5

CHAPTER 2: STANDARDS FOR MEASUREMENTS

Measurement: Units and Handling Numbers EXERCISE 1.1

Units of Measurement Express the following numbers in scientific notation:

A measured quantity must have both a number and a unit. The units mπost 1. 333,000 ______________________
often used for scientific measurement are those of the metric system. 2. 0.000888 ______________________
3. 621,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 ______________________

Scientific Notation SI Units

Some numbers are very large or very small and are thus difficult to express such as: All scientific units use Système International d’Unités (SI units) as of 1960 from
Avogadro’s number = 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 particles/mol which smaller and larger units are obtained by decimal fractions or multiples of the
base units.
An electron’s mass = 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 85 kg

Table 1.1 SI base units

Also, it's not clear how many significant figures (SF) there are in some
measurements. To handle such numbers, we use a system called scientific Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
notation wherein numbers can be expressed in the form N x 10n where N (digit
Mass Kilogram kg
term) - a number from 1 to 9 such that there can only be one number to the left of
the decimal point (e.g. 6.02XX) and n (exponent) - a positive or a negative integer Length Meter m
(whole number).
Time Second s

Temperature Kelvin K
To express a number in scientific notation, count the number of places you must
move the decimal point to get N. Amount of substance Mole mol

● Move the decimal point to the right if the number is less than 1 = negative Electric current Ampere A
exponent.
Luminous intensity Candela cd
● Move the decimal point to the left if the number is greater than 1 = positive
exponent.

CHM018: Chemistry for Engineering Technologists Handout

 6
CHAPTER 2: STANDARDS FOR MEASUREMENTS

SOME UNIT CONVERSIONS Milli- m 10-3

Length Mass Micro- μ 10-6
2.54 cm = 1 in 2.2 lbs = 1 kg Nano- n 10-9
12 in = 1 ft Pico- p 10-12
Temperature Volume Femto- f 10-15
K = °C + 273 1 L = 1000 cm3

EXERCISE 1.2
°C = (°F - 32) 1 mL = 1 dm3 Complete the following unit equations:

1. 1 kg = ______ g 3. 1 s = ______ ns
2. 1 cm = ______ m 4. 1 L = ______ ML

°F = °C + 32
Uncertainty in Measurement

Two types of numbers:

Table 1.2 Selected prefixes used in metric system
1. Exact numbers - obtained from counting or defined as conversion factor.
Prefix Abbreviation Meaning 2. Inexact numbers - derived from measurement. All measurements have some
degree of uncertainty or error associated with the instrument used and is thus
Giga- G 109 inexact.
Mega- M 106

Kilo- K 103 Precision and Accuracy

Precision - how well measured quantities agree with each other. Measurements are
Deci- d 10-1
said to be precise if they yield very similar results when repeated in the same manner
Centi- c 10-2
Accuracy - how well measured quantities agree with the “true value.” A
6

CHM018: Chemistry for Engineering Technologists Handout

 7
CHAPTER 2: STANDARDS FOR MEASUREMENTS

measurement is considered accurate if it yields a result that is very close to the true or uncertain about the nearest 0.0001 g. Final calculations are only as significant as the
accepted value. least significant measurement.

Rules on determining the number of significant figures:

1. Nonzero numbers and zeros between nonzero numbers are always significant.
2. Zeros before the first nonzero digit are not significant (e.g. 0.0003 has one SF).
3. Zeros at the end of the number after a decimal point are significant (e.g. 1.00
has three SF).
4. Zeros at the end of a number before a decimal point are ambiguous. Exponential
notation eliminates this ambiguity (e.g. 10 300 - number of SF cannot be
determined; suppose you wish to express this number in three SF, you write 1.03
x 104).
Method:

1. Write the number in scientific notation.

2. The number of digits remaining is the number of significant figures.
2.50 x 102 cm has three SF 1.03 x 104 g has three SF

1.030 x 104 lb has four SF 1.0300 x 104 in has five SF

Rounding off non-significant digits

Figure 1.4 Illustration on accuracy and precision How do we eliminate nonsignificant digits?
Significant Figures 1. If first nonsignificant digit < 5, just drop ALL nonsignificant digits.
In a measurement, it is useful to indicate the exactness of the measurement. This Example: Round the numbers to three significant figures
exactness is reflected in the number of significant figures. The number of • 18.3384 rounds “down” to 18.3 (the dropped digit, 3, is lesser than 5)
significant figures is the number of digits known with certainty plus one uncertain
digit. For example, 2.2405 g means we are sure the mass is 2.240 g but we are 2. If first nonsignificant digit > 5, raise the last significant digit by 1 then drop ALL

CHM018: Chemistry for Engineering Technologists Handout

 8
CHAPTER 2: STANDARDS FOR MEASUREMENTS

nonsignificant digits. 2. Addition and Subtraction - report to the least number of decimal places.
Example: Round the numbers to three significant figures e.g. 20.4 g – 1.322 g = 19.1 g

• 0.028675 rounds “up” to 0.0287 (the dropped digit, 7, is greater than 5) Add 1.0023 g and 4.383 g = 5.385 g

3. If the dropped digit is 5, we round up or down, whichever yields an even value for the
retained digit.
EXERCISE 1.4
Example: Round the numbers to three significant figures
a. 106.61 + 0.25 + 0.195 = 107.055
• 6.8752 rounds “up” to 6.88 (the dropped digit is 5, and the retained digit is even)
107.055 to the correct number of SF ____________________
• 92.85 rounds “down” to 92.8 (the dropped digit is 5, and the retained digit is even)
b. 725.50 – 103 = 622.50
622.50 to the correct number of SF ____________________

EXERCISE 1.3

Express each of the following with the number of SF indicated. Express In multiple step calculations always retain an extra significant figure until the end to
measurements in scientific notation when necessary to make it clear how many prevent rounding errors.
significant figures there are in the measurement.
Multiplying or dividing with exponential numbers
a. 467.246 to 3 SF _______________________
When multiplying or dividing measurements with exponents, use the digit term (N in
b. 450.054 to 4 SF _______________________
N × 10n) to determine number of significant figures.
c. 0.00234567 to 3 SF _______________________
d. 1,234,567 to 5 SF _______________________
e. 5467 to 2 SF _______________________
(6.02 × 1023)(4.155 × 109) = 2.50131× 1033

Significant Figures in Calculations

1. Multiplication and Division - round the result to the same number of digits as the How do you calculate this using your scientific calculator?
number with the least number of significant figures. 1. Enter “6.02 × 1023” by pressing 6.02 then EE or EXP (which corresponds to “×
e.g. Multiply 6.221 cm by 5.2 cm = 32 cm2 10”) then 23. Your calculator should read or something similar.
Divide 421.23 g by 486 mL = 0.867 g/mL 2. Multiply by pressing ×.

CHM018: Chemistry for Engineering Technologists Handout

 9
CHAPTER 2: STANDARDS FOR MEASUREMENTS

3. Enter “4.155 × 109” by pressing 4.155 then EE or EXP (which corresponds to Desired unit = Given unit x Conversion factor
“× 10”) then 9.
4. Get the answer by pressing =.
The conversion factors are simple ratios
Your calculator should now read: 2.50131 33 or 2.50131 E 33

Or something similar indicating: 2.50131 × 10 33

Thus, the answer with the correct SF ____________________

Unit equations and unit factors

Be sure you can do exponential calculations with your calculator. Many of the Unit equation - a simple statement of two equivalent values.
calculations we do in chemistry involve very large and very small numbers with
exponential terms. Unit factor - a ratio of two equivalent quantities.

EXERCISE 1.5 Unit equation Unit factor

1. (3.75 × 1015)(8.6 × 104) = 3.225 × 1020

with the correct SF ____________________ 2.54 cm = 1 in or

2. (3.75 × 1015) ÷ (8.605 × 104) = 4.357931435 × 1010

with the correct SF ___________________
1 dozen = 12 eggs or

Dimensional Analysis/Factor Label Method

Equivalents are exact if we can count the number of units equal to another or the
Dimensional analysis - a method of calculation utilizing the knowledge of units.
units are in the same system (metric or English). Exact equivalents have an infinite
Given units can be multiplied and divided to give the desired units and conversion
number of SF - never limit the number of significant figures. When the relationship
factors are used to manipulate units:
between two units or items is exact, the “≡” (meaning “equals exactly”) is used
9

CHM018: Chemistry for Engineering Technologists Handout

 10
CHAPTER 2: STANDARDS FOR MEASUREMENTS

instead of the basic “=” sign. numerator and denominator so all units cancel except for the units needed for
the final answer.
4. Check for correct units and number of significant figures in the final answer.
Approximate equivalents do limit the significant figures for the final answer.
EXERCISE 1.6

Using Two or More Conversion Factors 1. If a marathon is 26.2 miles, how many inches are in the marathon? (1 mi ≡ 5280
ft)
We often need to use more than one conversion factor in order to complete a 2. The speed of light is about 3.00 x 108 m/s. Express this speed in mi/hr. (1.609
problem. When identical units are found in the numerator and denominator of a km = 1 mi, 1000 m ≡ 1km)
conversion, they will cancel. The final answer MUST have the correct units. Conversions Involving Mass

Example : The mass of a competition frisbee is 125 g. Convert its mass to ounces
using the unit conversion factor derived from the relationship 1 oz = 28.349 g
Suppose that we want to convert length in meters to length in inches. We could do
this conversion with the following conversion factors 1 m = 100 cm and 1 in = 2.54
cm.
If we have the conversion factor, we can determine the mass in kilograms using
dimensional analysis.
The calculation would involve both conversion factors and the units of the final x oz = 125 g × unit conversion factor
answer will be inches:

We write the unit conversion factor in its two forms:

1 oz and 28.349 g
Using dimensional analysis in problem solving:
28.35 g 1 oz
1. Write the units for the answer.
2. Determine what information to start with.
3. Arrange all other unit factors, showing them as fractions, with correct units in the

10

CHM018: Chemistry for Engineering Technologists Handout

 11
CHAPTER 2: STANDARDS FOR MEASUREMENTS

The correct unit conversion factor is the ratio that cancels the units of grams
and leaves ounces.
Conversions Involving Density
1 oz
For example,what is the density of common antifreeze in units of g/mL? A 4.00-qt
x oz = 125 g × ------------ sample of the antifreeze weighs 9.26 lb

28.349 g

The necessary conversion factors are : 1 lb = 453.59 g; 1 L = 1.0567 qt; 1 L =

1,000 mL.
= 4.41 oz (three significant figures)
The calculation could be set up in a way that uses three unit conversion factors sequentially
as follows:
Conversions Involving Volume

We often will encounter conversions from one measure to a different measure.

9.26 lb 453.59 g 1.0567 qt 1L
For example, suppose that we wish to know the mass in grams of 2.00 in of gold
3
--------- × ----------- × ------------ × ------------ = 1.11 g/mL
given that the density of the gold is 19.3 g/cm3.
4.00 qt 1 lb 1L 1000 mL

We could do this conversion with the following conversion factors: 2.54 cm = 1 in

and 1 cm3 = 19.3 g gold. The calculation would involve both of these factors: ADDITIONAL EXERCISES

1. Which quantity of each pair is larger? Show your solution.

a. 1 nm or 1 μm c. 1 pg or 1 cg
b. 1 Mg or 1 mg
Note that the calculation will NOT be correct unless the centimeter to inch
conversion factor is cubed! Both the units AND the number must be cubed.
2. How many significant figures does each number possess? Write the numbers
using scientific notation.

11

CHM018: Chemistry for Engineering Technologists Handout

 12
CHAPTER 2: STANDARDS FOR MEASUREMENTS

a. 225 d. 1.0025
b. 14,100.0 e. 10,004
c. 0.002500 f. 0.0025
3. Round the answers in the following problems to the correct number of significant
figures.
a. 12.25 + 1.32 + 1.2 d. (1.256)(2.42)
b. 13.7325 – 14.21 e. (16.231)/2.20750
c. 12300 + 2.11 f.
[(1.1)(2.62)(13.5278)]/2.650

4. The temperature on a spring day is around 22 °C. What is this temperature in

degrees Fahrenheit and Kelvin?

5. Which has the greater mass, 2.0 cm3 of iron (density = 7.9 g/cm3) or 1.0 cm3 of
gold (density = 19.32 g/cm3)?

6. Make the following conversions:

a. 1 ML to cm3 c. 0.0001 g to kg
b. 10.5 L to mL d. 50 kg to lbs

7. what is the average of the following numbers in grams? 118,000 g; 0.148 Mg;
1.33 x 108 mg; 127 kg; 1.29 x 1011 μg

12

CHM018: Chemistry for Engineering Technologists Handout