RAJEEV INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, HASSAN

Plot 1-D, Growth Center, Industrial Area, B -M Bypass Road, Hassan, Karnataka 573201

Prepared by:

ARJUN JOSHI
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
RAJEEV INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, HASSAN, KARNATAKA, INDIA.

MODULES
MODULE 01 Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
MODULE 02 Energy storage for EV and HEV
MODULE 03 Electric Propulsion
MODULE 04 Design of Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles
MODULE 05 Power Electronic Converter for Battery Charging

REFERANCES:

Sl.no Title Author Publisher Year

1 ModernElectric,HybridElectric, M.Ehsani,Y.Gao, CRC Press 2005
andFuelCellVehicles:Fundamentals. S. Gay and
AliEmadi
2 Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: Iqbal CRC Press 2003
Design Fundamentals Husain
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MODULE 05
Power Electronic Converter for Battery Charging
 Charging methods for battery.
 Termination methods
 Charging from grid.
 Isolated bidirectional DC-DC converter.
 Design of Z- converter for battery charging.
 High-frequency transformer based isolated
charger topology.
 Transformer less topology.
 [1]. Charging methods for battery:

Battery exchange, wireless charging, and conductive charging are the three main charging
techniques. The conductive charging is further divided into pantograph (Bottom up and Top-
down) and overnight charging, as shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. EV charging methods.

 Battery Swap Station (BSS)

The battery swapping method is also known as “Battery Exchange”, which is based on paying
monthly rent for the battery to the BSS owner. The slow charging method of the BSS helps to extend
the battery life. It is much easier to integrate the locally generated Renewable Energy Sources (RESs)
such as Solar and Wind with the BSS system. One of the main advantages of this technique is the
drivers do not need to get out of the vehicle and can replace the discharged battery very quickly.
Moreover, the battery kept at the station can participate in the V2G (vehicle-to-grid) initiative.
However, due to high monthly rental fees charged by the BSS owner, this type of EV charging
technique can be more costly than the fueling of the ICE engine because the BSS owner owns the EV
batteries. This technique requires multiple expensive batteries as well as a sizeable area in which to
store them which may require expensive real estate in a high traffic area. Also, the station may have a
particular model of the battery, but the vehicles may have different battery standards.

 Wireless Power Transfer (WPT)

This technology is based on electromagnetic induction and uses two coils. The primary coil is placed on the
road’s surface, and the secondary coil is placed inside the vehicle. Recently, WPT technology has gained
attention in EV applications because of its ability to enable the EV to recharge safely and conveniently. Also, it
does not require a standard connector (but does require a standard coupling technology) and can charge even
while the vehicle is in motion. However, the inductive power transfer is generally weak, and the air gap between
the transmitter and receiver coils should be in the range of 20 to 100 cm for efficient power transmission.
Moreover, eddy current loss is another issue in the WPT if the transmitter coil is not turned off. The information
transfer between the transmitter and the EV should be real-time which means communication latency can
happen.

 Conductive Charging (CC)

Conductive charging requires an electrical connection between the vehicle and charging inlet and provides
different charging facilities, e.g., level 1, level 2, and level 3 charging, and has high efficiency in charging due
to the direct connection. The two power charging levels (Level 2, 3) are employed for a public charging station.
The first two levels (Levels 1 and 2) have less impact on the distribution system. Conductive charging provides
a V2G facility and reduces the grid loss, maintains voltage level, prevents grid power overloading, active power
support, and can provide reactive power compensation by using the vehicle’s battery.
However, level 3 has different impacts on the distribution system such as voltage deviation, reliability of the
system, and transfer/power loss. It increases not only peak demand but also affects the transformer life. It also
needs a complex infrastructure, limited access to the electricity grid, and a standard connector/charging level.
The V2G technology requires intensive communication between grid and vehicle. Also, the V2G operation
reduces the battery lifespan of the battery due to frequent charging and discharging. The charging station types
including BSS, WPT, and CC stations are summarized in Table 1.

For higher battery capacity and quick charging requirement applications, such as buses and trucks, the following
two charging techniques are utilized, as discussed below:
 Overnight Depot Charging: The overnight depot charging system can be designed for slow and fast
charging. It is usually installed at the end of the lines and used for night-time charging. Thus, slow
 charging is the most favourable option because of the low charging impact on the distribution grid.
However, for higher battery capacity with quick charging requirement applications, the Pantograph
charging technique is suitable.
 Pantograph Charging: This type of charging is one of the opportunities for charging options. This
kind of charging infrastructure is used for higher battery capacity and power requirement applications,
such as buses and trucks. This charging technique offers less investment in the bus battery thus
reducing the bus investment cost, however, the charging infrastructure cost increases. Pantograph
charging is further divided into the following two categories:
(i) Top-down Pantograph: The charging setup is mounted on the roof of the bus stop therefore it is commonly
known as an off-board top-down pantograph. This method provides high power direct current which is already
demonstrated in Singapore, Germany, and the U.S.
(ii) Bottom-up Pantograph: This type of charging method is suitable for those applications where the charging
equipment is already installed in the bus. This is also known as an on-board bottom-up pantograph.

[2]. Charging from grid:

Fig. 1 Conventional structure of BESS connected to the medium voltage (MV) power grid
In this sense, the general structure of a BESS connected to the MV grid is shown in Fig. 1. This system is
composed of the battery pack, dc/dc stage and dc/ac stage. The converter topologies in each stage are classified
in topologies with transformer or transformer less. If low voltage switches are employed in the dc/ac stage for
two or three level topologies, a step-up transformer is required to connected the BESS to the MV grid. A
disadvantage of these topologies is the high current on the transformer low voltage side, which can decrease
their efficiency. Therefore, trends of transformer less dc/ ac converter technologies are being applied in BESS,
such as two levels with serial switches and modular multilevel converter (MMC).
However, a comprehensive analysis of cost-benefit, efficiency and system complexity is necessary to verify the
advantages of these trends. The same idea applies to the dc/dc stage, which can be isolated with high frequency
transformers. In view of the above, this paper proposes to perform a review of the main topologies of power
converters involved in BESS and present a comprehensive insight into converter technologies for this
application. Therefore, it aims to synthesize the main works in the literature, and reveal the advantages and
disadvantages in terms of power losses, number of semiconductor devices, output current harmonic distortions,
relevant number of control loops and the required sensors. Some issues, such as control strategies and converter
design, will be approached for the analysis of the inherent complexities of each topology. Several works that
deal with these issues will be investigated. Finally, a case study is carried out to compare and analyse the
converter topologies for BESS, considering some aspects, such as efficiency, power quality and number of
components.

[3]. Charge Termination Methods: Which One to Use:

The first portion of a charge cycle consists of forcing a constant current (typically 1C) into
the battery until the cell voltage approaches the programmed float voltage (typically 4.2V
±1% or better) at which time the charge current begins to drop. For a depleted battery this
occurs after approximately 30 minutes with the battery state of charge at approximately 55%
of full capacity. Since the charge current drops rather quickly in the constant voltage portion
of the charge cycle, the battery requires another 2 hours to bring the battery up to a 100%
charge level. Unfortunately, there is not much that can be done to speed up this portion of the
charge cycle without exceeding the recommended charge voltage.
Some chargers utilize a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor that is located
near or inside the battery pack to measure battery temperature. This protects the battery by
not allowing a charge cycle to begin if the battery temperature is less than 0°C or greater than
50°C. During a normal charge cycle, there is very little temperature rise for Li-Ion batteries.
Figure 1 shows a LTC4063 charge cycle for a 900mAHr Li-Ion polymer battery charging at a
1C rate. The curves show the relationship between the charge current, battery voltage, charge
capacity and the CHRG output signal. Since the timer termination method was selected, the
charge cycle ended after approximately 172 minutes with the battery at 100% charge
level. (Note: the charge current near the end of the charge cycle is a very low 6mA). Also
shown in Figure 1 is the CHRG open drain output signal, which was programmed to go high
when the charge current dropped below 50mA (IDETECT threshold) or approximately C/20.
Had the minimum charge current termination method been selected rather than the timer
method, the charge cycle would have ended when the CHRG signal went high (after 105
minutes). At that point the battery is approximately 97% charged, and it would take another
hour of charging for the last 3%. The programmable IDETECT current threshold level of the
LTC4063 has excellent accuracy, even at current levels as low as 5mA. Programming a low
IDETECT current and selecting minimum current termination would result in the charge
cycle ending at approximately the same time as timer termination.
Which termination is better? From the previous paragraph, it appears that it may not make
much difference because by selecting a low IDETECT current level, the two methods can be
made virtually identical. Minimum charge current termination can have an advantage in a
situation where different charge current levels may need to be selected during a charge cycle,
or when charging a battery that still has a partial charge, the charge cycle can be very short.
But timer termination may be better if a load that is greater than the programmed IDETECT
current level is permanently connected to the battery. In that situation, the charge cycle may
never terminate. Also, in timer termination, if the battery does not reach the recharge
threshold of 4.1V when the timer ends, the timer is reset and a new charge cycle begins.

[4].High-frequency transformer based

isolated charger topology

Converter topologies with transformers The voltage source converter (VSC), ZSI (Z-source converter)
and qZSI (quasi-Z-source converter), shown in Fig. 2, are the three traditional two-level converters for
the dc/ac stage of BESS. For the grid connection, it is generally, it is used a low-pass filter in order to
attenuate the injected harmonics. LC or LCL filter configurations are usually employed. The
transformer (Tx) is used to step-up the low voltage (LV) from the inverter side to the MV of the grid
side [12, 13]. In the VSC configuration, the battery bank can be connected directly to the dc/ac stage
capacitor or connected through the dc/dc stage. The disadvantage of this topology is the possibility of
operating only as a buck converter. Therefore, the output voltage must be lower than the dc voltage.
In addition, the upper and lower switches of each phase-leg cannot be activated simultaneously. Thus,
a dead time between the opening and closing of the switches must be implemented, which distorts the
output waveform. ZSI and qZSI were designed to overcome these disadvantages inherent of the VSC
topology [14, 15]. Basically, these converters can operate in boost mode, because of the additional
network with capacitors and inductors in the dc-link. Therefore, the short-circuit state is used to

Fig. 2 Conventional topologies of two-level converters for the connection of BESS to MV grid
exchange energy between the bus elements and raise the voltage. In fact, due to these listed characteristics,
many
works have used the qZSI converter to integrate renewable energy sources with batteries and connect them to
the grid, which prevents the use of additional dc/dc converter and reduces the number of semiconductors in the
system [16, 17]. Despite the advantages of ZSI and qZSI, VSC is more commonly used due to its simplicity.
Therefore, in this work, VSC is used to represent the two-level converters in the dc/ac stage and it is the
topology simulated in the case study presented in Section IV. For high power applications, a parallel association
of BESS in power blocks is used to avoid power concentration in a single system, as shown in Fig. 3 [18].
Notice that each block is a conventional system shown in Fig. 2. This configuration is advantageous in case of
battery failure, since only one power block will be out of service [19]. Another advantage is the power blocks
that can be connected at different points of the grid, and perform the services in a distributed way. These aspects
are discussed in Section V. This concept of power blocks has been used for several commissioned and operating
BESS around the world [20–22]. The three-level neutral-point clamped (NPC) converter is another topology
widely used for BESS applications [23–25], as shown in Fig. 4. The advantage of this converter topology is the
greater degree of freedom to increase the magnitude of the output voltage and improve the harmonic
performance, which reduces filter requirements. This is possible due to the clamping of half of the dc-bus
voltage by the NPC diodes, which reduces the voltage requirement of the power switches. The disadvantage of
this topology is the more complex control and
 Fig. 3 Use of the power block configuration for connecting BESS to the MV grid

Fig. 4 Three level converter topologies

modulation techniques required in relation to the twolevel converters [26]. The 200 kWh pilot project
commissioned in Norfolk, UK, in 2011, which used ABB’s Dyna- PeaQ solution with a NPC converter, is an
example of such application [27].
Structures similar to the conventional NPC are also widely used. The flying capacitor converter, for example,
uses capacitors instead of clamping diodes to divide the dc voltage input. In addition, the balancing of the
capacitors can be carried out easily through the modulation. The active NPC (ANPC) converter is another
structure, that uses electronic switches to perform the voltage clamping [28, 29]. These two topologies are
shown in Fig. 4. Further redundancies in the switching states and better capacitor voltage balancing are
advantages of these topologies in relation to the topology with diode clamping. For this reason, some HVDC
projects and some ABB medium voltage drives are based on this topology. Nevertheless, the ANPC topology
has a greater number of semiconductor switches, which affects the final cost of the system. Five-level NPC
converters can also be employed in BESS [30]. By increasing the converter levels, it is possible to improve the
output voltage waveform and, depending on the number of levels, eliminate the transformer. Thus, BESS can be
directly connected to the MV grid.

[5]. Transformer less topologies

Two-level topologies can still be used for direct connection to MV grid, as shown in Fig. 5 [31, 32]. In this
configuration, several insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are usually connected in series. This connection
can be understood as a single IGBT capable to block voltages of some kV. The main disadvantage of this
topology is the increased complexity in the gate drive circuits, in order to ensure the synchronization between
the on and off states of the switches. It is easy to observe that the greater the numbers of switches in series, the
more complex is the converter design. This topology is also designed to operate with low switching frequency,
in order to limit the switching losses. However, a low switching frequency increases the filtering requirements.
In relation to the direct connection of BESS to the MV grid, the multilevel topologies have demonstrated
prominent technologies in recent researches on BESSs [10, 33]. These topologies make it easier to deal with the
state of charge (SOC) unbalance of the batteries. They also present low losses, modularity and scalability,
among other characteristics [34]. The cascaded H-bridge converter (CHB) and the modular multilevel converter
with chopper or bridge cells (CC or BC) are two highly discussed multilevel topologies in power storage
applications.
The CHB converters, shown in Fig. 6, consist of several cells of single-phase H-bridge converters connected
in series in each phase [35–37]. This converter is presented in literature, in star configuration, as shown in Fig. 6
(a), or in the delta configuration, as shown in Fig. 6 (b). The implementation of the star CHB is less

Fig. 5 Transformer less two-level converter connected directly to the grid of MV level
expensive [38], while the delta CHB dynamics is better in situations of grid unbalances [39]. The development
of physical systems with CHB converters has already been achieved. Reference [37] shows the development of
a 500 kW real-scale star CHB for BESS, with successful test results. The use of the cascade converter topology
allows to connect the BESSs directly to the MV grid without step-up transformers [10]. Each H-bridge converter
regulates the power flow of each battery (or battery string) connected to its dclink. The inclusion of the dc/dc
stage is controversial. Many works use the CHB topologies without the dc-dc stage [34, 35]. On the other hand,
other papers argue that it is better to use this stage to improve the lifetime of the batteries [40].
The advantages of the CHB topologies are the inherent advantages of multilevel topologies, such as: the use of
low voltage switches, modularity, fault-tolerant, low frequency switching operation and high output voltage
quality [19, 41]. The insertion of a zero-sequence voltage between each phase is used to balance the energy
between the CHB arms in a star configuration. On the other hand, for the delta CHB arms, the insertion of a
zero-sequence current between each phase is used for energy balancing. The high number of switches and,
consequently, high costs and high-power losses, raises doubts about the viability of this topology. The MMC
converter, shown in Fig. 7, consists of several single-phase chopper or bridge inverter cells connected in series
at each phase [42–44]. This topology has the same advantages inherent to multilevel converters, as already
mentioned for the CHB converter. Besides, it is observed active power support between dc and ac system and a
greater freedom of SOC control, since the converter has 3 circulating currents [45–48]. This topology presents
flexible disposition of the batteries between the cells of each phase, according to Fig. 7 (a) or between the
physical dc-link, according to Fig. 7 (b). The safety of the MMC converter, can be increased by the use a
transformer so as to ensure the galvanic isolation of the converter with the grid (MMC + ITx). This principle
guarantees the flow of current and consequently, power, without creating forms of metallic conductions, which
increases the safety of the system. Some issues should be investigated when using the MMC topology. For
example, if the batteries are connected directly to each cell, unbalances between the voltages can lead to dc
current injection into the grid [49]. The dc-dc stage, shown in Fig. 7 (a), decouples the battery from the
capacitor, thus reducing the dc filter required and increasing the battery lifetime. Furthermore, the capacitor of
the cell can be smaller.

[6]. Isolated Bidirectional DC–DC Converter.

Figure 9.16 Isolated bidirectional DC–DC converter

In some applications, galvanic isolation between the battery and the load units is necessary and desirable [24].
Figure 9.16 shows a full bridge isolated bidirectional DC–DC converter. In Figure 9.16, the primary bridge
inverter switches at 20–50 kHz, with 50% duty ratio. The output of the primary is a square wave voltage which
is applied to the primary winding of the isolation transformer. The secondary winding of the transformer
therefore will have a square wave voltage. Without any control at the gating of the secondary bridge converter,
the voltage of the secondary of the transformer is rectified through the four freewheeling diodes. The output
voltage will fluctuate with load conditions and the primary voltage.
9.8.1 Basic Principle and Steady State Operations

Steady state operations of isolated bidirectional DC–DC converters have been studied in
detail elsewhere [1, 3, 6]. In this section, we complement these studies by distinguishing the
operating modes of isolated bidirectional DC–DC converters according to the phase shift
angle, load conditions, and output voltage. In this analysis, the dead-band and switching
dynamics will be neglected but will be analysed later. In the following analysis, the turns
ratio of the transformer is n, the transformer primary voltage is V 1, and the switching
frequency is f s . For the convenience of analysis, we define Ts as one half of the switching
period, for example, Ts =1/(2f s ). The duty cycle or phase shift is based on a half period, D
=t on /Ts . Therefore, DTs is the phase shift between the two bridges. Further, ILs is the
current of the leakage inductance of the secondary winding. The output voltage of the
secondary bridge is V 2.

[8]. Design of Z- converter for battery charging:

Z-source has been verified as an alternative ways to overcome the above disadvantages in convention [11]-[22].
Recently, research on Z-source converters has focused mainly on DC/AC inverters and AC/AC converters. In
applications where only voltage regulation is needed, the family of single-phase Z-source AC/AC converters
presented in [11]–[17] have a number of merits, for example, it can work in boost or buck situation and has a
larger range of output voltages, reducing inrush, and harmonic suppression. However, there are few people
applying Z-source AC/AC converters to EV battery charger, where a wide range of output voltages is needed
when charging battery series in different scales. In this paper, a novel topology of EV battery charger, as
Figure 2 shows, which uses Z-source AC/AC converter is proposed. It consists of three parts: a Z-source
AC/AC
converter, a PI filter and an uncontrolled full bridge rectifier. This topology inherits the merits of Z-source. The
novel charger has other advantages: a simple structure, low costs and simple control strategy. The analysis of the
circuit is presented. Simulations for charging the polymer Li-ion battery series are given, and the results show
that the topology has a good performance for EV battery charging.

Figure 1. Conventional two-stage PWM battery charger.

 Figure 2. EV battery charger using Z-source AC/AC converter.
 THE TOPOLOGY OF THE PROPOSED EV BATTERY CHARGER

As Figure 2 shows, the Z-source AC/AC converter utilizes two switches S1 and S2, which is constituted by two
active devices Q1 and Q2 with D1 and D2 as the body diodes. The two active devices are connected to
constitute four-quadrant switch, for bidirectional voltage blocking and bidirectional current paths. The
symmetrical Z-Source network combined with two same inductors and two same capacitors is the energy
storage and filtering element [14]. S1 and S2 are turned on and off in complement. By controlling shoot-through
duty ratio,
defined as D, of S1, the output voltage of the AC/AC converter can be regulated as need. The PI filter is
combined with two capacitors, Cf1 and Cf2, and an inductor Lf. The values of the capacitors and inductance are
both small. The small inductor L0 is to prevent Cf1 from voltage leaping. In analysis, it is neglectful. In the end,
there is the uncontrolled full-bridge rectifier, which consists of four diodes. The capacitor C3 followed has is
used to stabilize voltage of the charger.
 THE ANALYSIS OF THE PROPOSED TOPOLOGY
Since different types of batteries have different characteristics, we replace the battery by a resistance R L for
analysis. The bidirectional switches S1 and S2, which are turned on and off in complement, have two operation
states, on and off. The uncontrolled full bridge rectifier also has two states, shoot-through and shutoff. As a
result, four states lead to four operation states of the proposed charger. As Figure 3 shows, they are:
1. State 1, the rectifier is shutoff, S1 turns off, and S2 turns on.
2. State 2, the rectifier is shutoff, S1 turns on, and S2 turns off.
3. State 3, the rectifier is shoot-through, S1 turns off, and S2 turns on.
4. State 4, the rectifier is shoot-through, S1 turns on, and S2 turns off.
 Figure 3. Four states of the proposed topology: (a) state 1; (b) state 2; (c) state 3; (d) state 4.

an EV (Electric Vehicle) battery charger that consists of Z-source AC/AC converter, filter and uncontrolled
full-bridge rectifier is proposed. Inheriting the advantages of Z-source network, the Z-source charger has merits
such as simple structure, easy control strategy, permitting shoot-through in a bridge leg, voltage regulating in a
large range, reducing inrush and harmonic current.
Qualitative and quantitative analysis on the proposed circuit in four states is presented, and the output equations
are deduced and show the charging voltage can be simply regulated by controlling the shoot-through duty ratio
of the switches. Simulations verify the range and the speed of voltage regulating. In the simulation of polymer
Li-ion batteries charging, curves of charging voltage, current and SOC (state of charge) are given. The results
prove the validity of the analysis and verify the good application of the novel EV battery charger.