1

ALEXANDERS CAMPAIGN IN BACTRIA

THEME In 331 BC after finally defeating the Persian king Darius III in the battle of Guagamala, Alexander pursued him into a region called Bactria. Bounded by the river Oxus in the north, china in the east, India in the southeast and Persia in the west, the region is generally akin to present day Afghanistan. Alexanders campaign in Bactria has been termed by the historians as one of the most difficult of his conquests and amounted to a low intensity conflict in ancient times. It was also the longest of his career where he battled not only relentless enemies but also extremely unreliable allies and uncontrollable weather. In trying to control this volatile territory he on one hand restored to extreme brutality by annihilating complete towns and cities and on the other, tried to pacify its hardy people by number of administrative measures including settling of his troops in the region and encouraging local marriages. One of his wives Roxana also belonged to Bactria, his campaign against Bactrian also consumed large portion of his army otherwise required for expansion eastwards into India. Over millenniums, other foreign invaders also met the same fate in the region whether they were the British, or the Soviets or lately the Americans. Carryout the study of Alexanders campaign in Bactria and its outcome, drawing comparison with other foreign invaders or armies which came later in time with the view to drawing pertinent lessons as relevant in todays environment.

2 Introduction 1. The land of Bactria (present day Afghanistan), is a conflux of rugged mountains

and battle hardened people, which has proved to be a grave yard of many great military powers/leaders throughout history. (modern day part of Afghanistan) is the worlds inexhaustible well spring of warlords and fighting tribes, who have left undeletable prints in the history. Alexander took only six months to conquer Iran, but it took him nearly three years (from 330327 BC) to subdue this area. Macedonian leader encountered fierce resistance from the local rulers. In a letter to his mother, Alexander described his encounters as: "I am involved in the land of a 'Leonine' (lion-like) and brave people, where every foot of the ground is like a well of steel, confronting my soldier. You have brought only one son into the world, but everyone in this land can be called an Alexander. Local resistance and the difficult terrain made it difficult for Alexander's forces to subdue the region as many invaders have found the mountainous terrain of Afghanistan similar to a maze that often trapped outside invaders. The location of Afghanistan astride the land routes between the Indian subcontinent, Iran, and central Asia has enticed conquerors throughout history. Afghans resistance to invaders was exemplary, irregular in nature, where lightly armed warlords rendered a superior, heavily armed and ponderous army ineffective by concentrating their strength against the weaknesses of the enemy. 2. During last three centuries, superpowers had trained their sights on the tragic land. All endeavors began with confidence and ended in catastrophe. This land has never been captured by foreign invaders and if was done, then they could not sustain it, rather had to withdraw with heavy losses which ultimately became cause of their defeat. This exactly explains where US stands today, Soviets did in 1980, British in nineteenth century and even Greeks and Macedonians in 329 BC. To change Afghan history it will take a little luck, a lot of blood and much more time. Aim 3. To analyse Alexander's campaign in Bactria and subsequent invaders with a

view to draw pertinent lessons relevant to prevailing environments.

3 Sequence 4. a. b. c. d. e. Following shall be sequence of presentation:Part-I Part-II Part-III Part-IV Part-IV -Alexander The Great and Bactria -Alexanders Campaign in Bactria -Other Invaders in Bactria -Allies Invasion in Bactria -Analysis and Lessons Learnt Major Salman Major Raheel Major Iftikhar Major Qaiser Major Asghar

PART I

ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND BACTRIA

Old Topography of Bactria and What it is Now a Days 5. Geographical Location of Bactria. Bactria, the name of an ancient country in Central Asia, was the home of Iranian-speaking people from about the eighth century BC. At the time of Alexanders campaign it was part of the ancient Persian Empire. It lies between the Hindu Kush and the Amu Darya River, in today's Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. A branch of the Hindu Kush Mountains separated it from the territories of the Sakas (Sacae), the Iranian nomads. Its capital city, Bactra, was situated in northern Afghanistan, but since the nineteenth century, the site has been no more than a village near the modern city of Mazar-iSharif.

1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 2.

Name. The most common name found in the history for this region is Bactriana Bahtri / Bakhtar Bahdi Bhalika Daxia Topography. : Ancient Greek : Ancient Persian : Avestian : Arabic /Indian : Chinese Bactria was a mix of mountainous, plain and desert

Bactria. However, few other names are also found in different languages of that time:-

terrain. Towards its South and East were the mountains of Hindu Kush. In the central region it was plain area noted for its fertility. It was well watered and produced almost all types of fruit and crops. Because of this fertility it was also known as The pride of Ariana and the people used to call it Bactria the Beautiful. However all along the Western frontier lay the great shifting sand dunes forming an almost impenetrable barrier to invaders. After the North-western gale it was not uncommon for the whole face of the country to be altered, roads being blotted out, landmarks obliterated and fresh sand hills piled up. One of the most characteristic features of Bactria was the succession of great forts scattered over the face of the country which provided it a great strength against the foreign intruders. 3. Neighbours. On the Southern and Eastern flanks of Bactria the

great mountain barriers divided it from India and Gandhara. On its Western side were

5 the great Carminian desert and the grassy downs of Aria and Margiana (Modern Heart and Merv). Beyond the Oxus to the North was the sparsely inhabited region of Sogdiana (Modern Bukhara and Turkestan). 4. People. The original population of Bactria was largely Scythians

who had occupied the plains of Oxus long before the advent of Aryans. The Iranians conquered Bactria around 8th century BC but did not exterminate the primitive inhabitants and lived with the aboriginal inhabitants. This created a mix of the Scythians and the Aryans. The whole population was an obstinate and valiant race. The inhabitants were warlike people of pure Aryan stock, who were determined to fight for their freedom. They were rough and outspoken and were continually at war which kept their martial spirit alive. 5. Language. The language used in the region of Bactria was known as

Bactrian. It was of the Indo - Iranian sub family of the Indo European family. Since it was written predominantly with the Greek alphabets, it was also referred to as Greeco Bactrian. Its extinction took place somewhere in 9th century AD. 6. Religion. Bactria is thought to have been the birthplace of Zoroaster,

the prophet of Persian religion. Hence the religion being followed in this area was Zoroastrianism. Avesta is the holy book of the Zoroastrians (Modern day Parsis). The great temple of Iranian goddess Anahita was also located here. 7. Strategic Importance of Bactria. Despite its rugged mountainous

and desert terrain, Bactria was strategically located on the Silk Road linking Europe and China via Western Asia. It was the centre from which other parts of the area could be checked. For example, Bactria was a block to the northern nomads, and had easy access to the eastern and western provinces. The presence of great temple of Iranian godess Anahita also increased its importance. Another important feature of Bactria was the succession of mighty forts spread over the country, asserting to the traveller the safety and excellent strategic position of the country. This strategic location of the area was always the source of trouble for this region. The area had been subjected to the invasions by various armies of the world in different times. A brief account of different rulers till Alexander the Greats campaign is given below.

6 Overview of Alexanders Life 8. IN 336 B.C.E., A PROUD, INTELLIGENT, AND SUPREMELY ambitious young man rose to the throne of Macedonia, a kingdom on the northern border of modern-day Greece. Only 20 years old, he was already bristling to rule the mighty Persian Empire to the east. The fact that he accomplished this feat and much more, despite the wealth, power, and, often, the huge military strength of his foes and in just under 12 years illustrates his extraordinary gifts as a leader and military strategist. It has also kept his name in the forefront of legendary action figures even into the 21st century, more than 2,300 years later. He is still known throughout the world as Alexander the Great. 9. Born to Greatness. Alexander III of Macedon (356323 B.C.E.) was the son of King Philip II of Macedon (382336 B.C.E.) and Olympias of Epirus (c. 376316 B.C.E.) (in what is now modern-day Albania), daughter of King Neoptolemus I. Alexanders birth, which some historians say probably occurred in the month of July, was accompanied by various unusual events. One of these was the burning down of the Temple of Artemis, the goddess of the wilderness, wild animals, and the hunt. Soothsayers (those who foretold the future based on signs) consulted by King Philip prophesied that these events indicated his sons great destiny. Whether or not the prophecies were legitimate, the fact remains that Alexander became the most successful warrior in the history of the world. From the age of 20 until his death at only 32, Alexander and his armies swept across a vast region that included Persia, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. He traveled thousands of miles with his troops and ultimately ruled an empire that stretched approximately 2 million square miles over three continents. In his conquest of the known world, he overcame armies far more powerful than his by being smarter, more resourceful, and more determined than his enemies. His life was instructional for many other great conquerors and rulers as well, including Julius Caesar, Queen Cleopatra VII, and Napoleon Bonaparte. The young prince had the best possible background for someone with great ambitions. King Philip II was an aggressive leader who set an example for his son by conquering neighboring lands when Alexander was just an infant. As he grew up, Alexander spent much of his childhood among the soldiers of his fathers army. Another important influence on the

7 young prince was his teacher Aristotle (384322 B.C.E.), one of the greatest Greek philosophers ever to have lived. Aristotle, who wrote or edited several hundred books, taught the young prince geography, botany, zoology, logic, and many other subjects. 10. Alexanders Education. As a Macedonian prince being groomed for the throne, Alexander received a first-rate education. But he did not always enjoy his educational experiences. His first tutor was a man named Leonidas. The stern Leonidas toughened Alexander physically. The young student was required by his teacher to engage in physical exercise before dawn and sometimes had to march for hours before breakfast to increase his appetite. Leonidas insisted on a lean, simple diet and believed being hungry was good discipline. He would search Alexanders belongings to make sure his mother, Olympias, had not snuck him any treats. Leonidas taught Alexander skills such as running, memorizing lessons, riding a horse bareback, driving a chariot, and using a sword and a spear. Historians have credited Alexanders later ability to endure the many extreme hardships of his war campaigns to the tough discipline he was subjected to under Leonidass tutelage. When Alexander was 13, his father hired Platos student, Aristotle, to replace Leonidas. With this great teacher Alexander studied literature, philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, geography, zoology, botany, scientific criticism, drama, poetry, art, law, and politics. Both physical and spiritual qualities were emphasized in the young princes education. He learned to sing and play a lyre and received training in physical fitness and warfare. Aristotle also instilled in his young student a lifelong love of the writings of Homer. Alexander believed in the Homeric concept of personal success for the sake of honor and glory, and tried to emulate his heroes Heracles and Achilles. Alexander had a great respect for learning, and during his years in the Middle East he often ordered books to be sent to him from Greece. He also sent Aristotle a great deal of money over the years to fund his research and educational projects. In some cases, the king also looked after the education of his troops children. As the army moved from place to place, many soldiers left behind children who were half Persian and half Greek or Macedonian. Alexander made many of these children wards of the state and arranged for their education. They were given military instruction and also learned about the ideals of Greek culture. 11. Alexanders Weapons

8 a. Catapult. The Greeks invented catapults in about 400 B.C.E. Philip was the first
commander to use siege weapons on the battlefield, and Alexander adopted the same practice. His soldiers used smaller, mobile catapults to fire large arrows aimed at individual soldiers and stones, or bags of stones, capable of killing or wounding a number of men with a single shot. Catapults were still in use in the 20th century. In World War I, soldiers in trenches made catapults by hand. They would use them to propel grenades and poison gas canisters at the enemy. Since World War II, catapults have been used to launch jets from aircraft carriers. During that war catapults were hydraulic, but later the British invented a steam-powered catapult. Commonly used today, the steampowered catapult launches a jet fighter at full throttle, giving it the power to accelerate from zero to 165 miles in two seconds enough to get it airborne from the relatively short distance of the aircraft carriers deck. In the 21st century experimentation is in progress with even more sophisticated and powerful catapults.

b.

Battering Ram. The battering rams used by ancient armies were most often
made of the largest tree trunk possible, which had been hacked to a point at one end. The tree trunk would then be set on wheels, or sometimes carried by men, and rammed through the doors and walls of fortresses and castles. Sometimes a battering ram was slung in a support frame so that it could be repeatedly swung against the barricade. Modern battering rams are usually used by police forces, most often by special paramilitary units known as SWAT (special weapons and tactics) teams, which are specially trained for dangerous missions. Sometimes these battering rams are attached to cars or other heavy vehicles and sometimes they are smaller, operated by just two or three officers to break down a door.

c.

Ballistae.

Ballistae were giant crossbows, powerful enough to shoot huge

darts or arrows, singly or in bunch. Ballistae were generally designed on a horizontal plane with arms of wood. Human hair or animal sinew was wrapped around each arm and acted like a spring to send the darts or arrows hurtling forward. Ballistae were extremely accurate in hitting intended targets but had the

9
disadvantage of not being able to travel very far. The Greek word ballista originates from another Greek word, ballei, meaning to throw. These words are also the ancient roots of our modern word ballistics, the science of the way projectiles move in flight, or more specifically, the study of what happens when firearms are fired. Most people today have heard of ballistic missiles. These are one of the more destructive modern equivalents of ancient projectile weaponry.

12.

Alexanders Army. During Alexanders time, soldiers fought on foot and

on horseback, meeting each other on the battlefield face to face. There were no guns, bombs, or tanks; weapons included bows and arrows, swords, spears, chariots, javelins, catapults, and special artillery used for sieges. Alexander inherited from his father the best army of his day. When Philip became king of Macedonia in 359 B.C.E., Greek armies consisted of both civilians and professional soldiers. His first innovation was to completely professional create army. the By worlds using only only

professionals, warfare was no longer a seasonal activity fought when the soldier/farmers did not have to tend their fields but became possible year round. All the helmets, shields, and weapons were made by skilled metalworkers, who beat the armor into shape from sheets of bronze. Iron was used for spearheads and swords because it is a much harder metal. The infantry was the backbone of Alexanders army. More than twice as many soldiers made up the infantry as the cavalry. The infantry included mercenary soldiers from a variety of places, including Agranians (natives of modern Bulgaria), Thracians, Cretans, and Paeonians, and was broken up into units according to nationality. Each unit had its own distinctive armor. Infantry soldiers were called hoplites, and they generally fought in a formation called a phalanx, 13. which was developed by the Greeks. The Companion cavalry was an elite body of

10 upper class Macedonians led in battle by Alexander himself. He adopted this innovation from his father. A highly disciplined cavalry could turn an enemys flank, cut off its retreat, or pursue fleeing soldiers, and Philips cavalry was just such a body. The Macedonian cavalry changed the nature of warfare, in particular because the phalanx was such a sophisticated and terrifying method of attack, later adopted by other leaders. Alexander went on to develop his fathers methods further, employing them to great advantage across two continents. Alexanders cavalry squadrons were divided into platoons. Their commanders were chosen for personal merit rather than race or birth. Armed with sarissas and outfitted with open-faced iron helmets and short body armor that protected their chests and backs, these troops were the most effective cavalry in the ancient world. The cavalry used formal, strict formations, such as wedges and diamonds. The officer at the tip of the formation would find weak points in the enemys line and then order a charge. General Line of Move of Alexanders Campaign 14. Greek Decline. Alexander came of age just after the so-called Golden Age of Greek civilization, which as at its height between 500 and 400 B.C.E. The Greeks were renowned as statesmen, philosophers, builders, poets, dramatists, and sculptors. But by the time Alexander was born, Greek civilization had begun to decline. Even so, the Greeks were justifiably proud of their knowledge, language, and refinement, and their customs and ideas still had powerful influence in the world. They thought very highly of themselvesand not so highly of their neighbors to the north, the Macedonians. In fact, although the Macedonian kings claimed that the royal family was descended from the Greek heroes Heracles and Achilles, for the most part the Greeks considered the Macedonians to be uncivilized barbarians living on the fringes of Greece. But these tough frontiersmen became effective soldiers under the leadership of Philip II. 15. Alexander in Charge. Alexander was only 16 years old, when his father

named him as regent, or temporary ruler, of Macedonia while he was away for an extended period of time. When Thrace, one of the Macedonian colonies, revolted, Alexander quickly marched troops to the area. He conquered the rebels and renamed

11 their stronghold Alexandroupolis. It was to become the first of several cities that he founded and named after himself. In 338 B.C.E., at the age of 18, Alexander led the left flank of the Macedonian cavalry (soldiers who fight on horseback) in the battle of Chaeronea, northwest of Athens. This decisive battle crushed the final Greek resistance to Philips rule.

16.

How Alexander Beat Darius.

Alexander was greatly outnumbered and

overmatched by Darius in almost every way. The Persians had many more troops and ships and much greater wealth. With a force of Greek mercenaries estimated at up to 50,000, they may have even had more Greek soldiers fighting on their side than Alexander had on his. Even the size of the two men made them unequal. Darius, then in his mid-40s, was said to have been nearly six and a half feet tallhuge for the time. Alexander was of medium height. Yet Alexander had a number of advantages that enabled him to overcome his enemys strength and stature. Alexanders troops, inherited from his father, were the most powerful fighters in the world. They were extremely disciplined and committed, even devoted, to their leader. Not until gunpowder was introduced 18 centuries later did a stronger army come along. The Persian forces were not as well trained, well disciplined, or devoted. Their size even worked against them at times, as they were not as fast or flexible as Alexanders army.

12 Alexander was an expert at analyzing what his available men and weapons could do, at coordinating his troops for complex battle maneuvers, and at hiding their real numbers. An incredible tactical genius, he was able to seize opportunities that opened up during a battle and organize his troops on the spot to make the most of their abilities and to exploit his enemys weaknesses and mistakes. 17. The Battle of Granicus. Between 334 and 331 B.C.E., Alexander won three decisive battles against the Persian Empire. The first of these was at the Granicus River (today Kocabas Cay in Turkey) in May of 334 B.C.E. Darius III was so disrespectful of his young foe that he did not come to the battlefield at all. Instead, he sent the local satrap, or regional governor, and a force of Persian cavalry and Greek mercenaries to turn back the invaders. The Persian troops met Alexanders forces at the river. The Persians held a strong position, lined up along the eastern bank of the Granicus, but Dariuss commanders made a fatal error. They had positioned their cavalry in front and their infantry in back, the standard defensive formation of the Persian army. Alexander, always shrewd in the heat of battle, quickly saw that this formation would keep the Persian cavalry boxed in and unable to maneuver easily. The Macedonian king attacked at once, even though it was late in the afternoon; he feared that if he waited, the Persians might realize their mistake and reorganize their troops. Alexander himself led the charge of the main cavalry, sending his infantry directly across the river. The Macedonians had to cross the deep, rapid river and climb the steep banks of the Granicus to attack. There was savage fighting. Alexander was injured and lay unconscious for a short time as the battle raged around him. He regained consciousness, got back on his horse, Bucephalas, and charged into the center of the enemy troops. Soon, the Macedonians had gained the upper hand. As the frantic Persians retreated, many men were trampled by their fleeing comrades. The Macedonians butchered the Persian soldiers. 18. Capturing Key Ports Of Persia. After the battle at Granicus, Alexander saw the wisdom of capturing Persias coastal cities before driving deeper into the country. The Persians had a powerful fleet of warships, and he did not have the naval strength to defeat them at sea. As long as the Persian fleet sailed the Mediterranean, they would remain a threat. Alexander realized that by capturing key ports that supplied

13 the Persian ships with food and water, the navy would eventually have to surrender. He also needed to control the ports in order to ship reinforcements and supplies to his army. The coastal city of Miletus resisted, and a Persian fleet of 400 ships with 80,000 men headed there to reinforce the city. Alexanders brilliant solution was simply to blockade the harbor, so the Persian ships could not bring their troops ashore. Miletus fell quickly. But Alexander was so impressed by the courage of the Greek mercenaries who fought there that, unlike earlier battles; he accepted them into his army. Alexander used the same technique along the east coast of the Aegean Sea. This kept the Persian fleet from being able to get fresh water and supplies. Despite its huge size, Persias mighty navy was defeated, simply because Alexanders army managed to capture so many coastal cities. About a year and a half after Alexanders first onslaught, the entire Persian fleet surrendered. 19. The Battle of Issus. By 333 B.C.E., Alexander reached the coast of Syria. In October of that year, in a fierce battle at Issus (a coastal plain between what is now Turkey and Syria), the Macedonians had their second major encounter with the Persian army. This time, Darius was there to lead his troops into battle. The Persians outnumbered the Macedonians, but once again they made a deadly mistake. They chose to fight on a narrow plain bordered by the sea, a river, and mountains. Alexander ordered his infantry to charge into a heavy shower of arrows. With his personal regiment, the Companion cavalry, he charged directly into the Persian lines and broke them up they had no room to maneuver around the Macedonian charge. The Macedonians quickly overwhelmed the Persians. 20. The Siege of Tyre. Alexander now marched south through Phoenicia (a territory that now roughly comprises the coastal area of Lebanon). The major port cities of Sidon and Byblos (now Jubayl in Lebanon) surrendered to him without a fight, but when Alexander arrived at the fortified island of Tyre in February 332 B.C.E., the city refused to let him enter. A walled fortress off the coast of what is now Lebanon, Tyre was a strategic coastal base, and Alexander knew he had to capture it. But gaining control of the island city would prove to be his most difficult military operation so far. Tyre lay about a half mile off the mainland. The water surrounding it was about 18 feet deep, and its walls were about 150 feet high. Its harbor was well fortified and

14 there was no land beyond the city walls. Alexander decided to lay siege to Tyre. He hired thousands of local workers to help the Macedonian soldiers build a mole a massive land bridge that reached from the mainland to the island. To build this, they used debris from the old city of Tyre, by then an abandoned ruin on the mainland. They drove wooden piles into the seabed to support the mole and piled rocks and logs on top. The work was extremely difficult and dangerous, and the Tyrians did not make it any easier. They used catapults to hurl stones and balls of burning debris at their enemies, and shot arrows at them. They captured some of the Macedonians and slaughtered them, then tossed them into the sea in view of their comrades. But Alexanders men, using screens and shields to protect themselves, continued building the mole. When they finally finished, the mole was about half a mile long and 200 feet wide. Unfortunately for the Macedonians, the wall where the land bridge came ashore was too strong for them to batter down. But at the same time the mole was being built, Alexander also constructed several 150-foot portable wooden towers, or siege towers, which were covered with iron plates to make them fireproof. Battering rams, catapults (machines that throw a projectile) were then mounted on these towers. Alexander also commandeered about 120 ships from the nearby city of Sidon, and mounted siege engines on their decks. In August 332 B.C.E., these ships moved in to attack Tyre from both north and south. The Tyrians piled rocks in the water around their island to keep the ships from drawing near, used their catapults to fling enormous boulders in hopes of sinking the ships, and poured scalding liquids and red-hot sand on them. The Tyrians held out for seven months against Alexanders siege, but eventually were defeated. Alexander and his men destroyed most of the city, massacred more than 8,000 Tyrians, and sold the remaining 30,000 residents into slavery. This slaughter was intended as punishment for the way the Tyrians had treated Macedonian prisoners, as well as a warning to other cities. 21. Onward to Egypt. After his victory at Tyre, Alexander headed for Egypt, the richest part of the Persian Empire. Its farms grew the best wheat and fruit in all the Mediterranean lands, and its ancient culture was widely admired. The Egyptians welcomed Alexander as a deliverer who was freeing them from the rule of the Persians, whom they detested. They turned over their entire treasury to him and

15 crowned the 24-year-old Macedonian pharaoh (king) of Egypt. Along with the title came the status of a god: The Egyptians considered Alexander (and all their pharaohs) to be the son of Ammon, their most important god. This made a deep impression on the young king, who had never considered himself an ordinary mortal. He began to wear a headdress adorned with two rams horns, a sacred symbol also depicted by the Egyptians as being worn by Ammon. Alexander spent six months in Egypt, where he founded the great ancient city of Alexandria. Alexandria grew into a worldwide center of culture and learning, and is still a thriving and respected metropolis today. 22. The Battle of Gaugamela. Alexander left Egypt in the spring of 331 B.C.E. and returned to Tyre to gather his troops. Through the spring and summer, they prepared for their next battle, at Gaugamela, which would turn out to be the decisive clash for the Persian Empire. King Darius had been preparing for this encounter with Alexander since his humiliating defeat at Issus. He amassed a large number of soldiers and added new weapons to his arsenal. He fitted the wheels of 200 chariots with razorsharp, curved blades that could slash the legs of the enemys horses and foot soldiers. He also brought in 15 Indian war elephants. The battle took place near the village of Gaugamela, east of the Tigris River in what is now Iraq. Darius chose the broad plain as the battle site to make sure his troops would not get hemmed in as they had at Granicus and Issus. He had workers smooth over rough spots on the field to level the ground for his special chariots. In some spots, his soldiers placed metal spikes on the ground to cripple the Macedonian horses. Alexander reportedly had 40,000 infantry and 7,000 cavalry. Estimates of the size of Dariuss army range from 250,000 to 1 million soldiers. Alexander lured the Persians into attacking his right and left flanks. This opened up a gap in their center, where Darius was fighting. Seizing the moment, Alexander quickly led his cavalry through to the center and galloped toward Darius, killing his chariot driver. Before he could get to the Persian king, however, Darius leapt from the chariot and fled the battlefield on horseback. Most of his men soon followed. 23. Alexanders Pursuit for Darius. After this, Alexander set off in pursuit of Darius. Darius was taken prisoner by Bessus, his Bactrian satrap and kinsman. As Alexander approached, Bessus killed Darius, declared himself king and retreated into Central Asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against Alexander. With the death of

16 Darius, Alexander declared the war of vengeance. His three years campaign, first against Bessus and then against Spitamenes, the satrap of Sogdiana took Alexander through Media, Parthia, Aria, Drangiana, Bactria and Scythia.

PART II BACTRIAN CAMPAIGN Theatre of War 24. The Bactria lay between the Hindu-Kush and the Oxus (Amu Daria). It was

a tangled mass of mountains and most of Sogdiana (Bokhara and Turkestan) was either open plain land or desert. Except for Bactra, the last great city of the Persian Empire, there were no towns to strike. The people were either village dwellers or nomads. The Bactrian and Sogdians were warlike people of pure Aryan stock, who were determined to fight for their freedom, they inhabited Bactria one of the most difficult regions in the world for any army to operate. 25. Crossings the Hindu Kush. Alexander crossed the Hindu Kush

Mountains into Bactria with a force of about 64,000 troops with 10,000 cavalry and half as many people accompanying as servants or camp followers in the spring of 329 BC. Bessus, with 7000 Bactrian, accompanied by Spitamenes and Oxyartes (barons of Sogdiana) lost the opportunity to attack the Macedonians as they descended in thin , weak lines from the Hindu Kush. Instead, alarmed by their approach he fled north and held Aornus (Tashkurgan) near the upper Oxus. Although the Hindu Kush was deep in snow, Alexander crossed Khawak Pass (11,600 feet high) and descended into Bactria. He advanced northwards to Drap Saka (Kunduz) to reach Aornus form the east. His move forced Bessus to withdraw beyond the Oxus and resulted in fall of Aornus and Bactra (Balkh) without resistance. 26. In pursuit of Bessus. Form Bactra, Alexander marched to the Oxus opposite Kilif. During the march a forty five mile stretch of desert sands cost him more causalities than in any battle. Here the river was about three quarters of a mile wide which he crossed in five days using skins stuffed with chaff. Alexander marched

17 rapidly north through ancient Sogdiana, a region that roughly corresponds to todays Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. During the march, Spitamenes sent a message that Bessus had been arrested by him and was willing to surrender. Alexander dispatched Ptolemy to accept the surrender. Bessus was mutilated and returned to Ecbatana for a horrible execution. 27. To Maracanda and Jaxartes. Alexander now marched to Sogdian

capital Maracanda (Samarkand) and then to Jaxartes. A party of Macedonians was attacked while foraging in the area and a number were killed and taken prisoners. Army reacted at once lead by Alexander. He was shot in the leg with an arrow and suffered a broken fibula; however the troops stormed the mountain and killed several thousand of their antagonists. He conquered Maracanda with little resistance and decided to found another city near Jaxartes. 28. The Real Menace. At jaxartes he learned that the entire territory from

jaxartes to Hindu Kush had erupted in rebellion behind him. Garrison of Cyruss seven fortresses had been massacred. Spitamenes had descended on Maracanda with a large force of cavalry reinforced by Scythians of the Dahae tribe(robbers); and Bactrian leaders, after being summoned to a conference at Bactra which seemed a trap and revolted instead. 29. Revolt at Cyropolis. Alexander sent a force of fifteen hundred

infantry men eight hundred cavalry and sixty companions to deal with Spitamenes. With rest of the army he started knocking down Cyruss forts, one after the other. Cyropolis was the strongest town. Alexander advanced to Cyropolis which was surrounded by a high wall and garrisoned by tribesmen. He ordered the battering rams to be brought up to the wall to divert the attention of tribesmen and gained access to the city by way of the channels or tunnels, as part of his classical deception plan. Probably under cover of night or morning twilight, they slipped through the channels. When the tribesmen saw their city in enemys hands, they made a vigorous onslaught. Alexander himself was struck violently with a stone upon his head and his neck but finally subdued the tribesmen. Cyropolis was seized and eight thousand of the

18 tribesmen were killed along with 15,000 forced to surrender. The last two remaining forts were taken with little trouble.. 30. Battle at Jaxartes. Macedonians returned to erecting Alexandria the

furthest. While Cyropolis and the other fortified posts were reduced, the Scythians continued to assemble on the right bank of the Jaxartes. The Jaxartes at Eschate was not very wide. Alexander deployed his catapults along the left bank to cover the passage through the river and opened the bombardment on the Scythians. He took advantage of their confusion and began to cross the river. First to cross the river were the archers. He ordered them to shoot at the Scythians to prevent them approaching the phalanx steeping out of the water. 31. On the far side of jaxartes the leading Macedonian elements advanced inland too quickly and became surrounded. Alexander after arriving at the scene improvised a solution and soon Scythians found themselves assailed in two sweeping wings with Alexander leading the companions cavalry on the right. The Scythians could no longer manoeuvre but were trapped between converging forces. A thousand were killed and 150 captured. 32. Problem at Maracanda. The news of another disaster was received there. The force sent to Maracanda had indeed relived spitamenes siege of that city citadel. After pursuing the rebels into the country side, however, the relief force had fallen into a trap and now Spitamenes had laid a siege to Maracanda. Alexander failed to realize the intensity of the rebellion until the Maracanda was besieged. Retribution was immediate, as Alexander set out with half the companions, archers and the lightest men. He covered 170 miles to Maracanda in three days and on fourth day at dawn, came near the city. Spitamenes and his followers fled with Alexander at their heels, but when he reached the battle field, he halted to bury dead of his force. He then marched back to Bactra for winter of 329-28 BC. 33. March to Sogdiana. Before he set out to subdue Sogdiana in 328

BC, Alexander left Craterus with a strong force in Bactra with orders to patrol the country and prevent any uprising. He divided rest of his army into five columns. He led his own column to Maracanda, while the others swept the countryside, reduced the Sogdian strongholds and then joined up with him at Maracanda. They built fortified

19 posts and garrisons to confine mounted commandos. He instructed Coenus and Artabazus to advance their column into Scythia (Turkestan) where Spitamenes had sought refuge and reinforcement of a tribe already famous for killing Cyrus the great. In all his great battles, the organization of his army created a decisive point. Against nomads, the only sure method was to compel them to mass in an area in which their mobility will be restricted. He grasped the conditions which rendered the Scythians invincible. He so shrewdly penetrated to compel them to do what they did not want to do i.e. to enter a siege of trained, disciplined and better armed soldiers. Should this interpretation of Alexanders manoeuvre be correct, then it is a model of its kind. 34. End of Spitamenes. In the spring of 328 BC, Alexander returned to

Oxus. After Alexander had established his network of fortified posts, he allotted Coenus two battalions of the phalanx, two squadrons of companions, all the mounted javelin men and the newly raised Bactrian and Sogdian light horse and instructed him to continue the operations against Spitamenes while he rested the army at Nautaca. When Spitamenes saw every place was occupied by the Macedonians with garrisons, and that there was no way to fight, he decided to attack Coenus. When Coenus saw Spitamenes preparing for attack, he launched a sharp encounter in which 800 Spitamenes followers were killed and Spitamenes deserted again. When the Coenus was pursuing Spitamenes, one of his followers from Massagetae betrayed Spitamenes and sent his head to the Alexander. Thus perished the most formidable opponent who ever faced Alexander. After Spitamenes death, Coenus and Craterus rejoined the army at Nautaca, rest of the year was used for mopping up the entire area. 35. Battle of Sogdiana Rock. The most famous battle took place at

the sogdian rock, an in accessible precipice where Bactrian noble Oxyartes had taken refuge with thousands of soldiers and ten years worth supplies. Alexander canvassed his army for mountain climbers. Finding three hundred, he charged them with scaling the nearly sheer cliff behind the rock. Over thirty fell but in the morning Oxyartes found a triumphant force of Greek soldiers above his head and behind him. Oxyartes promptly surrendered. In late spring of 327 B.C the king married daughter of Oxyartes, Roxane.

20

PART III OTHER INVADERS IN BACTRIA British Campaign More fighting still ! When will this country be pacified? Alexander Burnes, Chief British political officer in Kabul, July 1841. 36. First AngloAfghan War. It lasted from 1839 to 1842. It was one of the

first maj conflicts during the Great Game, the 19th century competition for power and influence in Central Asia between Great Britain and Russia, and also mark one of the worst setbacks inflicted on British power in the region after the consolidation of India by the East India Coy. a. Problems Faced and Their Solutions (Factors contributing to Failure) (1) (2) (3) Afghans resented the British presence and Shah Shuja whom they took as British puppet. Invasion stemmed from intelligence failure, and confused / optimistic policy. Britons raised taxes and attached existing customs and interests, especially of chiefs and warriors, while the mere presence of their garrisons caused inflation and irritation. (4) In 1841-2, invasion sparked a combination of jihad, elite coup, Pushtun war of national resistance, and banditry, not a national revolution, but dozens of loosely related risings. The British had no friends; once they ceased to be feared, and slashed their bribes, everyone struck opportunistically. (5) As the occupation dragged on, MacNaghten (Britain's chief representative to Kabul) allowed his soldiers to bring in their

21 families to improve morale; this further infuriated the Afghans, as it appeared the British were settling into a permanent occupation. (6) (7) Failure to introduce political reforms as follow up of mil campaign. Major cause of war that is furtherance of British imperialistic / expansionist designs. 42. Second AngloAfghan War. In the three decades after the First Anglo-

Afghan War the Russians advanced steadily southward towards Afghanistan. In 1842 the Russian border was on the other side of the Aral Sea from Afghanistan, but five years later the Tsar's outposts had moved to the lower reaches of the Amu Darya. By 1865 Tashkent had been formally annexed, as was Samarkand three yrs later. Russian con now extended as far as the northern bank of the Amu Darya. To check further adv of Russians towards south, in 1878, the British again invaded Afghanistan, beginning the Second Anglo-Afghan War. a. Problems Faced and Their Solutions (Factors contributing to Failure) (1) The cause of the second Afghanistan campaign had little to do with the Afghans themselves but everything to do with the Great power rivalry of the British and the Russians. (2) Mindful of the disaster that befell the expedition during the First Afghan War, the Indian government prep for this campaign in a much more diligent manner. (3) (4) Constant attacks by Afghans on isolated supply and relieve columns were of serious concern for the British. Britain found operations in Afghanistan hard, because the population, including veterans of the Indian Army, armed with effective rifles, played its hand against Britain.

22 (5) (6) Due to this campaign, there had been a considerable financial burden to the Indian government. British forces were pleased to pull out of Afghanistan to avoid the horrendous summer temperatures and to avoid the constant attacks on isolated supply and relieve columns. (7) (8) the (9) Disaffection of many Afghans for the terms and conditions of the British peace posed serious problems for the British. The timing of the campaign did not seem propitious. The British troops entered their second uncomfortable winter in Himalayas. The British attempt at maintain any legal facade for their undertakings was made more difficult as Yakub Khan (the ruler of Afghanistan) attempted to abdicate. With no obvious leader in sight, the country descended into (10) unpredictable tribal allegiances. The various tribes made it abundantly clear that as little as they liked each other, they liked the British still less. (11) Soviet Invasion There is no single piece of land in this country which has not been occupied by a Soviet soldier. Nevertheless, the majority of the territory remains in the hands of rebels. There is no single military problem that has arisen and that has not been solved, and yet there is still no result. The whole problem is in the fact that military results are not followed up by political. Sergei Akhromeev, Soviet Deputy Minister of Defence, Nov 1986 43. In 1979, the USSR took control of the Afghan capital, Kabul, and tried through Failure to introduce political reforms as follow up of military campaign.

the following decade to gain control over the whole country and its people. The invasion

23 was a failure, costing thousands of lives and having serious consequences still felt today. a. Factors Contributing to Failure (1) (2) (3) (4) Lack of understanding regarding geo and culture of AOO. The Communist governments in Kabul in the 1970s lacked the popular sp of the rural population. Red Army of 1979 lacked adequate prep for ctr-insur ops. Moreover, it had not fought a war since 1945. The Red Army was a conscript force whose sldrs served for two-yr periods. It did not have an NCO corps--in keeping with long Russian tradition, the Red Army relied on junior officers to perform the roles that (5) (6) unprofessional. Resistance fighters, called mujahidin, saw the Christian or atheist Soviets con Afghanistan as a defilement of Islam as well as of their traditional culture. Proclaiming a "jihad"(holy war), they gained (7) (8) (9) Op Cyclone. Mujahidin successfully emp guerrilla tac against the Soviets. Decentralized and scattered around Afghanistan, the mujahidin were like a poisonous snake without a head that could be cut off. There was no one strong cen stronghold from which resistance operated. (10) Alienating the civ populace - Soviet invasion had a devastating eff on the Afghan people. Because the the sp of the Islamic World. US gave mujahidin sp incl weapons, trg and money NCOs perform in Western armies. Soviet conscripts were notoriously brutal, drunk, and

24 rural population fed and housed the mujahidin, the Soviets tried to eliminate or remove civilian populations from the countryside where resistance (11) (12) (13) was based. Soviet invasion in Afghanistan elicited a strong reaction from all over the world. From throughout the Arab world, people gave money and aided the mujahidin. Although the primary reason for the Soviet wdr was their mil failure, diplomatic pressure from around the world hastened it. PART IV ALLIES INVASION 44. The US led coalitions campaign in Afghanistan presents an interesting case

study in contemporary times where like previous invaders a superior force succeeded in initially overrunning the country and got caught up in a protracted conflict thereafter. In succeeding pages the analysis testifies that US strategy in Afghanistan bears many similarities and some departures from Alexanders model of conquering and retaining Afghanistan. As a whole the US model can be assumed to be closer to Alexanders strategy than any other invader of Afghanistan. The US campaign in Afghanistan will be dealt with in following sequence in this part of study:a. b. c. 45. Background and reasons of invasion. Brief conduct of operations. Comparison with Alexanders model including similarities and departures. On 11 September

Background and Reasons of Op Enduring Freedom.

2001, USA was struck with terrorist attacks precedented in its history only by Japanese attack on Pearl harbour .The magnitude and degree of destruction left the Americans flabbergasted; not only the invincibility of worlds sole super power had comprehensively shattered but also the loss of lives and damage to the economy was colossal . Outraged

25 and shocked America was quick at pointing figure toward Al Qaeda and Afghanistan and demanded for immediate extradition of Osama Bin Laden from Taliban regime. Afghan governments defiance to comply left Americans with no option but to undertake a major military campaign and a policy statement enunciating Either you are with us or with the terrorists was made by US administration to coerce international support. Pakistan had considerable stake in continuation of Taliban regime in Afghanistan and it tried to persuade Afghan government to abide by the US demands failing which it took the fateful decision of siding with the coalition in war against terror. The US along NATO allies invaded Afghanistan with Pakistan providing intelligence, rights to use its air space and logistic support in support of coalition efforts. 46. Conduct. a. The war can be categorized into four distinct phases:Operation Enduring Freedom began with a massive Air Campaign.

air campaign starting from 17th Oct 01. Soon Americans ran out of visible targets to strike and resorted to special force operations as well as bombing of front line Taliban positions. After a month of bombing, US forces had nothing much to show to their credit except the collateral damage. b. Ground Offensive and Capitulation of Taliban. Northern alliance started the offensive from Northern fringes by taking Mazar-e- Sharif with Dostams militia. Local Taliban surprisingly did not put up much of fight. Soon Kunduz, Herat and several other cities fell to Northern alliance. On 13 Nov 02, Northern Alliance troops entered into Kabul and claimed victory. History repeated itself once again as Afghanistan was conquered by a superpower without much of a resistance. c. Resistance Phase. It is an ongoing phase. After the fall of Kabul, an interim government was formed under Hamid Karzai. His cabinet has Tajiks and Uzbeks from North but Pushtuns who form the majority of population have very less representation in the government. Taliban organized them once again and started raids, ambushes and suicide attacks against NATO led ISAF forces in Afghanistan. US has only itself to
1

K. Warikoo, Afghanistan the challenge, chapter 6, Pg:114

26 blame for shifting of its focus from Afghanistan to Iraq at a critical time, and forces were divided to look after two fronts . d. Strategy Revisited (Obama Administration). Subsequent to formation of new American Government the strategy was a revisited and the issue was viewed in regional context leading to announcement of Afpak Strategy. Whereas the strategy is yet to be unfolded on ground in specific terms additional dimensions of addressing the causes outside Afghanistan, engaging the non hardline Taliban and empowering the Afghan National Army are the salients. 47. Comparison With Alexanders Campaign. US led coalitions campaign in Afghanistan has so far been closest to the Bacterian model it bears many similarities in its concept and conduct, however owing to variations in aim of the campaign and contemporary geopolitical realities there are some departures from Alexanderian model as well these similarities and departures are as under:a. Similarities (1) Massive Use of Force. ground with massive Like Alexander the coalition broke the use of force in the form carpet bombing the

country with state of the art weapons and potent support to the Northern Alliance troops. Like Alexander and earlier invaders the coalition was able to secure a victory in a quick time but the Taliban instead of being annihilated melted in the country side with considerable resistance potential entangling the invaders in a protracted and bloody conflict which goes on todate. (2) Engaging with Local Forces and Warlords. In a bid to strengthen his hold over Bectria Alexander empowered local warlords like Sismithers the policy did pay him rich dividends. Coalition went a step ahead in securing the support from anti Taliban forces not only in post operations stage but also during the conduct of battle with Coalition boots touching the ground after the Kabul had fallen to Northern alliance.

27 (3) Reconstruction Efforts. To quell the insurgency and win the hearts and minds of the people in post war scenario the coalition forces just like Alexander undertook considerable reconstruction efforts these can be broadly divided into administrative, political and economic developments. A brief review is a s under:(a) Political Initiatives. To alienate the feelings of being ruled by foreign invaders the coalition followed a line of putting in place Afghan governments in an early time frame major developments are as under:(1) Establishment of Provisional Government. With the campaign in its seventh week the coalition commenced with the efforts to put in place a provisional government accommodating as much ethnic groups as possible. Resultantly an agreement was reached on 5 December 20012 by various Afghan stake holders at Bonn conference in Germany putting in place an interim government under Hamid Karzai. United States, United Nations and Japan played a major role to help secure the agreement. (2) Establishment of National Government. Going further the coalition was successful in establishing an Afghan National Government as a result of Loya Jirga (as provided by the provision of Bonn agreement)held on 11 and 12 Jun 2002.3Hamid Karzai was elected as president for next two years. (3) Formulation of Constituiton. The coalition played a major role in settling the difference and persuading all segments of Afghan national government in adopting a constitution thus setting the stage for nationwide elections in Jun 2004. The constitution put
2 3

K. Warikoo, Afghanistan the challenge, chapter 6, Pg:116 K. Warikoo, Afghanistan the challenge, chapter 6, Pg:119

28 in place a presidential form of government and tried to accommodate various ethnic groups by recognising Pashto, Durri, Uzbek and Turkmen as official languages. (4) Nationwide Elections. By holding general election s in 2004 and 2009 the coalition has stuck to its effort to project Afghanistan being ruled by the Afghans and put in place some democratic framework in the country. The results of the effort however remain marred owing to factors of Hamid Karzai being viewed as American puppet and failure of the government to extend its writ beyond Kabul. (b) Economic Initiatives. Like Alexander coalition under took several steps to improve the economic condition of the Afghan government right from the outset. The international conference held in Japan in January 2002 set a target of $15 billion assistance to Afghanistan in next 10 years. The coalition was able to win the commitment for provision of $ 4.8 billion over next five years. America itself committed $ 296 4million in the coming year. This is largest ever assistance from a single government in a single year. Although considerable amount of this allocation did make it to Afghanistan, however factors like governments lack of capacity and infrastructure to undertake development works compounded by worsening security situation did not allow requisite results to be achieved. (c) Administrative Initiatives. Just like Alexander coalition under took a number of administrative initiatives to win the population on their side and put in place developmental infrastructure, major steps are as under:-

K. Warikoo, Afghanistan the challenge, chapter 6, Pg:118

29 (1) Establishment of ISAF. viewed as an Although it later became to be of American presence in

extension

Afghanistan, ISAF was established as an international security assistance force under the umbrella of Unites Nations for purposes like peace keeping, improvement of security situation and undertaking development works. Thus clearly differentiating its role form US prime aim of capturing Osama Bin Laden and Taliban leaders. (2) Establishment odf Afghan National Army. Although still having a strength of 4700 people the establishment of Afghan National Army was a major step towards achieving security in the country. Failure to amalgamate local militias with Afghan National Army owing to resistance by the war lords and United States ceding to these war lords to keep them on her side have seriously undermined the effects to be achieved from establishment of Afghan National Army. (3) Repatriation of Refugees. alone 0.65 million of Another Afghan major initiative to was to go ahead with the repatriation of refugees. In 2004 refugees returned Afghanistan. Overall 2.5 million refugees returned to

Afghanistan this is the single largest repatriation of the refugees in past 30 years5. The worsening security situation coupled with governments lack of capacity to undertake rehabilitation initiatives have marred the outcome from the fact. (4) Development of Communication Infrastructure. The coalition undertook some major projects to develop road communication network in the country. Joint construction of Kabul- Kandhar-Heart road (by Saudi Arabia, Japan and US government) and Torkham- Jalalabad road by Pakistan
5

K. Warikoo, Afghanistan the challenge, chapter 6, Pg:121

30 coupled with several initiatives of local communication arteries are some of the examples. b. Departure from Alexandrian Model. The coalition model of invading and retaining Afghanistan differs from Alexanders campaign in many ways. The phenomenon is rooted in the basic aim of coalition forces and different geopolitical realities. Major departures are as under:(1) Basic Aim of Invasion. Unlike Alexanders aim to conquer Afghanistan, coalitions declared aim was to topple the Taliban regime, bring the perpetrators of 9/11 attacks to justice and dismantle the terror infrastructure in the country. The fact fundamentally alters the concept of waging the war and variations are evident. (2) Formulation of Coalition. Unlike Alexander America was able to articulate a multinational coalition to undertake the campaign. Although US was able to retain the role of major decision maker, however the actions of coalition forces fell short of response generated by single nations force under one single command. (3) Alienation of Local Population. In later half of his campaign Alexander tried to reach out to the local population by a variety of measures. Contrarily the coalition stays in water tight compartments with civil military relation and developmental initiatives falling to the domain of ISAF. (4) Encouraging Independent Power Centers. While Alexander took on any independent power centres with an iron hand the coalition seems to be settled with the existence of various warlords and their militias partly attributable to the variation the aim of the campaign. (5) Shift of Focus Amidst the Campaign. Whereas Alexander vigorously pursued the campaign being unifocal and without engaging himself on any other front; the coalition on the contrary

31 lost focus of Afghanistan by getting entangled in Iraq seriously affecting the outcome of the campaign. 48. Many of these departures are being undone in the new US policy for Afghanistan and hopefully with these new initiatives the coalition will be able to prevail.

PART-V ANALYSIS AND LESSONS LEARNT

Analysis of Bactrian Campaign 49. Securing the Base of Operation. Alexander always operated from a secure base of operation and ensured its protection at all cost. Even in the middle of the campaign he preferred to return for its protection then the immediate objectives by retaliating quickly and ruthlessly. The testimony is evident form his actions against the pursuit of Darius and Bessus, and the revolt of Satibarzanes at Cyropolis. 50. Centre of Gravity. Alexander the Great led an Army of 40,000 for 12 years from one corner of known world to the other, across the most treacherous of terrains, while fighting and defeating the greatest of his time. His personality as a leader captured the centre peace of his conquests. He was the centre of gravity of his army mainly due to his determination and influence in the battle. Macedonians never reached that glory after his death. 51. Speed of Operations. In the history, except Napoleon, no other general appreciated as fully as Alexander the value of mobility in war. Throughout his career, speed dominated all his movements and the result was increasing the time at his disposal. Number of times in Bactrian campaign, he surprised his enemies due to superior mobility. He manifested the application of mobility in pursuit of Darius and Bessus, and execution of Satibarzanes. He covered the distances with speed to reach at a place, where his enemy never expected him. 37. Pursuit. Alexander was the first general in history to understand that the fruits of a battle are in pursuit. He in all the battles followed his enemies until they

32 were executed or murdered. Darius, Bessus and Spitemens are the few examples. 38. Singleness of Purpose. Alexanders tactical operations were invariably subordinated to strategic aim of their respective campaigns. In his great battles, his aim was to assault from a secure base and annihilates his enemys power of resistance. He did so by subduing all Persian provinces along axis of advance. His aim was to secure NE front so as to invade India after the Bactrian campaign. 39. Intelligence Network. Alexander always obtained advance information about the country he decided to conquer and his intelligence network was so well orchestrated that he could get first hand information about his enemys movement and his intentions well in advance to take appropriate actions at his end. When this was not possible, he stepped into his enemys shoes, looked at the situation through his enemys eyes and fathomed his intentions. 40. Security. Alexander while at rest or during march or in battle, ordered entrenchment to be dug and picketed the route along which he marched, as he did in the Elburz Mountains. He also resorted to night move to hide his intentions and to surprise his enemy. In the battle, the security of his army was guaranteed by its organization. Its centre was impenetrable as long as phalanx maintained its dressing and its mobile wings were self protective. They could adopt themselves to attack or defence as occasions demanded. 41. Quelling Rebellions. Whenever Alexander confronted with any revolt, he eliminated all uprisings by responding immediately and ruthlessly whether inland or abroad, like the revolt of Satibarzanes. 42. Adaptation to Guerrilla Warfare. In this theatre, Alexander fought a war with mounted guerrillas, who when he advanced would suddenly appear in his rear. They entrenched themselves on inaccessible crags, and when pursued, they vanished into the Turkoman steppes. That is why he took two years to subdue these provinces which tested his generalship. In response to guerrilla warfare he lightened the phalanx and there was a considerable expansion of his light troops both on foot and on horse. Whatever changes he made, these were based on mobility and flexibility

33 coupled with use of large number of military posts and military colonies that restricted his enemys mobility. 43. Concentrated Employment of Fire Power. Alexander used catapult as his main field artillery gun. In the battle with Scythians at Jaxartes, he used this weapon to cover river crossing and to cover the assault on Aornus. He has the distinction of being the first field gunner in the history. 44. Socio-Politico Reforms. Alexander secured important bases and later their administration was carefully organised. Peaceful conditions were resorted to, trade was stimulated and police force was left to the colonies rather than armies of occupation. As his conquest extended, he won peace as he waged war and bound the whole into one by means of communication network. 45. Logistic Sustenance. Alexander knew the importance of continuous Logistic support and he never left sight of it. He always appointed commanders responsible for the route protection, and he normally chose locals for this task. When Satibarzanes, the Governor of Aria submitted to him, he allotted him small police force for the route protection. In the entire campaign, it was only once before the battle of Issus, that his supply system broke down. 46. Promoting Inter Cultural Harmony. Alexander knew that his existence in the area depends not on his endeavours, but on the good will and contentedness of its people. To expunge his victories from their minds and show them he was one of them, He introduced Persian etiquettes into his court and donned Persian attire. He adopted a composite dress mid way between the Persian and the Macedonian culture. 47. Impartial Justice. Alexander treated his followers impartially. When he came across the Ariaspians and learnt that they not only enjoyed a form of government unlike that of the other barbarians. He also observed that Ariaspians laid claim to justice like the best of the Greeks, so he set them free and gave them adjacent country as they asked for themselves. 48. Selection of Strategic Objectives. Bactrian campaign was beyond the original mandate of League of Corinth. After the fall of Persia his allies considered this

34 campaign as an endless struggle instead of actual cause. Alexander was forced to detach a considerable portion of his allies and was short of troops for capture of India. Common Difficulties Faced by All Invaders in Bactria 64. Some of the common difficulties faced by all invaders in Bactria are as under:a. Terrain. Bactria, present day Afghanistan, known as the

battleground of the world has received and became a "graveyard of empires" from Alexander the Great through Genghis Khan followed by the British, Russians and now probably the United States. This peculiarity has remained a constant factor for all the invaders and posed a serious problem for all. The ruggedness of terrain and hard mountains has always provided safe sanctuaries to the local tribes who by virtue of local inhabitants knew the terrain well and exploited that to the maximum. This phenomenon resulted into transformation, from a concept of large scale force into small and agile body of troops. b. Geographic Location. Like terrain, geography has played a

very important role in history of Afghanistan. Despite its rugged mountainous and desert terrain, its strategic location on the Silk Road linking Europe and China via Western Asia, has played its part since Alexanders time. This pivotal location provided invaders a jump off point towards India, China, Central Asian Republics (CARs) and Russia. Without a strong hold in Afghanistan, the control of other region is affected to a larger extent. Exploitation of other regions through Afghanistan remained the major reason of most of the foreign invasions. The United States / NATO Forces in Afghanistan at present are the true manifestation of this, as it is not only dealing with the Taliban/Al-Qaeda but also keeping an eye over Pakistan, Iran, Central Asian Republics (CARs), Russia and China. c. Tribal Unity Against Foreign the Aggressor. Tribesmen

are tenacious fighters. They love freedom and have never compromised

35 on it. This aspect remained a constant threat to all invaders, which resulted in display of relentless fighting even by a small body of tribesmen. These tribes never accepted the invaders on their land. Despite of mutual rivalry they fought collectively against invaders and their joint struggle against them is clear manifestation of the same. In the course of guerrilla war during Soviet invasion and now the US/NATO, Afghan leadership came to be distinctively associated with the title of "commander". It applied to independent leaders, eschewing identification with elaborate military bureaucracy associated with such ranks as general. As the war produced leaders of reputation, "commander" was conferred on leaders of fighting units of all sizes, signifying pride in independence, self-sufficiency, and distinct ties to local community. The title epitomized Afghan pride in their struggle against an overwhelmingly-powerful foe. d. Severe Weather. The harsh winters always posed considerable

restrictions over the movement of forces in high snow clad mountains. This always dictated the campaigning season to be in summers. Even in modern times, the US/NATO operations are restricted to summers only despite the sound log system. e. Low Intensity Conflict. The rugged mountains and adverse

communication infrastructure facilitate hit and run tactics that make this region conducive for Guerrilla Warfare. To off set this balance, any invader is required to identify and destroy multiple centre of gravities, which may include military targets, economic supports, local and foreign sympathizers, and political influence. f. Logistic Support. To sustain any operation in the region requires

a sound logistic support, which is true in any part of the world. However, geographical factor changes its status in the priority table. Long lines of communication are susceptible to interruptions and protection of these is a major aspect in any conflict in the region. This dictates efficient logistic system with minimum dependence on long line of commutation.

36 65. US Invasion of Afghanistan. US invasion of Afghanistan ultimately

proved to be a strategic failure and its changed policy on war against terror in the region is a clear manifestation of the same. Salient aspects that are hampering the US efforts in Afghanistan include:a. Preoccupation with Iraq. Intense US forces engagement in Iraq

seriously effected the military operations in Afghanistan. Not only troops but it also changed the focus of its military effort. b. Non Representative Government. The US formed puppet

government in Afghanistan, has so far proved to be a total failure since it dont represents the major ethnic faction i.e. Pashtuns and it has yet to establish its writ outside Kabul. c. Revival of Taliban Insurgency. Taliban initially suffered heavy

losses but resurfaced as a potent force by adopting guerrilla warfare tactics as they did against previous invaders. d. Survival of Al Qaeda Leadership. Failure of coalition and

Afghan forces to eliminate the top Al- Qaeda and Taliban leadership resulted in regrouping and strengthening of various fighting groups. e. Economic Factor. Economy is not moving forward at the level

that benefits ordinary Afghan; rural development is very weak with major problems like the narcotics trade. Current US and NATO aid and rehabilitation activities in the war torn country are inadequate. f. Insufficient Boots on Ground. The US and NATO have

insufficient force to secure the south and west, and key NATO partners like France, Germany, Japan and Italy do not provide fighting forces due to political constraints. Application of Principles of War 49. Maintenance of Aim. Maintenance of aim as principle of war was the

predominant factor faced by invaders. Alexanders tactical operations were invariably subordinated to strategic aim of their respective campaigns. In his four great battles, his

37 aim was to assault from a secure base and annihilates his enemys power of resistance. On the other hand, The Soviet troops suffered from the confusion about their goals. Initial official mission was to protect the government that changed to overthrow Amin and his regime. Mission was changed once again, but the leadership was not willing to admit that the Soviet troops were essentially fighting the Afghan civil war for the government. This aspect contributed towards its defeat. 50. Mobility. In the history, except Napoleon, no other general appreciated

as fully as Alexander the value of mobility in war. Throughout his career speed dominated all his movements and the result was by increasing the time at his disposal. Number of times in Bactrian campaign, he surprised enemy due to his mobility i.e. In Darius and Bessus pursuit, Satibarzanes execution, he covered the distance with speed to reach a place where his enemy never expected him. 51. Offensive Action. Like mobility offensives action also remained the

hallmark of Alexanders campaign in Bactria. Pursuit of his enemies and response towards any revolt was vigorously executed. Whenever Alexander confronted with any revolt, he eliminated all uprisings by responding immediately and ruthlessly whether inland or abroad, like the revolt of Satibarzanes. 52. Concentration of Force. To overcome the disadvantages, all the

invaders concentrated their forces at the point of application to put the opponents at a disadvantage. Unlike other battlefield environments, this aspect is quite difficult in this region mainly due to terrain and nature of enemy. Alexander covered 170 miles while moving towards Maracanda in four days and concentrated his forces, which proved decisive. US invasion in Afghanistan ultimately proved to be a strategic failure. Intense US forces engagement in Iraq seriously effected the military operations in Afghanistan. 53. Intelligence. Nature of operations and the enemy pattern dictates an

effective intelligence network in the region. Most of the operations are premeditative, as the target will appear at the place and time of his choosing, leaving us with little time to react. Lack of effective intelligence network contributed heavily towards defeat of major empires in the region. Alexander always obtained advance information about the country he decided to conquer and got first hand information about his enemys

38 movement and his intentions well in advance to take appropriate actions. Same phenomenon is advocated by subsequent invaders in the region. 54. Unity of Command. Articulation of command plays a very important

role towards the outcome of any battle. The nature of enemy and geographical factor in the region demands centralized control with decentralized execution. Alexander controlled his massive campaign with tremendous results. Same aspect lacks in the USSR and US invasion to a large extent. Lessons Relevant Today 55. Relevance of Operation in FATA. Bactria though is different from

the own border region but still a lot of similarities exists in terms of mountainous terrain, ethnicity of people and the harsh weather. Considering these similarities of the region few pertinent lessons relevant to todays environment are discussed in subsequent paragraphs:a. Geography. Geography of the region has played a very important

role in dictating the rules of engagement in the region. It has direct implication on conduct of on going operations in FATA region:(1) transform ambushes Force Size. Large forces operating in the area should into small and agile one. Large force is more prone to and raids and its cumbersome to move at short notices.

Thus, employment of large scale force of any specific operation in the region is debatable. Ongoing operation in FATA requires an agile, but still potent enough force to carryout independent operation with minimum time to react. (2) Mobility. Mobility will play a major role in Low Intensity

Operations in the region. Considering the nature of operation and the enemy, greater mobility will be able to curtail the inherent geographical disadvantages. Employment of compatible mobility means will synergize the effect created by a force at the point of application.

39 (3) Domination of Route. (operational or Under Low Intensity Operations logistic support) carries its own

environments, occupation of dominant positions in the route of any operation significance. With the nature of terrain in the FATA region requires a major effort to clear and subsequently sustain it. Eviction of a smaller size enemy from these positions requires a deliberate effort which is expensive both in force and time. Any further development without prior clearance of these life lines will be prone to sustained interruptions. b. Aerial Mobility. Aerial platforms have given a new dimension to

this type of warfare. Geographical disadvantages can be nullified to a large extent with its employment. Disposition of any force in the enemy rear can create the desired effect towards achievement of objectives. Employment of these platforms in FATA, both in logistic and attack role, produced commendable results which may not be possible with ground mobility means. c. Logistic Support. Geographical factor changes the status of

logistic support in the operational priority table as a whole. Long lines of communication are susceptible to interruptions and protection requires major effort. This dictates efficient logistic system with minimum dependence on long line of commutation. d. Political Solution. There could be no military solution to the

conflict in the region which dictates the employment of strong political response. From Alexander to present day, any sort of peace achieved was through political channel. A sustained peace in the region can only be ensured through an effective political system. In FATA also, we should not abandon the employment of political option for a sustained peace in the region. e. Mountain Warfare. Natives utilize the advantages of

geography even defeated major empires. Conventional military operation

40 may be altered to gain desired results in any future conflict. Predominantly the Low Intensity Conflict will dictate its employment parameters. Protection of force, its size and the sustenance measures will require revaluation at the conceptual plan. f. Training. The conflict in the region is asymmetric in nature and

requires a major shift in military training and doctrines. Mastery in Guerrilla Warfare, field craft and Low Intensity Conflict will contribute towards the attainment of strategic objectives. Our army is trained for third generation warfare, while we are confronted with forth generation warfare, represented by Low Intensity Conflict. We should adopt the conduct of our operation to forth generation warfare as only then we can counter this threat. g. Importance of Human Intelligence. To predict the Low

Intensity Conflict operations we should have considerable ingress into the planning quarters of the terrorists. High altitude and sophisticated surveillance means are of limited value in forth generation warfare environments. h. Respect Of Tribal Traditions. Tribal people are sensitive

towards their traditions, especially with regards to elders and women. While operating in the region we must hold these traditions in respect. Alexander was always respectful to the local populace. Pushton are fiercely warlike and independent race. It will be facilitating for pursuance of our policies that we leverage the tribal authorities to our advantages. Conclusion 56. The history of Bactria i.e. present day (part of) Afghanistan spans 2500

yrs. We should not forget the past as we run the risk of being condemned to relive it. The Bactrian terrain, people, and weather have inflicted defeat on invaders throughout the history. The lessons learnt from Alexander till US invasion are still relevant today, and only avoiding the short falls of earlier invaders can ensure success of any future operation in the region.

41 Reference Material 74. Following reference material is used:a. Books (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Afghanistan from Alexander the great to fall of Taliban, Stephan Tener Afghanistan from tragedy to triumphs, Sadhan Mukhherjee Afghanistan of afghans, Sardar Iqbal Ali Shah Alexander the Great and Logistics of the Macedonian Army, Donald W. Engels Great Empires of the Past, Empire of Alexander The Great, Debra Skelton and Pamela Dell b. Internet (1) (2) (3) (4) c. Battle of Wanat Historical Analysis Rough Draft Release by A Battlefield Tourist.htm Afghanistan-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia..htm Bactria-Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.htm bactria history, population, religion, tradition, speciality-Google Search.htm Encyclopedia (1) (2) International military and defence encyclopedia, Trevor N.Dupuy The encyclopedia of warfare, from earliest times..to present day, Adrian Gilbert

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