Q.

1 Data communication refers to the process of transmitting and receiving

data between two or more devices over a communication channel. Whether
you’re sending an email, making a video call, or browsing the web, data
communication ensures that information flows smoothly. It’s the backbone of
our interconnected world, allowing devices to exchange data efficiently.
The Data Communication Model:
1. Sender (Source):
o The process begins with the sender (or source) wanting to transmit
data. This could be your smartphone, computer, or any other device.
o The sender prepares the data for transmission.
2. Transmitter:
o The transmitter converts the prepared data into signals suitable for
transmission over the chosen medium.
o These signals could be electrical voltages, light pulses, or radio
waves.
3. Communication Channel (Medium):
o The data travels through the communication channel (medium). This
could be a physical cable (like Ethernet) or a wireless channel (like
Wi-Fi).
o The channel introduces noise and distortion, affecting the quality of
the transmitted signal.
4. Receiver:
o The receiver (at the other end) receives the transmitted signal.
o It demodulates the signal (reverses the modulation process) to
extract the original data.
5. Destination:
o The destination device (e.g., another computer, server, or
smartphone) processes the received data.
o It could be displaying a web page, playing a video, or storing the data
in a database.

Q.2 Signal encoding is a crucial process in digital communication where we

convert raw data (such as binary information) into a format suitable for
transmission over communication channels. Let’s dive into the different types
of signal encoding techniques:
1. Unipolar Encoding:
 o In unipolar encoding, we use a single voltage level to represent
binary values. Typically, a high voltage level (e.g., +5V) represents a
‘1,’ and zero voltage (e.g., 0V) represents a ‘0.’
o Example: Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) encoding. In NRZ, a continuous
high or low voltage level corresponds to consecutive '1’s or '0’s,
respectively. However, it lacks clock synchronization, making it
challenging for the receiver to differentiate between long sequences
of '1’s and '0’s.
2. Polar Encoding:
o Polar encoding uses both positive and negative voltage levels to
represent binary values.
o Examples:
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): The amplitude of a carrier signal
changes to represent ‘1’ or ‘0.’ For instance, a higher amplitude
could indicate ‘1,’ while a lower amplitude represents ‘0.’
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): Different carrier frequencies
correspond to ‘1’ and ‘0.’ The receiver detects the frequency
changes to decode the data.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK): The phase of the carrier signal shifts
to represent ‘1’ or ‘0.’ For example, a 180-degree phase shift
could indicate ‘1,’ while no phase shift represents '0’.
3. Bipolar Encoding:
o Bipolar encoding uses both positive and negative voltage levels but
ensures that consecutive '0’s have no voltage transition.
o Examples:
 Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI): In AMI, '1’s are represented by
alternating positive and negative pulses, while '0’s are
represented by no pulse (zero voltage).
 Pseudo-Ternary Encoding: Similar to AMI, but here '1’s are
represented by zero voltage, and '0’s alternate between
positive and negative pulses.

Q.3 Multiplexing is a technique that combines multiple signals or data

streams into a single signal, allowing efficient use of communication channels.
Think of it as sharing a highway—instead of each car (signal) having its own
lane, they all use the same road, taking turns.
the various multiplexing techniques along with examples:
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):
 o Concept: The available bandwidth is divided into smaller,
independent frequency channels. Each channel carries a different
signal.
o Example: Imagine a radio station transmitting multiple music
channels simultaneously. Each channel occupies a specific frequency
range (e.g., 88.1 MHz, 92.5 MHz, etc.). FDM ensures they don’t
interfere with each other.
o Guard Bands: To prevent interference, unused strips of bandwidth
(guard bands) separate adjacent channels.
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
o Concept: Instead of dividing by frequency, TDM divides time into
slots. Each signal gets its turn during its allocated time slot.
o Example: Telephone networks use TDM. Multiple phone calls share
the same line—one call speaks during its time slot, then the next
call, and so on. It’s like a conference call with precise timing.
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):
o Concept: WDM is used in fiber-optic communications. Different
wavelengths (colors) of light carry separate signals.
1. Example: Imagine a fiber-optic cable transmitting internet data.
Each color of light represents a different user’s data stream.
WDM allows high-speed internet for many users
simultaneously.
4. Code-Division Multiplexing (CDM):
o Concept: CDM assigns unique codes to each signal. All signals share
the same frequency and time, but their codes keep them separate.
o Example: CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) in mobile networks.
Each phone uses a different code to transmit data over the same
frequency. It’s like everyone speaking at once, but their unique
language (code) ensures clarity.
5. Space-Division Multiplexing (SDM):
o Concept: SDM uses physical space to separate signals. Multiple
antennas or spatial paths carry independent data streams.
o Example: MIMO (Multiple-Input, Multiple-Output) technology in Wi-
Fi routers. Multiple antennas transmit and receive data
simultaneously, enhancing speed and reliability.

Q.4 Modulation is a fundamental process in communication systems. It

involves superimposing a high-frequency carrier signal with a low-frequency
message signal, resulting in a modulated wave. The purpose of modulation is
to enable efficient transfer of information over communication channels.
Essentially, we tweak one of the three parameters of the carrier wave—
amplitude, frequency, or phase—based on the amplitude of the message
signal at a given time instant.
the key points about modulation are:
1. Analog Modulation vs. Digital Modulation:
o Analog Modulation: In analog modulation, both the carrier and
message signals are continuous analog waves.
o Digital Modulation: In digital modulation, only the carrier signal is
analog, while the message signal is in digital form (binary).
2. Types of Digital Modulation Techniques:
o Digital modulation uses a process called Shift Keying, where the
carrier wave’s amplitude, frequency, or phase shifts between
discrete values (unlike continuous variations in analog modulation).
o Let’s explore the three main types of digital modulation techniques:
a. Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
 In ASK, each symbol in the message signal corresponds to a
unique amplitude of the carrier wave.
 Binary ASK: For binary data, we have two discrete levels—one
associated with logic ‘1’ (e.g., 12V) and the other with logic ‘0’
(e.g., 0V).
 Example: Imagine encoding a digital signal where ‘1’
corresponds to a carrier amplitude of 12V and ‘0’ corresponds
to 0V.
b. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
 In FSK, different carrier frequencies represent different symbols
from the message signal.
 Example: Consider a binary FSK system where ‘1’ corresponds
to a carrier frequency of 1 MHz, and ‘0’ corresponds to 2 MHz.
c. Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
 In PSK, the phase of the carrier wave changes to represent
different symbols.
 Binary PSK: Here, we have two phase states—for instance, a
180-degree phase shift for ‘1’ and no phase shift for ‘0’.
 Example: Transmitting ‘1010’ using binary PSK would involve
alternating phase shifts: 10 01 10 01.
Q.5
 Synchronous Asynchronous
Aspect Transmission Transmission

Data Format Blocks or frames Bytes or characters

Full-duplex (simultaneous Half-duplex (one

Duplex Type
send and receive) direction at a time)

Requires synchronization No synchronization

Synchronization
(common clock) (independent timing)

Start and stop bits for

Start/Stop Bits Not needed
each byte

Fast, efficient for Slower, flexible for

Efficiency
continuous data intermittent data

Costly due to constant Economical, less

Cost
transmission overhead

Transmission
Constant interval Random interval
Time

Telephonic conversations,
Examples Emails, forums, letters
video conferencing

Q.6 The ISO/OSI (International Organization for Standardization/Open

Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that
standardizes how different computer systems communicate with each
other. It defines seven distinct layers, each responsible for specific tasks
in the communication process. These layers work together to ensure
seamless data exchange across networks.
Characteristics of the OSI Model:
1. Layer Abstraction: Each layer provides a specific level of abstraction,
focusing on particular functions.
2. Standardized Protocols: Internationally agreed-upon protocols are
associated with each layer.
 3. Hierarchical Structure: The layers form a hierarchy, from physical
hardware to user interfaces.
4. Layer Independence: Changes in one layer do not necessarily affect
other layers.
the seven layers of the OSI model are:
1. Physical Layer:
o Function: Deals with the actual transmission of raw bits over a
physical medium (cables, wireless signals, etc.).
o Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, USB, and RS-232.
2. Data Link Layer:
o Function: Ensures reliable point-to-point communication
between directly connected devices.
o Sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC): Manages flow control and error
handling.
 Media Access Control (MAC): Handles addressing and
framing.
o Protocols: Ethernet (for LANs), PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol),
HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control).
3. Network Layer:
o Function: Responsible for routing packets across different
networks.
o Protocols: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control
Message Protocol), OSPF (Open Shortest Path First).
4. Transport Layer:
o Function: Ensures end-to-end data delivery, error recovery, and
flow control.
o Protocols: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User
Datagram Protocol).
5. Session Layer:
o Function: Manages sessions (connections) between
applications.
o Protocols: NetBIOS, RPC (Remote Procedure Call).
6. Presentation Layer:
 o Function: Translates data formats between the application layer
and lower layers.
o Tasks: Data compression, encryption, and character set
conversion.
o Protocols: SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer
Security).
7. Application Layer:
o Function: Provides network services directly to user
applications.
o Protocols: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), SNMP (Simple
Network Management Protocol).

Q.7
a) Bridges
A bridge is a network device that connects two or more network
segments, allowing them to function as a single network. It operates at
the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges use MAC
addresses to forward data and help reduce network traffic by filtering
and forwarding data only to the segment where the destination device
resides. They can also help improve the overall performance of a
network by dividing it into smaller, more manageable sections.

b) Repeaters
A repeater is a simple network device that regenerates and amplifies
signals to extend the range of a network. It operates at the physical layer
(Layer 1) of the OSI model. When a signal travels through a network
cable, it gradually weakens due to attenuation. A repeater receives the
weakened signal, amplifies it, and then retransmits it, allowing the signal
to travel further distances without degradation. Repeaters are
commonly used in long-distance data transmission and in wireless
networks.

c) Routers
A router is a network device that routes data packets between different
networks. It operates at the network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.
Routers use IP addresses to determine the best path for forwarding data
to its destination. They connect multiple networks, such as a local area
network (LAN) to a wide area network (WAN), and are essential for
directing traffic on the internet. Routers can also provide additional
features like network address translation (NAT), firewall protection, and
Quality of Service (QoS) management.

d) Modem
A modem (short for modulator-demodulator) is a device that converts
digital data from a computer into analog signals that can be transmitted
over traditional phone lines or other analog communication media, and
vice versa. Modems are essential for connecting to the internet over a
telephone line or a cable system. They modulate the digital signals from
a computer into a format suitable for transmission and then demodulate
incoming analog signals back into digital data. There are different types
of modems, such as DSL modems, cable modems, and fiber modems,
depending on the type of internet connection.
Q.8
a) Analog signal transmission involves the continuous transfer of data through
a medium in the form of electrical, optical, or acoustic waves that vary in
amplitude, frequency, or phase. Unlike digital signals, which use discrete
binary values (0s and 1s), analog signals represent information with smooth
and continuous variations. Common examples include radio waves, sound
waves, and light waves used in traditional telephony, radio broadcasting, and
analog television. The main characteristics of analog transmission are:
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM): Varies the signal's amplitude to convey
information.
2. Frequency Modulation (FM): Varies the signal's frequency to encode data.
3. Phase Modulation (PM): Alters the phase of the signal to represent
information.
Analog transmission is susceptible to noise and signal degradation over long
distances, which can lead to loss of quality. Despite this, it is still used in
various applications due to its simplicity and effectiveness in certain scenarios.
b) Digital signal transmission involves sending information (such as audio,
video, or data) in the form of discrete signals that represent binary digits (bits).
Here's a brief explanation of the process:
1. Digital Encoding: Information is first converted into a digital format through
encoding. This involves representing the analog signal (from microphones,
cameras, etc.) as a sequence of binary digits (0s and 1s).
2. Transmission: The encoded digital signal is transmitted over a physical
medium (such as copper wires, optical fibers, or wireless channels).
Transmission may involve modulation techniques where the digital signal is
impressed onto a carrier wave for efficient transmission.
3. Reception: At the receiving end, the transmitted signal is received and
demodulated (if modulation was used) to retrieve the original digital data.
4. Decoding: The received digital signal is decoded back into its original format
(audio, video, data) by reversing the encoding process. This ensures that the
information can be correctly interpreted and used.
Digital signal transmission is preferred over analog transmission in many
applications because it is less susceptible to noise and distortion, allows for
easier error detection and correction, and enables greater flexibility and
efficiency in data processing and storage.
Q.9

Packet Message
Aspect Circuit Switching
Switching Switching

Message
Dedicated path Independent transmitted as a
Basic for entire packets sent whole, but split
Concept communication individually over into smaller
session. the network. elements
(packets).

Efficient
Dedicated Moderate
resource
Resource resources resource usage;
sharing;
Usage throughout the intermediate
dynamic
call. approach.
allocation.

Moderate
Variable latency
Low latency; latency; message
Latency due to packet
constant bit delay. divided into
queues.
packets.

Efficient for Balanced

Inefficient for
Efficiency bursty and efficiency for
bursty traffic.
diverse traffic. various scenarios.
 Packet Message
Aspect Circuit Switching
Switching Switching

Limited scalability Highly scalable Moderately

Scalability due to dedicated due to shared scalable; balances
circuits. resources. efficiency.

Traditional
Internet (TCP/IP) Early computer
telephone
Examples and Ethernet networks (less
networks
networks. common now).
(analog).