INTRO TO ENGLISH LINGUISTICS

SYNTAX

Lecturer : Prof. Dr. Syarifudin, M.PD

By : Nia Ramdhani
(220107023)

STUDY PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND TEACHER TRAINING
 STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF MATARAM
PEMBAHASAN

 Syntax Definition
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that seeks to understand how languages’
grammar is generated and how sentences are formed. For native speakers of a
language, syntax will often feel intuitive, but it can be hard to describe in words.
Languages all have highly complex syntax, meaning that linguists need to study
speech carefully to get a sense of the rules that govern speech. Syntax linguistics is
usually described using branching tree-like diagrams that show the relationships
between different words in a sentence. But what does syntax mean for teachers and
students? Understanding how to form grammatically correct sentences in English is
essential for students who are working on improving their literacy and writing skills
as it can allow them to write with greater confidence and accuracy.
Syntax in English linguistics refers to the set of rules and principles that
govern the structure and ordering of words in sentences. It deals with how words are
combined to create meaningful and grammatically correct sentences. Key aspects of
English syntax include word order (subject-verb-object), sentence structure (e.g.,
simple, compound, complex sentences), and grammatical rules (e.g., tense agreement,
subject-verb agreement). Syntax is a fundamental aspect of understanding and
analyzing the structure of language.
First and foremost, syntax deals with how sentences are constructed. However
not all languages have the same words order. In English the subject comes before the
verb and the object follows the verb. Toba Batak (an Austronesian language of
Indonesia; Scacther 1984b written in Valin, 2004:2) subject and object both precede
the verb.
Syntax governs the form of the strings by which a language makes statements,
asks questions, gives directives, and so on. In other words, the study of syntax treats
the structure of sentence and their structural relationships to one another. To repeat: a
typical sentence consists of two parts, one of referring expression and the other a
predication about the entity referred to. In syntactic terms, referring expression are
noun phrases and predicates are verb phrases. All languages, however much they
differ fom one another in the other categories or parts of speech, have nouns (and
noun phrases) and verbs (and verb phrases).
Syntax Examples
Tools that can help students understand syntax include a comprehensive
syntax definition and examples of sentences that employ correct English syntax.
Like all languages, English is governed by grammatical rules. For instance, most
sentences in English follow a Subject-Verb-Object word order, resulting in
syntactically correct sentences like:
 The boy kicked the ball.
 We were almost late for school because we missed the bus.
 The average lifespan for a giraffe is around 26 years.
  The above sentences are syntactically correct and they make perfect sense.
However, it is also possible for sentences to follow the rules of syntax without
making any sense at all.
Syntax & English Sentence Structure
Syntax is the part of linguistics that studies the structure and formation of
sentences. It explains how words and phrases are arranged to form correct
sentences. A sentence could make no sense and still be correct from the syntax
point of view as long as words are in their appropriate spots and agree with each
other. Here is a classic example by Noam Chomsky, a linguist, that illustrates a
case in which a sentence is correct but does not make sense:
 Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
To create grammatically correct and acceptable English sentences, we have to
follow the English rules for syntax.
 Types of Syntax
There are many types of syntax that can manifest as different sentence structures in
English. English sentences can be:
 Simple
 Compound
 Complex
 Compound-complex
There are also different rules for verbal and written expressions, as the two kinds of
communication have different levels of formality attached to them.

Simple and Compound Sentences

a. Simple
The easiest kind of sentence to understand in English is a simple sentence. Simple
sentences consist of just one independent clause expressing a single idea. Despite
their simple structure, these sentences can get quite long provided that they
continue to consist only of a single independent clause. Examples of simple
sentences include:
 I forgot to bring my homework to school.
 Sam and Eric love mountain biking.
 Jack and Ralph enjoy cooking but hate doing the dishes.
b. Compound
Compound sentences are made by combining two or more simple sentences;
again, they are formed exclusively from independent clauses. These sentences can
be connected by a comma, a semi-colon, a colon, a dash, or a conjunction.
Examples of compound sentences include:
 I like lattes and my wife likes tea.
 Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust
upon them. (Shakespeare, Twelfth Night)
 I know who you are; you were in my biology class.
 Verbal & Written Expressions
One thing to keep in mind is that syntax rules are very different in writing than they
are in speech. When writing, and especially when writing something formal like an
essay, it is important for students to understand that they need to adhere to the rules of
syntax and sentence structure outlined here. When speaking, however, it is common to
 omit subjects, trail off in the middle of sentences, repeat words, and generally practice
a greater degree of flexibility than is acceptable in written English.
 Theories of Syntax
Linguists have been studying syntax for a long time and as a result have
developed several different theories of syntax that explain different things about how
humans learn and process language. Linguist Derek Bickerton, for instance,
developed the language bioprogram hypothesis (LBH), which proposed that creole
languages develop when a generation of children have a pidgin language as their
primary linguistic input. These children, according to Bickerton, will automatically
develop the pidgin into a creole by adding elements to it according to innate linguistic
bioprogramming.
Joseph Greenberg was another linguist who studied the connections between
different languages. He proposed a set of linguistic universals, or concepts common to
many or even all languages. Similar work on linguistic universals has been completed
by linguist John A. Hawkins. Other linguists like Gerald Gazdar have been concerned
with identifying what features of sentences make them ungrammatical, or
syntactically unacceptable, and why. Gazdar’s theory is called generalized phrase
structure grammar.
 Syntactic Models

Syntax tree diagrams can

get very complex.

Linguists often attempt to model syntactic relations using tree diagrams that
show the relationship between words. These diagrams can get extremely complicated,
going into far more detail than the simple grammatical relationship between words.
There are several different theories of syntax that can produce different kinds of tree
diagrams, including dependency grammar, categorical grammar, and functional
grammar.
 Words Classes
In this section it is taken a closer look at the smallest building block of syntax,
namely, words. The following is the explanation how they can be grouped into words
classes.
Each section discussed the distribution, function, and morphosyntactic properties of
the word class. All the major word classes are associated with a typical set of
grammatical categories. This point concentrates on the most common categories
found cross-linguistically which belong to words class that have mention above. So in
another syntax term it is called as word categories.
1. Words belong to different classes
Concentrating on morphological criteria and syntactic criteria is one of formal
method to identify word classes. Morphologi is the study of the word form (Yule,
2006; 64 and Booij, 2007; 112-115). Recurring patterns in the form of words,
particularly in the affixes that they take, indicate that a group of words belong to
the same class, for instance, that only verbs take all three endings –ed, -s, and –
ing. This kind of avidence is based on the morphosyntactic of verbs: the
morphology that they take in spesific syntactic contexts.
Syntactic criteria show that each word class has a unique pattern of distribution. It
means that, first; there are certain slots in a sentence that can only be filled by
members of one word class.
2. Verbs
 Intransitive verbs
Verb is one of words class that has essential role in sentence. It is also
understood as predicate or predication. The essential of the word class can be
seen from its function. The major function of verbs is to express what is
known as ‘predication’. A predicate expresses an ‘event’ in the sentence,
which may be quite literally an event (such as collapse or explode) but also
include actions, processes, situations, states and so on. The role predicate is
typically fulfilled by a verb.
 Transitive verbs
The next set of verbs is the verb that requires two arguments. The arguments
are the words that have function as noun (Newson, 2006:15). It is called as
transitive verbs.
 Ditransitive verbs
The third sub-class of verbs has three arguments. The arguments are in bold
the following sentence. They are presented to help the readers understand
easily;
1. Susan sent a letter to her beloved mother
2. Jane bought a dictionary for her son
3. Cane handed the letter to the boss
  English Sentence Structure
Every word in a sentence plays a specific role within the sentence. Every sentence
consists of a subject and a verb at the very least. Simple sentences follow a basic Subject-
Verb-Object format. For example:
 The girl bought a book.

The subject may be combined with adjectives or descriptive phrases that add detail.
For example:
 The man who stole the car.
A sentence can contain a direct and an indirect object. In that case, the word order will
be Subject-Verb-Direct Object-Indirect Object. For example:
 The mother gave an apple to the child.
To add where, how, and when details, follow the order: Subject-Verb-Object-Manner-
Place-Time. For example:
 She handed the book to him quietly in class yesterday.
Structurally, sentences can be organized into four groups: simple, compound,
complex, and compound-complex sentences. What classifies each sentence is the number
of main ideas or complete thoughts they contain. A complete thought is also called
an independent clause. It's a sentence with at least one subject and one verb that can
exist on its own and conveys a clear message. If a sentence sounds unfinished and
unclear, then it's a dependent clause: it has a subject and a verb but does not express a
complete thought. In this case, it needs to be combined with an independent clause to
create a clear sentence.

 Simple & Compound Sentences

Simple sentences consist of one Independent clause and express only one main idea. For
example: “We received the letter.”
While it has to contain at least one subject and one verb to stand alone, it can have more
than one of each. However, both subjects have to be related to the same action or actions.
For example: “My wife and I work and study.”
 Note that these sentences are not simple just because they’re short. In fact, they can
include more information and still be simple. The use of prepositions, prepositional
phrases, compound words, or phrases will make a sentence look complicated but they
simply add description to it. For example: “My wife and I bought a brand new car for just
$50,000 two weeks ago.”
Compound sentences consist of two or more simple sentences joined together and express
more than two main ideas at once. They’re connected with a semicolon (;) or comma (,)
and followed by a coordinating conjunction: and, or, but, so, for, yet, nor; or a
conjunctive adverb: however, instead, therefore. Each subject is in charge of a different
action. For example: “Sue painted the house gray and blue, and Tom moved the boxes
from the truck to the rooms.”
Sometimes, it’s acceptable to omit the comma, especially if the independent clauses are
simplistic and short. For example: “She smiled and I laughed.”
 Complex & Compound-Complex
Complex sentences contain an independent clause and a dependent clause. Dependent and
independent clauses are joined together with a subordinate conjunction: after, although,
because, before, since, until, when, where. For example: “Even though I was angry with
him, I answered his call.”
The dependent clause can serve as an adjective, a noun, or an adverb: “Tony bought the
house that we showed him.”
 Syntax & English Sentence Structure
Syntax is the part of linguistics that studies the structure and formation of sentences. It
explains how words and phrases are arranged to form correct sentences. A sentence could
make no sense and still be correct from the syntax point of view as long as words are in
their appropriate spots and agree with each other. Here is a classic example by Noam
Chomsky, a linguist, that illustrates a case in which a sentence is correct but does not
make sense:
 Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.