Waves

Periodic Motion
❖ motion that repeats itself in regular cycle/pattern
Amplitude
❖ largest displacement from eq. position
❖ greater amplitude = greater sound
Period (T)
❖ time to complete full cycle (crest to trough), seconds per cycle
❖ T = 1/f
Crest
❖ highest point
Trough
❖ lowest point
Frequency
❖ number of cycle of motion per unit of time (Hz), cycles/second
❖ depend on source of wave
❖ f = (# of cycles)/time
❖ f = 1/T
Speed of Wave
❖ rate at which wave travels through a medium (how fast energy in wave is moving)
❖ depends on medium only
❖ v = wavelength/period = frequency*wavelength
Wavelength
❖ distance between two corresponding points on a wave
Wave Interference
❖ waves combine– resultant amplitudes reinforce or diminish based on alignment
❖ sum of displacements it would have had = resultant wave
Superposition
❖ combination of overlapping waves
❖ crest + crest = supercrest
❖ trough + trough = supertrough
Constructive Interference
❖ greater displacement than what originally would have occurred
Destructive Interference
❖ smaller displacement than what originally would have occurred
Reflections of Waves
❖ fixed end reflection: reflection that occurs at boundary of medium when one end of
medium is unable to vibrate — cause inverted reflection
❖ free end reflection: reflection that occurs at boundary when second medium is less
dense that first medium — cause reflections of same orientation
Standing Waves
❖ interference pattern produced when incoming and reflected waves interfere
❖ waves appear stationary
Points on a Standing Wave
❖ node: fixed point, no displacement— destructive interference
❖ antinode: point moving up and down— constructive interference
❖ two consecutive antinodes or nodes = wavelength/2
Resonance
❖ medium resonates at resonant frequencies that form a harmonic series
❖ point at which amplitude is highest — complete constructive interference
Resonant Frequency
❖ natural frequency at which a medium of a specific length vibrates at its highest
volume/amplitude
Doppler Effect
❖ as a sound source moves towards or away from you, the apparent frequency (and
therefore, pitch) of the sound that your ear detects will change
Harmonic Frequencies
❖ f = v / wavelength
❖ let wavelength = L

Closed End Frequencies

❖ overtones: any frequency greater than the basic frequency of a sound
➢ 1 less than harmonic
❖ harmonics: number of antinodes in standing wave
❖ equation: fn = nv/2L
➢ n = # of antinodes

Closed End Chart

Harmonics Number of Length in Wavelength in Frequency
Antinodes Terms of terms of
Wavelength Length

1st 1 ½ wavelength 2L v/2L

2nd 2 2/2 Wavelength L v/L

3rd 3 3/2 Wavelength ⅔L 3v/2 L

Open End
❖ harmonics: number of nodes in standing wave
❖ overtones:
❖ equation: fn = nv/2L
➢ n = # of nodes

Open End Chart

Harmonics Number of Length in Wavelength in Frequency

 Nodes Terms of terms of
Wavelength Length

1st 1 ½ wavelength 2L v/2L

2nd 2 2/2 Wavelength L v/L

3rd 3 3/2 Wavelength ⅔L 3v/2 L

Kinematics

Types of Motion
❖ uniform: object’s velocity is unchanging
❖ non-uniform: velocity of object changes

Vector Quantities:
❖ Position: displacement (overall change in position)
❖ Displacement: change in position
❖ Velocity: rate of change of position
❖ Acceleration: rate of change of velocity

Graph Motion: Displacement vs. Time

Graph Velocity Acceleration

Constant velocity in positive No acceleration

direction

Changing velocity in negative Constant acceleration in

direction negative direction
Constant velocity in negative No acceleration
direction

Changing velocity in positive Constant acceleration in

direction positive direction

Changing velocity in negative Constant Acceleration in

direction positive direction

Changing Velocity in Positive Constant Acceleration in

Direction positive direction
 Constant Velocity in negative No acceleration
direction

Changing Velocity in positive Constant Acceleration in

direction positive direction

Changing velocity in negative Constant Acceleration in

direction negative direction

Changing Velocity in positive Constant Acceleration in

direction negative direction

Displacement vs. Distance

❖ distance is scalar quantity (no direction)
 ❖ displacement is vector quantity (has direction); measures overall change in position

Graphs: Position to Velocity to Acceleration

❖ area under velocity graph = displacement
❖ area under acceleration graph = velocity
❖ slopes of position graph = velocity
❖ slope of velocity graph = acceleration

Forces

Types of Forces
❖ Weight: force of gravity (non contact force)
❖ Normal Force: force a surface applies to an object
❖ Tension: pulling force applied by a rope
❖ Friction: force applied by surface the resists motion of applied force
❖ Applied: force applied by some object, that does not fall into other forces; cannot act
unless touching the object
Units For Acceleration: N/kg
Requirements
❖ an interaction between two objects
❖ a push or pull
Newton’s Third Law
❖ for every action, there is an opposite reaction force that is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction
Force of Gravity/Weight
❖ 9.8 * mass (mg)
❖ 9.8 is the acceleration of gravity
Normal Force
❖ upward force that balances the downward force placed on a surface
❖ perpendicular to the surfaces in contact
❖ Fg is not always equal to Fn
Coefficient of Friction
❖ ratio of frictional force resisting motion to the normal force pressing the two surfaces
together
❖ greater the normal force, greater the friction
Solving Forces Problems
1. free body diagram
2. Fnet statement
3. Substitute statement with direction
4. Assign direction
5. Substitute known forces
6. Solve

Work and Energy

Mechanical Energy
- consists of energy due to relative position of interacting objects
- energy due to the object’s motion
- mechanical energy = gravitation potential energy + kinetic energy
Work
- energy cannot be created
- work done on an object = the change in energy of the object
- work = force * displacement * cos (angle between f and d)
- positive work = force and displacement are in same direction
- negative work = force and displacement are in opposite direction
- 0 work = force and displacement are perpendicular to one another
Energy Formula
- KE = 1/2mv^2
- GPE = mgh
Freefall and Energy
- mass is not a factor in the speed of an object falling
- heavier and lighter object dropped from same height have same final velocity
- final velocity = square root (2gh) (if v1 = 0 m/s)
Second Law of Thermodynamics
- as energy is transferred or transformed, more and more of it wasted (thermal energy)
Energy Loss
- energy can be lost to: heat energy (friction), sound
Specific Heat Capacity
- measure of how well the substance stores heat
- large heat capacity = temperature does not rise much for given amount of heat
- Energy transferred (j) = mass (g) * specific heat capacity * change in temperature (K or
C)