Life sciences 2011

Teaching Notes: Human Evolution

 EXAMINATION GUIDELINES

 Interpretation of a phylogenetic tree to show the place of the family Hominidae

 Characteristics we share with other primates

2
1. Upright posture
2. Large brains/skulls compared to their body mass 4
5
3. Long upper arms
1
4. Eyes in front/binocular vision/stereoscopic vision
5. Eyes with cones/colour vision 0
6 7
6. Two mammary glands only
7. Freely rotating arms
8
8. Elbow joints allowing rotation of forearm
9. Flat nails instead of claws/bare finger tips
10. Opposable thumbs which work in opposite 12
direction to their fingers
11. Sexual dimorphism/distinct differences 10
11
between male and female
12. Rotate hands at least 180º
13. Olfactory brain centres reduced/reduced sense of smell 9
14. Parts of the brain that process information
1
from the hands and eyes are enlarged
.
Characteristics that makes us different

Homo sapiens Other primates

1. Larger cranium/brain 1. Smaller cranium /brain
2. Flat face/ 2. Face sloping/
Forehead slope less backwards Foreheads slope much backwards
3. Foramen magnum forward/ 3. Foramen magnum at the back of the
bottom of the skull skull
4. Brow ridges are not as pronounced 4. Brow ridges pronounced
5. Smaller canines 5. Larger canines
6. Smaller spaces between the teeth 6. Larger spaces between the teeth
7. Jaws with teeth on a gentle/round 7. Jaws with teeth in a rectangular/U
curve shape
8. Less protruding jaws 8. More protruding jaws/ prognathous
9. Lower jaw has a well developed chin 9. Lower jaw has poorly developed chin

4
2 1 2

3 5 8
3

8
 Changes in structure that characterise human evolution

 Bipedalism (Shift of foramen magnum to a more forward position) (A)

 A more rounded skull and increased cranium size (B)
 A flatter face due to:
 less sloping forehead (C)
 less protruding jaws (decreased prognathous)
 a more developed chin (D)
 A more rounded jaw
 Increased size of skeleton which mean increased height
 Change in dentition

C C C

A
A A
D
Australopichus africanus Homo habilis Homo Sapiens

The structures that characterise human evolution

 :Progressive evolution from Ape-like beings to the humans

The diagram below shows the progressive evolution of the hominids

Austrlopithecus Austrlopithecus Paranthropus Homo habilis Homo erectus

Afarencis Africanus robustus ±200 mya ±1.2 mya Homo sapiens
Eg.Lucy ±300 mya
Eg. Taung child
Mrs Ples
Little foot
Lateral view of hominid crania

 Ape-like beings
 First apes on the same line of development as humans
 First bipedal primates
 Australopithecines( Mrs Ples, Taung child, Little foot, Lucy, Australopithecus sediba or karabo)
 Homo habilis (Handyman)
 Homo erectus
 Homo sapiens (modern humans, Florisbad man)
 The contribution of African fossils to the understanding of human evolution.

1. Fossils found in the Cradle of Humankind

The Cradle of Humankind is a World Heritage Site first named by UNESCO in

1999, about 50 kilometres northwest of Johannesburg, South Africa in the Gauteng
province. This site currently occupies 47,000 hectares It contains a complex of
limestone caves, including the Sterkfontein Caves. There are 13 major fossil sites.
At least seven of the thirteen sites have yielded hominid remains. In fact, together
these cave sites have produced over 850 hominid fossil remains, so that to date
they represent one of the world's richest concentrations of fossil hominid bearing
sites.

2. Fossil found in the Cradle of humankind

o Many hominid species
- Mrs. Ples (Australopithecus africanus), Found at Sterkfontein caves by
Robert Broom in 1947. 2.6 million year-old fossil)
- Little foot ((Australopithecus africanus),
3.9 to 4.2 million year-old fossil Discovered by Ron Clark with the
assistance of Steven Motsumi and Nkwane Molefe Sterkfontein Caves,
 July 1997 on the tibia was found.
 1998 part of the arm bones and portion of the skull
 were found
 October 2006 the fossil was brought to the surface.
 The entire skeleton was found to be of the early hominid.
- Taung child, (Australopithecus africanus),
Found at Taung ( North West Province) in 1924 by Raymond Dart
2.6 to 2.8 million year-old fossil
- Karabo(Australopithecus sediba)
Found at Malapa site in Cradle of Humankind
by Lee Berger in April 2010 1.78-1.98 million
year-old fossil
o regarded as Is the missing link between Austrolopithecus Africanus
and Homo erectus.

o Three major stone tool cultures

o A wide range of plant and animal fossils
o

Australopithecus africanus male

Karabo
3. Sientific interpretation of the African fossils found at the Cradle of Human
kind.
The scientific value of ‘Cradle of humankind’ lies in the fact that these sites
provide us with a window into the past, to a time when our earliest ancestors were
evolving and changing. Scientists have long accepted that all humans had their
origins in Africa.

Through the use of biochemical evidence they have argued that the split of the
human lineage (Hominidae) from that of the African apes took place around 5-6
million years ago.
 About 3 million years ago, a hominid which was part ape and part human (
Australopithecus africanus, occupied the Gauteng Highveld. This ape man
may have been one of the ancestors of modern man, Homo sapiens.

Australopithecus africanus
 Fossils show that one of the earliest known members of the modern human
family, Homo habilis, lived in the Cradle about 2 million years ago.

Homo Habilis
 Homo habilis appears to have given rise to Homo erectus and fossils of
Homo erectus have been found at Sterkfontein and Swartkrans sites on the
Cradle. The fossil record also shows that Homo erectus was able to make
use of fire as long as 1.2 million years ago.

Homo erectus
 Homo erectus probably lived together with another form of ape man,
Paranthropus robustus, a flatter faced creature with big teeth. Parantropus
robustus also had the ability to make tools.

Paranthropus robustus
 By one million years ago, ape men were all extinct.
The study of hominid fossils from sites in Africa thus enables scientists to
understand how these hominids have changed and diversified since then.
4. Fossils found in the Great Rift valley
a. Nutcracker man, ( Paranthropus boisei)
Appear 1.2 to 2.2 milljoen years ago, Fossil found by Mary and Louis Leaky
in 1959 in Tanzania
b. Handy man,( Homo Habilis) ( Earliest species of Homo)
Discovered by Peter Nzube in 1968 in Tanzania
c. Lateoli footprints,
Found by Mary Leaky at Tanzania, 3600 million-years old in 1978
d. Toumai.( Sahelanthropus tchadensis)
Found by Michael Brunet in Chad in 2001

Toumai
5. Scientific interpretation of Nutcracker man, Handy man, Toumai.
 Based on the fossil find in the Great Rift valley scientist thought of it as the
cradle.
 This is because in 2001, the cranium of a 7 million year old fossil of Toumai
was discovered in the central African country of Chad.
a. The idea that our earliest ancestors had a southern or east African origin
has been overturned.
b. Now scientists believe that the cradle of human kind was Central Africa.
c. How long this idea will last depends on whether an older hominid fossil is
found anywhere else in the world

Sequence of Human evolution from apelike ancestor around 5mya to Homo

sapiens
 The “Out of Africa’ hypothesis with regard to

Fossil Evidence
According to most scientists, humans originated from Africa and moved to other
countries.
This hypothesis is based on fossil evidence and genetic evidence from fossils of Africa
 Examples of fossils

o Mrs Ples, Taung Child, Little Foot (Australopithecus africanus)

Nutcracker man(Paranthropus boisei):-
o Handy man(Homo habilis
o Toumai (Sahelanthropus tachadensis):-
o Karabo : (Australopithecus sediba)

Migration of Homo erectus from Africa into the rest of the world

 Scientists believe that from East Africa early Humans migrated across the
continent of Africa
 They then moved out of the continent through North-East Africa into several
groups.
 There are three broad, and complex pathways/migratory patterns:-

o One group travelled along the coast of Arabia, India, South East Asia until
they reach Australia.
o Another group went through Arabia and migrated to Western Europe.
o The third group went through Arabia and gave rise to branches which let to
human population in Northern Europe, Central Asia, India, China and North
and South America.
Genetic evidence for the “out of Africa hypothesis” (DNA from Y chromosome and
mitochondrial DNA)

When DNA is analysed for the purpose of tracing ancestry, a search is made for
mutations since individuals who have the same mutation must share the same common
ancestor These mutations serves as markers of decent

DNA from Y chromosome

 DNA analysis shows that individuals with the same mutation share the same
common ancestor.
 The Y-chromosome of males does not undergo crossing-over, i.e. exchange of
genetic information/material/segments, with its X-chromosome.
 Therefore most DNA on Y-chromosome are passed on from father to son
without being mixed.
 The mutant nucleotides can therefore be traced from son, father, grandfather,
great grandfather and so on.
 Male lineage can therefore be traced in every man alive to a common ancestor
who lived in East Africa about 60 000 years ago.

Genetic evidence for the ‘out of Africa’ hypothesis (DNA from Y chromosome and
mitochondrial DNA)
Mutant genes from Mitochondrial DNA
 Apart from DNA in the nucleus, DNA
also occurs in the mitochondria as
mitochondrial DNA (mt DNA)
• mtDNA of the sperm cell does not fuse with
mtDNA of the egg cell
• mtDNA is therefore handed down from
mother to child
• By following mutations in mtDNA, we can trace
our female line of descent.
• Using mutant nucleotides of Y-chromosomes
• Spencer Wells and his colleagues have traced
The inheritance of mitochondrial DNA
lineage of everyman alive to a common
ancestor who lived in East Africa about 60 000 years ago.
• Analysis of mitochondrial DNA leads to ancestral female who lived in East Africa
about 150 000 years ago.

Mutant genes from the Y-chromosome

• Major part of the Y-chromosome does not cross-over with X chromosome
• Most of the DNA on Y chromosome is passed on from father to son without being
mixed with nucleotides from the mother
• Therefore mutant nucleotides can be traced from son to father to grandfather and
so on.
• Using DNA from the Y-chromosome only allows us to trace the male line of
ancestry
• Mutant nucleotides from Y chromosomes traces every man alive to a common
ancestor in east Africa about 60 000 yrs ago.
Worksheet: Human evolution.
Answer the following questions.

1. The following two questions refer to the characteristics of Homo sapiens and other
primates.
1.1.1 State TEN structural characteristics of Homo sapiens that are similar
to other primates. (9)
1.1.2 Tabulate FOUR structural differences between the skull of
Homo sapiens and that of other primates. (11)
(20)
2. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow:

2.1.1 Identify the fossil. (2)

2.1.2 List THREE examples of this fossils found in Africa. (3)
2.1.3 Explain the scientific interpretation of the fossils found the cradle
of humankind (10)
(15)
3. The incomplete table represents famous scientists, the fossil they
discovered and the countries and the dates of discovery.
Scientist Fossil Place of discovery Year of discovery
1 Toumai 2 2001
Raymond Dart 3 Sterkfontein caves 4
Robert Broom 5 6 7
8 Lateoili footprints 9 10
11 12 13 1994
14 Karabo 15 2008
(15)
3.1.1 The Great Rift Valley is seen as the cradle of humankind, provide
a reason for this. (2)

3.1.2 From the list above mention the fossils discovered at the
Great Rift Valley. (3)
3.1.3 Discuss the interpretation of these fossils. (10)
(30)

4. Identify the characteristics labelled 1 to 5 of the skull below. (5)

5
3
6
4
5. A comparison of the anatomical features of organisms has helped scientists to
propose evolutionary relationships.

Skull

bottom view lateral view pelvis

Homo

Australopithecus
foramen
magnum

Chimpanzee

Some important anatomical differences between Homo, Australopithecus and

chimpanzee

5.1.1 Tabulate FOUR observable differences between the side view of the
skulls of Homo and the chimpanzee. (4)

5.1.2 Which ONE of the organisms (Australopithecus or chimpanzee)

is/was a quadruped? (1)

5.1.3 Give ONE observable reason for your answer to QUESTION 4.1.2. (1)
(10)

Total [80]
 Memorandum Worksheet : Human Evolution
1.1.1 - Upright posture
- Long upper arms
- Freely rotating arms
- Elbow joints allowing rotation of forearm
- Rotate hands at least 180º
- Flat nails instead of claws/bare finger tips
- Opposable thumbs which work in opposite direction to their fingers
- Large brains/skulls compared to their body mass
- Eyes in front/binocular vision/stereoscopic vision
- Eyes with cones/colour vision
- Sexual dimorphism/distinct differences between male and female
- Olfactory brain centres reduced/reduced sense of smell
- Parts of the brain that process information from the hands and eyes
are enlarged
- Two mammary glands only any (9)
3.1.2
Homo sapiens Other primates
1. Larger cranium/brain 1. Smaller cranium /brain
2. Flat face/ 2. Face sloping/
Forehead slope less backwards Foreheads slope much backwards
3. Foramen magnum 3. Foramen magnum at
forward/bottom of the skull the back of the skull
4. Brow ridges are not as pronounced 4. Brow ridges pronounced
5. Smaller canines 5. Larger canines
6. Smaller spaces between the teeth 6. Larger spaces between the teeth
7. Jaws with teeth on a 7. Jaws with teeth in a
gentle/round curve rectangular/U shape
8. Less protruding jaws 8. More protruding jaws/prognathous
9. Lower jaw has a well developed chin 9. Lower jaw has poorly developed chin
any 5 x 2 = 10+ 1 for table) (11)

2.1.1 Australopithecus africanus (2)

2.1.2 Taung childMrs Ples, Little foot (3)
2.1.3 About 3 million years ago, a hominid which was part ape and
part human  (Australopithecus africanus) , occupied the
Gauteng Highveld. This ape man may have been one of the ancestors of
modern man, Homo sapiens. 
 Fossils show that one of the earliest known members of the
modern human family, Homo habilis, lived in the Cradle
about 2 million years ago. 
 Homo habilis appears to have given rise to Homo erectus 
and fossils of Homo erectus have been found at Sterkfontein
and Swartkrans sites on the Cradle. The fossil record also
shows that Homo erectus was able to make use of fire as long
as 1.2 million years ago. 
 Homo erectus probably lived together with another form of
ape man, Paranthropus robustus,  a flatter faced creature
with big teeth. Parantropus robustus also had the ability to
make tools. 
 By one million years ago, ape men were all extinct. (10)
(15)
 3.1.
Scientist Fossil Place of discovery Year of
discovery
1 Michael Brunet Toumai 2 Chad 2001
Raymond Dart 3 Taung child Sterkfontein caves 4. 1924
Robert Broom 5 Mrs Ples 6 North west 7 1947
8 Mary Leacky Lateoili footprints 9 Tanzania 10 1978
11. Ron Clarke 12. Little Foot 13. Sterkfontein 1994
caves
14 Prof. Lee Karabo 15 . Sterkfontein 2008
Berger caves 
(15)
3.2 The last fossil found there was Toumai, which is estimated to be 7 million
years old. Hence the idea of the earliest ancestor was that it now is the
Great Rift valley.  (2)
3.3
3.3.1. Toumai, Handy man, Nutcracker man (3)
3.3.2.
 Based on the fossil find in the Great Rift valley scientist thought of it
as the cradle. 
 This is because in 2001, the cranium of a 7 million year old fossil of
Toumai was discovered in the central African country of Chad.
 The idea that our earliest ancestors had a southern or east African origin
has been overturned. 
 Now scientists believe that the cradle of human kind was Central Africa. 
 How long this idea will last depends on whether an older hominid fossil is
found anywhere else in the world. (10)
(30)
4. 1- Brow ridges pronounced
2 - Face sloping/Foreheads slope much backwards
3 - Larger canines
4 - Lower jaw has poorly developed chin
5 - Foramen magnum at the back of the skull (5)

5.
Homo sapiens Other primates
1. Larger cranium/brain 1. Smaller cranium /brain
2. Flat face/ 2. Face sloping/
3. Foramen magnum 3. Foramen magnum at
forward/bottom of the skull the back of the skull
4. Brow ridges are not as 4. Brow ridges pronounced
pronounced
5. Smaller canines 5. Larger canines
7. Jaws with teeth on a 7. Jaws with teeth in a
gentle/round curve rectangular/U shape
8. Less protruding jaws 8. More protruding jaws/prognathous
Any 4 x2 (8)
6.1.2 Australopithecus (1)
6.1.3 Foramen Magnum more towards the middle (1)
(10)
[80]