cos 0] =
4𝑇𝜔
[ 1 − 1]  𝑃̅ = 0
𝑜

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 4

NP.2: A pure inductor of 25.0 mH is connected to a source of 220 V. Find the inductive reactance and
rms current in the circuit if the frequency of the source is 50 Hz.
Solution: The inductive reactance,
XL = 2π ν L = 2 ×3 14 ×50 ×25 ×10-3 = 7.85 Ω
V 220
The rms current in the circuit is I = X = 7.85 = 28A
L
TP.3: A 44 mH inductor is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Determine the rms value of the current
in the circuit. What is the net power absorbed by circuit over a complete cycle. Explain your answer.
Expression for the current in an ac circuit with a capacitor:
In the circuit diagram,
C is the capacitance of the capacitor connected across an ac
source.
The alternating potential difference across the capacitor is
given by, V  Vo sin t ---------- (1)
Where Vo is the peak value of potential difference and  is
the angular frequency.
Let q be the charge on the capacitor at any time t.
q
The instantaneous value of V in terms of capacitance is given by, V  ---------- (2)
C
q
On comparing (1) and (2), we get,  Vo sin t  q  CVo sin t ---------- (3)
C
dq
We have, Instantaneous Current, I  ---------- (4)
dt
(3) in (4)  I  CVo sin t  CVo sin t  CVo  cos t  CVo  sin  t  90 o 
d d
dt dt

 I  I o sin  t  90 o   I  I o sin  t   ---------- (5)

 2
Where I o   CVo is the peak value of current.
From equations (1) and (5), it is observed that 90o. It is shown in the phasor diagram.
Graphical representation (or) wave form of current and voltage in an ac circuit with a pure
capacitor:
From figure, it is observed that the current leads the voltage by 90o in ac circuit
containing a pure capacitor.
Capacitive reactance (XC):
The amount of opposition offered by the capacitor to the alternating
current flowing through it is called capacitive reactance.
In the case of capacitor circuit, the peak value of current is given by
Vo V
I o   CVo   o
1/  C X C
1
The quantity analogous to the resistance and is called capacitive reactance denoted by XC
C
1 1 1
 XC =  XC =  XC 
C 2fC fC
SI unit of Inductive reactance or capacitive reactance is ohm (  )
1
Note: Capacitors block d.c. because, for d.c., f = 0, XC =   . So a capacitor does not allow d.c. to
2fC
flow through it.
Dissipated Power in a pure capacitor:
In a pure capacitive circuit, the current leads the applied voltage by 90o

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 5

The instantaneous voltage and current are
V  Vo sin t
I  I o sin t 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 sin( 𝜔𝑡 + 90𝑜 ) = 𝐼𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑡
Work done in small time dt is dW = P.dt = (VI).dt
= (𝑉𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡) (𝐼𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡
(sin 2 𝜔𝑡)
 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑊 1 𝑇
The average power 𝑃̅ = = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 𝑇 𝑇 𝑜
1 (𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 ) 𝑇 (𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 ) cos2 𝜔𝑡 𝑇
= 𝑇 2 ∫𝑜 (sin 2 𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = [− ]
2𝑇 2𝜔 𝑜
(𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 ) 2𝜋 𝑇 (𝑉 𝐼 )
𝑜 𝑜 (𝑉𝑜 𝐼𝑜 )
=− [cos 2 𝑡] = − [cos 4𝜋 − cos 0] = − [ 1 − 1]
4𝑇𝜔 𝑇 𝑜 4𝑇𝜔 4𝑇𝜔
 𝑃̅ = 0
NP.3: A lamp is connected in series with a capacitor. Predict your observations for dc and ac connections.
What happens in each case if the capacitance of the capacitor is reduced?
Solution: When a dc source is connected to a capacitor, the capacitor gets charged and after charging no
current flows in the circuit and the lamp will not glow. There will be no change even if C is reduced. With
ac source, the capacitor offers capacitive reactance (1/𝜔C) and the current flows in the circuit.
Consequently, the lamp will shine. Reducing C will increase reactance and the lamp will shine less
brightly than before.
TP.4: A 60 𝜇F capacitor is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz ac supply. Determine the rms value of the current
in the circuit. What is the net power absorbed by circuit over a complete cycle. Explain your answer
Distinguish between inductive reactance and capacitive reactance in an ac circuit:
Inductive reactance Capacitive reactance
1. It is the amount of opposition offered by the It is the amount of opposition offered by the
inductor to the alternating current flowing capacitor to the alternating current flowing
through it through it
2. It is given by XL = 2fL  XL  f 1 1
It is given by XC =  XC 
2fC f
3. It increases with increase of inductance of the It decreases with increase of capacitance of the
inductor capacitor
4. It increases with increase of frequency of a.c. It decreases with increase of frequency of a.c.

Distinguish between Resistance and Reactance:

S.No Resistance Reactance
1 It is the opposition offered by the resistor to the It is the opposition offered by the inductor or
alternating current flowing through it. capacitor to the alternating current flowing
through it.
2 It does not depend on the frequency of a.c. It depends on the frequency of a.c.

NP.3: A lamp is connected in series with a capacitor. Predict your observations for dc and ac connections.
What happens in each case if the capacitance of the capacitor is reduced?
Solution: When a dc source is connected to a capacitor, the capacitor gets charged and after charging no
current flows in the circuit and the lamp will not glow. There will be no change even if C is reduced. With
ac source, the capacitor offers capacitive reactance (1/𝜔C) and the current flows in the circuit.
Consequently, the lamp will shine. Reducing C will increase reactance and the lamp will shine less
brightly than before.
NP.4: A 15.0 mF capacitor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. Find the capacitive reactance and the
current (rms and peak) in the circuit. If the frequency is doubled, what happens to the capacitive reactance
and the current?

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 6

 1 1
Solution: The capacitive reactance is 𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜈𝐶 = 2𝜋×50×15×10−3 = 212 Ω
𝑉 220
The rms current is 𝐼 = 𝑋 = 212 = 1.04A
𝐿
The peak current is
𝑖𝑚 = √2𝑖 = (1.41)(1.04 A) = 1.47A
This current oscillates between +1.47A and –1.47 A, and is ahead of the voltage by 𝜋/2.
If the frequency is doubled, the capacitive reactance is halved and consequently, the current is doubled.
NP.5: A light bulb and an open coil inductor are connected to an ac source
through a key as shown in Fig. The switch is closed and after sometime, an iron
rod is inserted into the interior of the inductor. The glow of the light bulb (a)
increases; (b) decreases; (c) is unchanged, as the iron rod is inserted. Give your
answer with reasons.
Solution: As the iron rod is inserted, the magnetic field inside the coil magnetizes
the iron increasing the magnetic field inside it. Hence, the inductance of the coil
increases. Consequently, the inductive reactance of the coil increases. As a result, a larger fraction of the
applied ac voltage appears across the inductor, leaving less voltage across the bulb. Therefore, the glow
of the light bulb decreases.
Phasor diagram in series LCR circuit:
In the phasor diagram, VL is the voltage across the inductor, VC is the
voltage across the capacitor, VR is the voltage across the resistor, (VL - VC)
is the resultant of VL and VC,
V is the resultant voltage of (VL - VC) and VR,
 is the phase angle between V and I, and I is the current in the series LCR
circuit.
From right angled triangle OCB,
OB2 = OC2 + CB2  𝑉 2 = 𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2 ---------- (1)
We have, VR = I R, VL = I XL and VC = I XC
 Eq. (1)  V 2  IR   IX L  IX C 
2 2

 V  I R 2   X L  X C 2 is the resultant voltage.

  R    X L  X C 
V 2 2

I
V
But impedance Z   Z  R 2   X L  X C 2
I
V
Current in the circuit, I 
Z
From right angled triangle OBC,
CB V V V V 
tan    tan   L C    tan 1  L C 
OC VR  VR 
Note:
1. When XL = XC then tan   o o . Thus the phase difference between the voltage and current in
LCR circuit is zero.
2. When XL = XC,  Z  R    X L  X C   Z = R, that is the LCR circuit is said to be pure
2 2

 
resistive circuit.
3. When XL>XC then tan   positive. This type of LCR circuit is called as inductive dominated
circuit. In this case, the voltage leads the current by an angle 
4. When XL< XC then tan   negative. This type of LCR circuit is called as capacitive dominated
circuit. In this case, the current leads the voltage by an angle 

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 7

Impedance:
The ratio of rms value of voltage across the series LCR circuit and the rms value of current
flowing through it is called impedance (Z).
It is the effective opposition offered by the LCR circuit to the alternating current flowing through it.
V
We have Z  rms
I rms
Its SI unit is ohm.
Impedance diagram (or) impedance triangle:
Impedance comprises three parts. They are resistance (R), inductive
reactance (XL) and capacitive reactance (XC). Impedance of LCR circuit can be
represented by a triangle called impedance triangle.
From triangle ABC, AC2 = CB2 + AB2
 𝑍 2 = 𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
R X  XC X  XC
 Cos   , Sin   L and tan   L
Z Z R
Resonant Circuit:
When an alternating voltage of particular frequency is applied to series LCR circuit, the current
in the circuit becomes maximum This LCR circuit is called resonant circuit.
Electrical resonance:
When an alternating voltage of particular frequency is applied to series LCR circuit, the current
in the circuit becomes maximum. This phenomenon is called electrical resonance.
Resonant frequency:
When an alternating voltage of particular frequency is applied to series LCR circuit, the current
in the circuit becomes maximum. This particular frequency is called resonant frequency.
Condition for electrical resonance in the series LCR circuit:
Inductive reactance = capacitive reactance  X L  X C
Expression for resonant frequency:
At resonance, Inductive reactance = capacitive reactance.
1 1 1
X L  X C  r L   r2   r 
r C LC LC
1 1
But r  2f r 2f r   fr 
LC 2 LC
Where r is the resonant angular frequency and f r is the resonant frequency

Note:
1. AC voltage supplied for domestic purpose in India is 220 V and 50 Hz.
2. The reciprocal of the reactance is called as susceptance.
3. The reciprocal of impedance is called admittance.
4. Both the susceptance and admittance are measured in mho or Siemen.
TP.6: A charged 30 𝜇F capacitor is connected to a 27 mH inductor. What is the angular frequency of
free oscillations of the circuit?
Power in an a.c circuit:
It is the power dissipated in an a.c circuit. It is given by, P  Vrms I rms cos 
Where  is the phase difference between V and I
cos  is power factor it is defined as the cosine of the angle between the voltage and the current
in ac circuits.
The value of power factor indicates the power dissipation in the circuit.
For pure resistive circuit:
Power factor = cos ∅ = 1. (In the pure resistive circuit, ∅ = 0𝑜  cos 0𝑜 = 1)

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 For pure inductive circuit:
Power factor = cos ∅ = 0. (In the pure inductive circuit, ∅ = 90𝑜  cos 90𝑜 = 0)
For pure capacitive circuit:
Power factor = cos ∅ = 0. (In the pure capacitive circuit, ∅ = 90𝑜  cos 90𝑜 = 0)
Wattles current:
It is the current in the circuit for which the power dissipation is zero.
Ex: 1) The current in a pure inductive circuit.
2) The current in a pure capacitive circuit.
NP.6: A resistor of 200 Ω and a capacitor of 15.0 𝜇𝐹 are connected in series to a 220 V, 50 Hz ac source.
(a) Calculate the current in the circuit; (b) Calculate the voltage (rms) across the resistor and the
capacitor. Is the algebraic sum of these voltages more than the source voltage? If yes, resolve the paradox.
Solution:
Given R=200 Ω , C 15.0 𝜇𝐹, V = 220 V, ν = 50Hz
(a) In order to calculate the current, we need the impedance of the circuit. It is
𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 = √𝑅2 + (2𝜋𝜈𝐶 )−2 = 291.67Ω
𝑉
Therefore, the current in the circuit is 𝑖 = 𝑍 = 0.755 A
(b) Since the current is the same throughout the circuit, we have 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅 = (0.755 A) (200 ) =151V
𝑉𝐶 = 𝑖𝑋𝐶 = (0.755 A)(212.3 ) = 160.3 V
The algebraic sum of the two voltages, VR and VC is 311.3 V which is more than the source voltage of
220 V. How to resolve this paradox? As you have learnt in the text, the two voltages are not in the same
phase. Therefore, they cannot be added like ordinary numbers. The two voltages are out of phase by ninety
degrees.
Therefore, the total of these voltages must be obtained using the Pythagorean theorem:
𝑉𝑅𝐶 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2 = 220 V
Thus, if the phase difference between two voltages is properly taken into account, the total voltage across
the resistor and the capacitor is equal to the voltage of the source.
NP.7: (a) For circuits used for transporting electric power, a low power factor implies large power loss
in transmission. Explain.
(b) Power factor can often be improved by the use of a capacitor of appropriate capacitance in the circuit.
Explain.
Solution: (a) We know that P = I V cos ∅ where cosf is the power factor. To supply a given power at a
given voltage, if cos ∅ is small, we have to increase current accordingly. But this will lead to large power
loss (i2R) in transmission.
(b)Suppose in a circuit, current I lags the voltage by an angle ∅. Then power factor cos∅ = R/Z.
We can improve the power factor (tending to 1) by making Z tend to R. Let us understand, with the help
of a phasor diagram (Fig.) how this can be achieved. Let us resolve i into two components. 𝑖𝑃 along the
applied voltage V and 𝑖𝑞 perpendicular to the applied voltage. 𝑖𝑞 as you have learnt, is called the wattless
component since corresponding to this component of current, there is no power loss. 𝑖𝑃 is known as the
power component because it is in phase with the voltage and corresponds to power loss in the circuit. It’s
clear from this analysis that if we want to improve power factor, we must completely neutralize the lagging
wattless current 𝑖𝑞 by an equal leading wattless current 𝑖𝑞′ . This can be done by connecting a capacitor of
appropriate value in parallel so that 𝑖𝑞 and 𝑖𝑞′ cancel each other and P is effectively 𝑖𝑃 V.
NP.8: A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 283 V and frequency 50 Hz is applied to a series LCR circuit in
which R = 3 Ω, L = 25.48 mH, and C = 796 𝜇𝐹. Find (a) the impedance of the circuit; (b) the phase
difference between the voltage across the source and the current; (c) the power dissipated in the circuit;
and (d) the power factor.
Solution:
(a) To find the impedance of the circuit, we first calculate 𝑋𝐿 and 𝑋𝐶 . 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝜈𝐿 = 8 Ω and
1
𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝜈𝐶 = 4 Ω
Therefore, 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = 5 Ω

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 𝑋 −𝑋
(b) Phase difference, ∅ = tan–1 𝐶 R 𝐿 = -53.1o
Since ∅ is negative, the current in the circuit lags the voltage across the source.
(c) The power dissipated in the circuit is P = I2R
𝑖
Now, 𝑖 = 𝑚2 = 40A
√
Therefore, P = (40)2 ×3 = 4800
(d) Power factor = cos ∅= cos (–53.1o) = 0.6
NP.9: Suppose the frequency of the source in the previous example can be varied. (a) What is the
frequency of the source at which resonance occurs? (b) Calculate the impedance, the current, and the
power dissipated at the resonant condition.
Solution:
(a) The frequency at which the resonance occurs is
1
𝜔𝑜 = = 222.1rad/s
√𝐿𝐶
𝜔𝑜
𝜈𝑟 = 2𝜋 = 35.4 Hz
(b) The impedance Z at resonant condition is equal to the resistance:
Z = R = 3Ω
𝑉 𝑉
The rms current at resonance is = = 66.7 A
𝑍 𝑅
The power dissipated at resonance is P = I2R = (66.7)2× 3 = 13.35 kW
You can see that in the present case, power dissipated at resonance is more than the power dissipated in
previous example.
TP.7: A series LCR circuit with R = 20 W, L = 1.5 H and C = 35 𝜇F is connected to a variable-frequency
200 V ac supply. When the frequency of the supply equals the natural frequency of the circuit, what is the
average power transferred to the circuit in one complete cycle?
NP.10: At an airport, a person is made to walk through the doorway of a metal detector, for security
reasons. If she/he is carrying anything made of metal, the metal detector emits a sound. On what principle
does this detector work?
Solution: The metal detector works on the principle of resonance in ac circuits. When you walk through
a metal detector, you are, in fact, walking through a coil of many turns. The coil is connected to a capacitor
tuned so that the circuit is in resonance. When you walk through with metal in your pocket, the impedance
of the circuit changes – resulting in significant change in current in the circuit. This change in current is
detected and the electronic circuitry causes a sound to be emitted as an alarm.
TP.8: Figure shows a series LCR circuit connected to a variable frequency 230 V source. L = 5.0 H, C
= 80𝜇F, R = 40 Ω.
(a) Determine the source frequency which drives the circuit in resonance.
(b) Obtain the impedance of the circuit and the amplitude of current at the
resonating frequency.
(c) Determine the rms potential drops across the three elements of the circuit.
Show that the potential drop across the LC combination is zero at the
resonating frequency.

Transformer:
It is a device used to step up (or) step down the alternating voltage. It increases the alternating
voltage by decreasing current and vice versa.
Circuit Symbol of transformer is
Mutual induction is the principle of the transformer.
Step up transformer is the transformer which steps up the alternating voltage.
Step down transformer is the transformer which steps down the alternating voltage.

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Construction and working of transformer:
Construction:
A transformer consists of two coils insulated from each
other. They are wound on a soft-iron core, on separate limbs of the
core (or either one on top of the other). They are called primary
and secondary coils. In a step up transformer, the primary coil
consists of few turns when compared to turns of secondary coil. It
is just opposite in step down transformer.
Working: It works on the principle of mutual induction. When an alternating current is passed through
the primary coil, a varying magnetic flux is produced around the primary coil. This varying magnetic flux
links the secondary coil and hence emf is induced in the secondary coil.
Theory of transformer:
Let Vp be the voltage applied across the primary coil,
From Faraday's second law,
d
emf induced in the secondary coil is given by, eS   N S --------- (1)
dt
d
emf induced in the primary coil is given by, eP   N P --------- (2)
dt
(1) e N
 S  S --------- (3)
(2) eP N P
where  is the magnetic flux linked with each turn of the primary or secondary coil NP and NS
are the number of turns in the primary and secondary coils respectively.
For an ideal transformer,
VP  eP and VS  eS , VS is the voltage across the secondary.
V N
Eq (3)  S  S --------- (4)
VP N P
Let Ip and Is are currents through primary and secondary coils respectively
For an ideal transformer,
Input power = Output power
V I
i.e. VP I P  VS I S  S  P --------- (5)
VP I S
On comparing (4) and (5), we get
VS N I
 S  P
VP NP IS
If N S  N P , then the transformer is called step up transformer and the voltage is stepped up.
That is Vs > Vp.
If N S  N P , then the transformer is called step down transformer and the voltage is stepped down.
That is Vs < Vp.
Note: Transformer cannot be used to step up dc voltage:
dc supply does not produce a changing magnetic flux in the primary and hence no emf is set up
in the secondary of the transformer.
Voltage induced across the secondary coil of transformer:
dI
VS  M P where M is the mutual inductance between the primary and secondary coils.
dt
dI P
is the rate of change of current in the coil.
dt

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Efficiency of transformer:
It is the ratio of output power and the input power in the transformer,
output power

input power
For ideal transformer  =1 i.e. efficiency is 100%
Differences between step-up and step-down transformers:

S. No. Step-up transformer Step-down transformer

1 It is the transformer which increases the ac It is the transformer which decreases the ac
voltage by decreasing the current voltage by increasing the current
2 NS  NP NS  NP
3 VS  VP VS  VP
4 IS  IP IS  IP

Sources of energy losses in a transformer:

1. Loss due to heating:
When an alternating current is passed through the primary coil, the coil gets heated due to
its resistance. Thus some amount of energy is lost in the form of heat energy. This loss can be
minimized by using thick wire of high purity.
2. Loss due to flux leakage:
In actual transformers all the flux produced by the primary coil does not link with the
secondary coil. Thus some amount of energy is wasted. This loss can be minimized by winding
the coils one over the other.
3. Loss due to eddy currents:
Alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents on the surface of the core.
Due to these eddy currents, energy is lost in the form of heat. This loss can be minimized by using
laminated soft iron core.
4. Loss due to hysteresis:
The alternating current flowing through the coils magnetizes and demagnetizes the iron
core repeatedly. During each cycle of magnetization some energy is lost in form of heat. This loss
can be minimized by selecting the material, which has low hysteresis loss.

Dr. Sankara Rao Gattu, (9949435575) Page 12