Chapter two

Review of literature
As already stated, knowledge is cumulative. Current researches are
accretion to the existing ones. Literature review provides the launching
pad for current researches. The researcher must be familiar with all that
have been done by prior researchers in the area of current research interest.
He must know the frontier-where it all began. Where it is now and then
where he can begin or what improvements can be made.
Literature review involves studying and summarizing the works of
recognized authorities relevant to the present study. This helps in the
elimination of duplication of research works, identification of the strength
and weakness of previous efforts and pointing forward the new direction. It
also helps in sharpening the focus of the current research.
In reviewing the literature, the researcher must note the following:
1. What was the aim of the author.
2. What hypotheses were formulated
3. What data gathering procedure was followed
4. What variables were included
5. What method of analysis was employed
6. What substantial finding resulted from the work
7. What conclusions were made
8. What suggestions for further studies were made
9. What are the special features of the research
10. What gaps were left unfilled?
A sound literature review is an indication of sound scholarship. It
shows that the researcher is not ignorant of what other scholers have
done in his area of interest. What do we see today? Students are
becoming lazier; they just pick a textbook or a previous project and
copy as a literature review. Several authors are cited in the body of
work but only few are found in the references section at the end of the
project. The fact is that they did not see the materials they quoted with
their own eyes! They simply plagiarise. In many other cases student
simply compile glossary of terms and call it literature review.

What is Plagiarism?

Plagiarism is presenting others’ work without adequate acknowledgment of its source, as

though it were ones’ own. Plagiarism is a form of fraud. We all stand on the shoulders of
others, and we must give credit to the creators of the works that we incorporate into
products that we call our own.

Some examples of plagiarism

 A sequence of words incorporated without quotation marks

 An unacknowledged passage paraphrased from another’s work
 The use of ideas, sound recordings, computer data or images created by others as
Though it were one’s own

Sources of Literature Review

Textbooks from library

Internet
Journals
News papers

In Text Citation

An in-text citation is a reference made within the body of text of an academic essay. The
in-text citation alerts the reader to a source that has informed your own writing.

The exact format of an in-text citation will depend on the style you need to use, for
example, APA. Check with your academic institution to ensure you provide the in-text
citations in the format expected.

Why cite?

 It is the right thing to do. Using another writer’s word or ideas without citing the
source is plagiarism
 Citations allow readers to look up your sources. This helps put your ideas and
conclusions into context
 For school papers citations are usually required

How to cite an author in the text (in text citation)

a. Citing the author(s) before statement, author(s) name(s) is/are metioned first.

Single Author
Ogunrinde (1999) has observed that the uncontrolled and uncoordinated exploitation of
land resources which has ruined many northern states have started in Niger state

Two authors

Baneriji and Fisher (1974) too, have demonstrated how the concepts can be used in
locating certain public facilities in rural India. In their studies, they were faced with the
problems of how to avoid over-under-utilization of resources, minimize cost and distance
and maximize the welfare of the scattered rural people.

Multiple authors (more than two). Mention the leading author and put et.al. (it means
‘and others)

Morenikeji, et.al has identified the factors responsible for the gender differences in the
level of human development of Nigeria.

b. Statement before the author(s) i.e state the information first before the
author (s) is cited
example
Single author
The overall result of the expanding wood market and the increasing rate of
exploitation is the general degradation of the Nigerian forest wealth (Jinadu,
1988).
Two authors
The overall result of the expanding wood market and the increasing rate of
exploitation is the general degradation of the Nigerian forest wealth (Jinadu and
Morenikeji, 1988).
Multiple authors.
The overall result of the expanding wood market and the increasing rate of
exploitation is the general degradation of the Nigerian forest wealth
(Jinadu, et al.2003)

When the author cited also got his fact from another author.
Moss and Morgan (2001), as quoted in Ayodele et al. (2000) emphasizes that
wood production and consumption vary considerably with the availability of wood
and the like.

Same author different material but same year.

 The two different approaches-traditional and Human Development Index (HDI)
have been applied to Nigeria with success (Morenikeji 2000a; Morenikeji 2000b)
Direct Quotation
Short quotation
The traditional approach to measuring poverty is the use of income
consequently. “the World Bank defines the poverty line of USSI per day for
countries South of the Sahara, which includes Nigeria and USS2 per day and
USS4 per day for Latin American and Central European countries respectively’’
(Akeh 2000)
Long quotation – Sentences should be on another line, centered and italized.
Other scholars have began to argue that health and education needs are also vital.
As put by Horner (1991) for instance:
“ A person may be housed, clothed and fed but have no additional resources to
cope with illness in the family, or to pay for preventive measures against disease.
Taking the argument a stage further, access to education might also be added
since this enhances a person’s ability to fend off poverty by equipping him or her
with skills which can be translated into earning capacity”

When date is not known put “n.d”.

Glewwe (n.d.) divided the total household consumption by the number of
equivalent adults which gives children less than seven years old a weight of 0.2,
those between the ages of seven to thirteen 0.3 and thirteen to seventeen a weight
of 0.5.
When the author is unknown put “anon” meaning anonymous.
Cleanliness is next to godliness (anon)

Methodology

This is usually the chapter 3 of a Report. The purpose of this is to explain in detail how
data is collected from whom, where and how. The sample used, the instrument used and
the statistical method of analysis are also discussed.

Two things are usually merged under the general term “methodology” one is the
methodology itself and the other is the method. Bailey (1987 pp.32-33), makes the
distinction between the two. By “methodology” we mean the philosophy of the research
process and this includes the assumptions and values that serve as a rationale for research
and the standard criteria the researcher uses for interpreting data and reaching
conclusions. By “method” on the other hand, we simply mean the research technique or
tool used to gather data.

The chapter on methodology in social research usually contains the two together, and is
probably the most tasking aspect of a research work. Findings and conclusions no matter
how rigorously presented may be rendered unacceptable if they were drawn from
research process founded upon faulty methodology.

Methodology reveals the scientificity of a research and much weight is placed on it

during the assessment of a project.

One must therefore devout much time of the methodology.

Types of Data

There are two types of data. These are primary and secondary. The primary data are
those collected by the researcher himself or his assistants in the field, while the secondary
data are those information extracted from publications.

Sources of Secondary Data

Many researchers are often frustrated by the “lack of data” syndrome when in fact the
problem is not so absolute lack of data but up-to-datedness of the data. Even where there
is absolute lack of data, there are other useful surrogate data begging for collection
somewhere.

The following are major institutions that produce “rich” data in various areas:

Federal and State Ministries

Nigeria Data Bank (formerly Office of Statistics)

Central Bank of Nigeria

Federal Airport Authority

Nigerian Ports Authority

Nigerian Universities Commission

Nigerian Railway Corporation

Important publications rich in data are:

A. Federal Office of Statics now Bureau of Statistics

1. Annual Abstract of Statistics
2. Digest of Statistics
3. The Nigerian Household Survey
4. Report on the survey on internal Migration
B. Central Bank of Nigeria
1. Bulletin of Statistics
2. Annual Report and Financial Statement
C. Annual Reports of companies, Corporations, Boards etc
D. File records from public department such as Town Planning (Building plan
approvals). Lands and Survey (Certificate of Occupancy issuance) etc

Methods of Primary Data Collection

Primary data can be collected through the following principal methods:

1. Direct personal observation: This is a method by which the researcher

makes his observation or takes measurement in the field with or without
the Participation of the object of investigation be it animate or inanimate.
Advantages
 Ensures accuracy
 Enhance confidence of the researcher in the quality of the data
 Observation may not be influenced by the observed.

Disadvantages

 Not all surveys are amendable to this method

 The respondent may be influenced by the observer.
2. Oral interview: The respondent are asked questions or are engaged in
verbal discussions to extract information
Advantages
 Detailed information can be gathered.
 Questions cannot be misinterpreted by the respondents
Disadvantages:
 Data coding and analysis will be difficult
 Response may be influenced by the presence of the interviewer.

3. Telephone Conversation: Interview conducted on telephone
 Advantages
 It is faster
 Anonymity of respondents preserved
 Higher response rate
 Response may not be influenced.
Disadvantages
 It is costly
 Not suitable for long questions
 Efficiency may be hindered by inefficient telephone services
 It could lead to biased sampling through the exclusion of people without
telephones.
 Wrong person may be interviewed.

4. Questionnaire Methods: Prepared questions are asked from printed pages.

There are three methods of administering questionnaires:
a) personal Interview whereby the researcher and/or his assistants ask respondent
questions from the questionnaires and responses recorded.
Advantages
 It ensures higher returns
 Interpretation of questions (for clearer explanation) to respondents is
possible i.e misinterpretation of questions will be minimized.
 Further (physical on the spot) observations can be made which could
enhance better interpretation of information collected.
Disadvantages
 Interviewer could influence the interviewee’s response.
 Anonymity of interviewee cannot be preserved.
b) Self administered questionnaires- Questionnaires are deposited with the
respondent to be collected later or post-paid questionnaires sent out when on-the-
spot survey is not possible.
Advantages
 It gives respondents enough time to fill the questionnaire.
 Particularly useful for certain surveys that cannot be done on-the-spot e.g. origin-
Destination survey for certain surveys of vehicle passengers.
 It preserves anonymity. Respondents may not have cause to be suspicious of
anything since he is not known.
Disadvantages
  Could be costly (cost of stamps)
 Questions could be misinterpreted.
 Response rate could be very low.

Qualities of a good Questionnaire.

1. Relevance of the Questions.

In questionnaire construction, the objectives of study must always be at the
back of the mind of the researcher. All questions must be relevant to the
problems of study.
2. Clear statement of objectives.
It should also be borne in mind that respondents have little or no economic or
social benefits and that interview exercises are regarded as invasion of
privacy. Questionnaires, therefore, should carry a covering note explaining the
objectives of the survey and seeking the cooperation of the respondents. Also
the name of the institution carrying out the survey should be indicated from
some of the respondents may be suspicious if the survey is by the public
authority.
3. Ensure anonymity of respondents.
The respondents at times may feel that his responses may be used against him
and therefore may be reluctant to give correct information. Respondents
should be kept as anonymous as possible. His identity should be protected by
asking sensitive questions such as on name and residential or work address.
4. Questions should be short and direct.
Respondents have little or no time to think about answers to be supplied. The
task must be simplified for him by:
a. Asking few questions. Ten to fifteen questions are moderate.
b. Yes or No types of responses are the best.
c. Where yes or no is inappropriate, alternatives should be provided which
the respondents can easily circle or tick.
d. Minimize open ended questions. Instead of asking the question:
5. Avoid double-barrelled questions.
These are two in one questions in which only one answer is expected but to
which more than one answer is implied. Such questions can be misleading e.g.
does your organization provide housing and transportation facilities for all
categories of workers?
(a) Yes (b) No

The interviewer expects to get one answer Yes or No but several answers are possible.
 The organization provides both for all workers
 It provides both for junior workers only
 It provides housing and not transportation
 It provides transportation and not housing
 It provides housing for all transportation for junior workers only, etc.

6. Avoid Ambiguous words.

Ambiguous questions are subject to various interpretations. Technical words
whose meaning is different from everyday usage should be explained or
avoided totally. Slangs and jargons should not be used. Consider the following
questions, for example:
Which class do you belong? Class in what sense? Political, academic or social
class?
Which part of the city do you perceive as the seedbed of crime?
(a). C.B.D. (b) O.B.D. (c) GRA (d)Suburb (e) Ghetto.
What is the meaning of all these to the non-professionals. The researcher
should note that the interviewee will not want to look stupid like a ‘yam head’,
rather than letting you feel that he is an illiterate he will just tick anyone with
‘bold face’. If he is honest, he will simply skip the question.
7. The respondents should be as simple and short as possible.
High sounding words can be scaring or intimidating, e.g. Do you think
environmental education should be strait-jacketed within any narrowly
conceived disciplinary framework?
(a) Yes (b) No
8. The respondents should be made to look important.
Let the respondent feel that his opinions are very important. When probing for
me responses, the researcher must be polite, courteous and tactful. Use words
like:
Hair stylist for barber/hair dresser
Sanitation worker for refuse collector
Fashion designer for tailor
Office assistant for Messenger
Sex worker for harlots in hotels
Businessman for street hawker
Transport worker for motor park tout etc.
 These are in line with current thinking. Even linesman is now officially
referred to as assistant referees in the game of soccer. Everybody is important
including your respondents.
9. Avoid leading questions.
Questions should not be worded in such a way as to influence or bias the
response from the respondent. Consider the following:
Tenants are always at the mercy of the terrible and “shylock” landlords.
Your landlord belongs to one of them, doesn’t he?
(a) Yes (b) No

What a Question!!

Many scientific planning researches have concluded that the best remedy to
crime wave in the urban centers is the total clearance of slum area, don’t you
agree? (a) Yes (b) No.

Who would want to contradict authoritative findings!

Pre-Testing of Questionnaire

The quality of the questionnaire can be verified through a pre-testing exercise.

This would not be regarded as time wasting exercise for a number of
omissions and questions liable to misinterpretation can be revealed.

Consider a case where a questionnaire has been restricted several times and
was adjudged error-proof in a study on interaction road passenger traffic. The
questionnaire was designed to obtain socio-economic data on the trip-makers.
Omissions were still detected on two items out of the 20 on the questionnaire.

Pre-testing of questionnaire will reveal the following:

 Uniformity of responses
 Level of missing data (outright refusal to respond) Level of “don’t
know” response
 Number of misinterpreted questions
 Gaps existing in the alternative responses supplied etc.

Important terms in Research Methodology

 Population
 Sample France
 Sample unit
  Sample element
 Sampling
 Sample techniques
1. Population: This is the total of the members constituting the target group
defined by the objective of study. If one is interested in fertility survey in, say,
Imo state, the population is not the total number of people living in the state. It
is not even the total number of women per se, but the total number of women
in the child bearing age group, that is, 18-45 years old women.
2. Sampling Frame: This is the list containing the records of members of
population of study and from which samples can be drawn, e.g. hospital cards,
pay-rolls, voters register, attendance registers etc.
3. Sampling Unit: This refers to the geographical or physical unit or area where
the target population is located and from or across which the sampling
exercise will take place e.g. wards within the city, hospitals, schools, prisons,
offices, residential areas etc.
4. Sampling elements: These are the individual members of the target population
about which information is required e.g. individuals, head of household etc.
5. Sampling: A process by which elements of the target population is selected
with a view of finding out something about them in order to know something
about the whole population.
6. Sampling Techniques
Sampling techniques help in the selection of elements in the population. Some
of the common methods are discussed below and they fall into two main
categories:

A. Probability Sampling – when the probability of an element being selected is

known.
B. Non-Probability Sampling- when the researcher is not concerned about
representatives of samples.

DATA PRESENTATION ANALYSIS AND RESULTS OF FINDINGS

This is usually presented in chapter 4. Here the data is presented in the format best for the
research and the data are interpreted and analysis using the appropriate method of data
analysis.

Analysis means the categorizing, ordering, manipulating and summarizing of data

to obtain answer to the question under research. The purpose of analysis is to reduce data
to intelligent and interpretable from.
Results/Findings: Presents the data, analysis, and outcomes of the research or investigation.

Discussion/Analysis: Explores and interprets the results, drawing conclusions and making connections.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Chapter 5 contains the finding recommendation to the finding and conclusion of the
Research work. The summary of findings and conclusion of the study are drawn from
findings contained in chapter four. The conclusion must be derived directly from the
reported findings.

All conclusion drawn must be supported by the fact presented in the report and may be
supported by the result from similar studies. Base on the findings and conclusions
recommendation can be made and future research direction for further study.

Reference and Bibliography

This are the list of Books cited or consulted during the report writing. References refer to
the list of works actually cited to support any idea expressed in the report while

Bibliography refers to gain background knowledge or those relevant for further reading
on the subject matter.

There are several ways and several rules for compiling references but suffice it to say
that, a complete reference must contain.

1. Name of the author(s), (Surname first)

2. Year of publication
3. Title of the book or article
4. Place of publication
5. Publisher
6. Edition
7. Pages cited.

Note the following Fundamental Rules for referencing

1. All references must be listed alphabetically by authors’ Surnames.

2. If an author has published more than one book or article, his name should appear
the number of times but serially according to the year of publication
3. His name may be written once and the other may be cited consecutively using
lines
4. An author may publish two or more articles or books in one year, the works should
be cited with alphabets (a, b, c, d) appended to the year of publications
5. If the author(s) is/are editors ed/eds should be put in bracket in front of his/their
names.
6. Journals titles should be put within quotation marks.
7. Title of text books should be italicized
8. Name of journals should be italicized
9. An article referred to in a book of reading must be cited first following by the
name(s) of the editor(s) and particulars of the book. Italicization is only possible
when using computer, however with typewriters, underlining can be used in place
of italicization.
10. Titles of unpublished works must be put within quotation marks and other
particulars stated.
11. The names of multiple authors must be written out and not abbreviated with et. al
12. Internet references must contain the date the website was visited.