CHAPTER 2: INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

OVERVIEW
Every day, we ask ourselves where we came from, how our society developed and
how it progressed and continuously evolving, right? We cannot give answers to ourselves,
but some fascinating theories and breakthroughs in Science gave us answers. In this chapter
you will learn about the different scientific revolutions or drastic changes which contribute
on the development of our society from the past which greatly contributes to our present. It
includes the Copernican, Darwinian, Freudian and Information Revolutions and the four
cradles of early science, which are Meso-American, Asian, Middle East and African.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, I am able to:
• articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and technology;
• write an article on the significance of different intellectual revolutions that defined
society;
• express appreciation on the contributions of different cradles of early science.
EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE
How well did you answer the activity earlier? Maybe you encountered already some
of that information and of course some are not, right? If not, let us discuss the different
intellectual revolutions that defined society.
The term "intellectual revolution" refers to a period in which people have extensively
embraced and accepted paradigm shifts or changes in scientific views (Hintay, 2018). The
events of the Intellectual Revolution demonstrated how science and technology
revolutionized society. As a future educator, you should know these magnanimous changes
because it will lead to a more interesting outlook on Science as a method of problem solving
and bringing changes in the community.
To better comprehend what happened during the scientific revolution, it's vital to
look at the various individuals whose ideas challenged and shook the prevalent beliefs and
concepts of the day - the reality of their time. Curiosity, critical thinking, and innovation
motivate scientists to study the physical and natural world throughout history. Their
enthusiasm for science stems from a profound desire to learn and discover new things.
Nicolaus Copernicus: COPERNICAN REVOLUTION
People used to wonder what caused the world to exist. There are days and nights.
They wanted to know what celestial meant. Stars, moons, and planets are examples of
celestial bodies. The development of the telescope allowed people to look out into space. It
piqued their interest in space, but more significantly, it piqued their interest in learning more
about it. what was out there in reality.
Many Greek philosophers and thinkers wrote about planets in an effort to explain
heavenly bodies' movements and impact on the world as they knew it. Many of these
philosophers agreed that planets rotated in a circular motion, which caused days and nights,
among other things. Claudius Ptolemy, a great philosopher and astronomer, claimed that
the planets, as well as the sun and moon, revolved around the Earth in a circular motion. The
revolution of the sun and moon explained the existence of days and nights. Geocentrism is
the belief that the Earth is the center of the universe. Ptolemy's geocentric model was
universally accepted and considered one of the most important discoveries of the period.
Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish mathematician and astronomer, disputed the
Ptolemaic model in the 16th century. He proposed a new theory known as heliocentrism,
which claimed that the sun, not the Earth, was the center of the Solar System. The people
initially opposed this concept. Many people were shocked since their religious beliefs taught
them that the Earth came first, before everything else. Copernicus was also punished as a
heretic since his theories contradicted religious doctrine. Astronomers noticed after some
time that the Copernican model simplified planet orbits. It also addressed issues that the
geocentric model couldn't explain. Other works that backed up this paradigm began to
appear as well. It was eventually accepted by the public during the so-called "Birth of
Modern Astronomy" period. This period saw the start of the scientific revolution, which
resulted in a shift in society's attitudes and ideas.
Copernicus is a brave man as well. Although the Copernican paradigm makes sense
today, it was considered heretical at the time and was therefore forbidden to be taught to
Catholics. The Copernican paradigm was outlawed by the Catholic Church, and Rome ignored
it for the rest of the 16th century.
Charles Darwin: DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
Charles Darwin's theory of evolution is well-known. He altered our perceptions of the
world's origins and evolution. Darwin was a genius who comes from a long line of intelligent
and rich ancestors (Johnson, 2012). During his time at Shrewsbury School, he developed an
interest in natural history. He attended the top schools, but he was considered an average
student. He struggled in his medical and ministry studies, which his father forced upon him.
When one of Darwin's instructors suggested that he undertake a five-year journey across the
HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos, his life altered forever.
Darwin's book The Origin of Species was published in 1589. This book is regarded
as one of the most important works in the field of science. In order to demonstrate his theory
with compelling evidence, Darwin gathered a large amount of material. His book included
evidence of how species evolved over time, as well as features and adaptations that
distinguish species.
His work The Descent of Man was both amazing and divisive. He popularized the
concept of all organic life, including humans, falling under the evolutionary umbrella. This
has displaced the popular belief in a religious or biblical design that places humans in a
special position as God's creations. Darwin's theory of evolution threw doubt on this belief.
Darwin's accomplishments were so varied that it's helpful to separate two domains
in which he made significant contributions: evolutionary biology and science philosophy.
More than these publications, what made Darwin genuinely exceptional was his fearlessness
in confronting religious and nonscientific notions that were prevalent at the time.
Sigmund Freud: FREUDIAN REVOLUTION
In the subject of psychology Sigmund Freud is a well-known figure. He is a towering
literary figure and a gifted communicator who contributed to raising the civilized world's
awareness of psychological matters (Rosenfels, 1980).
Freud also made a significant contribution to science by developing an important
observational method for gathering reliable data in order to explore the inner life of humans.
This strategy is sometimes referred to as the psychoanalytic method. This method's main
core version was developed by the scientific hypothesis he formulated. For Freud, this
method of psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study human mind and neurotic illness.
Sigmund Freud was not a conventional thinker. His psychoanalytic method was
demonstrated to be useful in understanding neurological disorders that medicine could not
understand at the time. His approach was unconventional, emphasizing on human sexuality
and man's wicked nature. Psychoanalysis is a branch of psychology that aims to understand
human behavior. According to Freud's thesis, there are numerous conscious and
unconscious influences that might impact one's behavior and feelings. He also claimed that
personality is the result of three opposing forces: the id, the ego, and the superego.
Id is a biological component that causes a variety of desires and urges. It is based on
the pleasure principle and focuses on the fulfilment of basic necessities such as food and sex.
Ego serves as a bridge between the individual's wants and the real world, attempting to
reduce tension until a suitable setting is found. It is the determining factor in one's
personality. Superego is the moral arm of personality. It is the “conscience” of personality.
It represents the traditional rules, values, and ideas of the society.
The following scenario illustrates the interaction of the three components: Id can be
shown when you're hungry, and you eat food that isn't yours but when the superego prevails
if there is bread on the table, but you know that it isn't yours since a voice within you told
you it wasn't yours, you will not get it because stealing is unethical. Last, when the ego
prevails, it is entirely up to you whether you eat the bread or not. You could even ask the
proprietor to share his or her food with you.
Although Freud was born after the scientific revolution, his contributions to
knowledge can be observed in many sectors of the human scene, including art, literature,
philosophy, politics, and psychotherapy. It is up to the audience to decide if he is more of a
psychologist or a scientist. The fact is that Sigmund Freud's ideas and theories are still
regarded as a wonderful source of inspiration for studying the human mind and behavior in
a more scientifically acceptable manner.
Information Revolution
The earliest writing system, Sumerian pictographs, marked the beginning of the
Information Revolution. Then there's Gutenberg's printing press, which was invented in
1455. The typewriter and telegraph became popular. Today, technology is widely employed,
making it easier to communicate, disseminate, and preserve information thanks to the
internet.
The Information/Digital Revolution is a paradigm transition from the mechanical to
the digital age that affects many facets of life with the primary goal of increasing efficiency.
See the table below to see the changes brought by the information revolution.

As a consequence of this revolution, there are shifts or changes in economy,

employment, education and politics. In economic shift, there is the creative destruction and
the bloom of knowledge industries. Creative destruction is a term invented by Joseph
Schumpeter to describe a process in which something new destroys what came before, a shift
from the old to the new. Schumpeter characterizes it as "the process of industrial mutation
that ceaselessly revolutionizes the economic structure from inside, incessantly destroying
the old one, incessantly establishing a new one" in his book "Capitalism, Socialism, and
Democracy." Additionally, the emergence of knowledge industries, telecommunications,
software development, medical equipment and pharmaceutical research, and business
innovators, to mention a few, are examples of industries that heavily rely on technology.
Their competitive edge stems from the fact that they hire inventive and creative people that
help them establish their firm in sectors that are better suited to information work.
In Employment Shift, the manual labor force is dwindling as jobs increasingly
demand knowledge and creativity as a result of advances in digital technology. In Education
Shift, altering teaching methods, tactics, and content to focus more on critical reasoning
abilities so that graduates can better synthesis large amounts of data and become more
competitive in the information field. Lastly, in politics, there is a transformation in the
manner in which governments interact and provide services to the citizens, manage
government supply chains, conduct internal government processes and control the content
and flow of information in society. There was decentralization of function from exclusive
sovereignty state to supranational governments (governments made up of different
sovereign states) and intergovernmental organizations.

After knowing the different revolutions which brought huge changes in our world,
which at specific defined our society, now let us know how about the cradles of early science:
in Mesoamerica, Asia, Middle East and Africa.

Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica encompasses all of Central America, from southern Mexico to the South
American border. Prior to the entrance of European colonizers, the Mesoamerican region
was undeniably rich in culture and knowledge.
A. Mayan Civilization
The Mayan Civilization is a well-known civilization that existed for about 2,000 years.
Listed here are their contributions:
1. These individuals are well-known for their contributions to astronomy. Their
advanced knowledge of astronomy was utilized into their temples and other holy
monuments. This enables people to observe the stars from their temples. The Sun is
located at the position of the pyramid in Chichen Itza, Mexico, during the fall and
spring equinoxes, for example.
2. Mayan knowledge and understanding of celestial bodies were sophisticated for their
time, as proven by their ability to forecast eclipses and plant and harvest utilizing
astrological cycles.
3. The Mayans are also noted for having two complex calendar systems to keep track
of time. These calendars were extremely valuable in their daily lives, especially for
arranging activities and keeping track of religious and cultural celebrations.
4. The Mayans also perfected the art of raising various crops and constructing
magnificent cities with simple machines and equipment. They constructed a
hydraulics system with complex waterways to supply water to several towns.
5. They used a variety of tools and adapted to new developments, particularly in the
arts. Mayans created looms for weaving textiles and a rainbow of dazzling colors
using mica, a mineral.
6. They are also thought to be among the first to manufacture rubber products,
having done so 3,000 years before Goodyear got his patent in 1844.
7. One of Mesoamerica's most
scientifically advanced societies.
They are also noted for being one
of the world's first civilizations to
adopt the Mayan hieroglyphics
as a writing system.
Mayan inscriptions have
been discovered on stelae
(standing stone slabs), stone
lintels, art, and ceramics, as well
as the few remaining Mayan
books, or codices. More than 800 A page from the Madrid Codex (Codex Tro-Cortesianus), one of the Mayan sacred
letters make up the Mayan books, showing the corn god (left) and the rain god, Chac, and several Mayan glyphs; in
the Museo de América, Madrid. Courtesy of the Museo de America, Madrid
writing system, including Source: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mayan-hieroglyphic-writing#/media/1/370875/85031
hieroglyphics and phonetic
 marks that represent syllables. The hieroglyphic signs are pictorial—that is, they are
recognized representations of real objects—and they represent animals, humans, and
everyday objects.
8. They were also mathematicians, and they devised a numbering system based on
the number 20. They also invented the concepts of zero and positional value
independently of the Romans.
B. INCA CIVILIZATION
In Mesoamerica, the Inca Civilization is equally well-known. Considering their limits as
an ancient society, the Incas developed excellent scientific ideas. They developed the
following scientific theories and technologies to assist them in their daily lives. These are the
contributions of Inca Civilization:
1. stone-paved roads;
2. stone structures that have withstood earthquakes and other disasters;
3. an irrigation system and technology for storing water for their crops to flourish on
all sorts of terrain;
4. a 12-month calendar to commemorate religious festivals and prepare for planting
season;
5. the first suspension bridge;
6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes used to store records that only professionals can
decipher; and
7. Inca textiles, as cloth was a cherished aesthetic achievement.
C. AZTEC CIVILIZATION
The Aztec Civilization produced significant contributions to science and technology,
as well as to society as a whole, their contributions are the following:
1. Education is required. The Aztecs place a high emphasis on education, which is why
all of their children, regardless of social class, gender, or age, are required to attend
school. It is a form of universal or inclusive education from the beginning.
2. Chocolates. During their time in Mexico, the Aztecs invented chocolate. It was
utilized as currency in Mayan society. Cacao beans were highly prized by the Aztecs,
who used them to pay homage to their gods.
3. Antispasmodic medication. They employed an antispasmodic drug that could
benefit during surgery by preventing muscular spasms and relaxing muscles.
4. Chinampa. It's an Aztec agricultural farming technique in which the land was divided
into rectangular portions and encircled by canals.
5. Aztec Calendar. They were able to organize their activities, ceremonies, and planting
season as a result of this.
6. The canoe was invented. A small, narrow boat used to sail over waterways.
Development of Science in Asia
Asia is the world's largest continent and the birthplace of numerous ancient
civilizations. It hosts a wide range of cultural, economic, scientific, and political events for
people of all ages. Great civilizations such as India, China, and the Middle East have excelled
in the fields of science, technology, and mathematics. In terms of their contributions to the
growth of knowledge during their period, these civilizations were unrivaled.
A. INDIA
India is a massive peninsula surrounded on three sides by immense bodies of water
and reinforced on the north by massive mountains. Indians came up with a variety of
innovative concepts and technology that they might employ in their daily lives. Following
are their contributions:
1. They are well-known for their iron production and metallurgical works. Their iron
steel is regarded as the best and most valuable in the entire Roman Empire.
2. In the field of medicine, India is well-known. Ayurveda, a system of traditional
medicine that dates back to before 2500 BC in ancient India, is still used as an
alternative medicine.
3. In the realm of astronomy, ancient India is equally noteworthy. They came up with
theories about the universe's structure, the Earth's spherical self-supporting shape,
and the 360-day year divided into 12 equal sections of 30 days each.
4. Mathematics were also well-known in ancient India. The Indus Valley Civilization left
the oldest signs of mathematical understanding in the Indian subcontinent. The
Mohenjodaro ruler was created by the people of this civilization who attempted to
standardize length measuring to a high degree of accuracy.
5. In his Aryabhatiya, Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550)
introduced a number of trigonometric functions, tables, and procedures, as well as
algebraic algorithms.
B. CHINA
China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, with significant contributions to
medicine, astronomy, physics, mathematics, the arts, philosophy, and music, among other
fields. Many of China's neighbors, including Korea, Japan, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand,
Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries along the old Silk Road, have benefited
tremendously from Chinese civilization. The following are the contributions of China:
1. Traditional Chinese remedies are well-known, as they are the result of centuries of
Chinese people's experiences and discoveries. They discovered a variety of medicinal
characteristics and applications for diverse plants and animals in the treatment of
human illnesses. Acupuncture is a good illustration of this.
2. In terms of technology, the Chinese are known for creating a wide range of tools.
Compass, papermaking, gunpowder, and printing equipment were among the
notable discoveries and technologies of Chinese civilizations, which were first known
in the West by the end of the Middle Ages. They also invented a variety of other
equipment, such as the iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, to name a few.
They also designed various bridge models, invented the first seismological
detector, and constructed a dry dock facility.
3. Chinese astronomers also made important records on supernovas, lunar and solar
eclipses, and comets, which were meticulously recorded and maintained in order to
better comprehend the heavenly bodies and their consequences on our planet.
4. In seismology, the Chinese are well-known. This made them more prepared in the
event of a natural disaster.
Development of Science in Middle East Countries
Muslims occupy the majority of Middle Eastern countries. With the advent of Islam in
the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship lasted until the 13th century,
known as the Golden Age of Islam. The Muslims' intellectualization was aided by the
common language of Arabic, access to Greek books from the Byzantine Empire, and their
proximity to India. Unlike the Greeks, however, Muslim scientists placed a higher priority
on science experiments than simple thinking experiments. This resulted in the
development of the scientific method in the Muslim world, which made great
advancements by employing tests to discern between competing scientific ideas within a
broadly empirical framework.
Famous Muslim scientists, contribute the following:
1. Ibn al-Haytham is known as the "Father of Optics" for his empirical demonstration
of the light intromission theory.
2. The notion of algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, while
the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the first word in one of his books. Although
the Arabic Numeral System originated in India, Muslim mathematicians made
significant improvements to the system, including the introduction of decimal point
notation.
3. Jabir ibn Hayyan is known as the "Father of Chemistry."
4. Ibn Sina was the first physician to perform clinical trials and pioneered the field of
experimental medicine. The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, two of his
most famous medical works, were utilized as standard medicinal texts in both the
Muslim world and Europe during the 17th century. The discovery of the contagious
nature of infectious diseases and the creation of clinical pharmacology are just two of
his numerous accomplishments.
Development of Science in Africa
Natural and mineral resources abound throughout Africa. Long before the Europeans
colonized this region of the world, science flourished. The history of science and
mathematics reveals that, like other ancient civilizations, Africa's early civilizations
produced knowledge. The following are the most notable contributions of Africa:
1. In the domains of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine, the Ancient Egyptian
civilization produced major contributions and advancements. The development
of geometry, for example, sprang from the need to preserve the layout and
ownership of Egyptian farmlands along the Nile River.
2. Egypt was noted for being a hub of alchemy, the medieval predecessor of
chemistry. They attempted to research human anatomy and pharmacology, as
well as apply crucial components for disease therapy such as inspection,
diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. These elements bore striking resemblances
to the basic empirical approach of scientific research.
3. In the African continent, astronomy was well-known. Documents demonstrate
that Africans utilized a variety of calendars, including lunar, solar, and stellar
calendars, or a combination of the three.
4. In ancient times, metallurgy was also known in African countries. They
developed metal implements for use in their houses, agriculture, and the
construction of their spectacular structures.
5. Mathematics was also known to play an important role in the lives of early
Africans. The Lebombo Bone, found in the mountains between Swaziland and
South Africa, is thought to be the oldest known mathematical artefact, dating back
to 35,000 BCE. It could have been a tool for multiplication, division, and
elementary arithmetic calculations, or a six-month lunar calendar.