NCERT NOTES

GEOGRAPHY
10th Standard

1.

 Content Sheet

1. Resources and Development 3

2. Forest and Wildlife Resources 11
3. Water Resources 14
4. Agriculture 17
5. Minerals and Energy Resources 25
6. Manufacturing Industries 36
7. Lifelines of National Economy 47
Content Sheet

2.
 1 Resources and Development

Chapter 1
Resources are everything available in Resources are a function of human
the environment which can be used activities. Human beings themselves
to satisfy human needs provided, are essential components of resources.
it is technologically accessible, They transform material available in our
economically feasible and culturally environment into resources and use
acceptable. Human beings interact with them.
nature through technology and create
institutions to accelerate their economic Classification of Resources:
development. yy On the basis of Origin: Biotic and abiotic.
yy On the basis of Exhaustibility:
Renewable and non-renewable.
yy On the basis of Ownership: Individual,
community, national and international.
yy On the basis of Status of Development:
Potential, developed stock and reserves.

Fig. 1.1: Interdependent Relationship between

Nature, Technology and Institutions

Fig. 1.2: Classification of Resources

Types of Resources On the basis of Exhaustibility:

On the basis of Origin: yy Renewable (or Replenishable)
Resources and Development

yy Biotic Resources: These resources are Resources: These are resources which
obtained from biosphere and have life can be renewed or reproduced by
such as human beings, flora and fauna, physical, chemical or mechanical
fisheries, livestock etc. processes. For example – solar,
yy Abiotic resources: These are things wind energy, water, etc. They may
which are composed of non-living further be divided into continuous
things such as rocks and metals. or flow.

3.
Chapter 1

yy Non-Renewable Resources: These solar energy properly despite having

occur over a very long geological time. enormous potential.
For example – Minerals, fossil fuels etc. yy Developed Resources: These are
Some of them like metals are recyclable resources which are surveyed and
and some like fossil fuels cannot be their quality and quantity have been
recycled. determined for utilisation. Their
development depends on technology
On the basis of Ownership: and level of their feasibility.
yy Individual Resources: These are also yy Stock: They are the materials in the
owned privately by individual. Such as environment which have the potential to
Plantation, pasture lands, ponds, water satisfy human needs but human beings
in wells etc. do not have the appropriate technology
yy Community Owned Resources: These to access these. For example, Human
are resources that are accessible to beings do not the advanced technology
all the members of the community. For to utilize hydrogen from water as a
example - Village commons (grazing source of energy.
grounds, village ponds etc.). yy Reserves: They are the subset of the
yy National Resources: Technically, all stock which can be put into use with
the resources belong to the nation. All the help of existing technical ‘know-
the minerals, water resources, forests, how’ but their use has not been started.
land within the political boundaries and For example, River water can be used for
oceanic area up to 12 nautical miles generating hydroelectric power but it is
(22.2 km) from the coast termed as being utilised only to a limited extent.
territorial water and resources therein
belong to the nation. Development of Resource:
yy International Resources: The oceanic Resources are vital for human survival
resources beyond 200 nautical miles of as well as for maintaining the quality
the Exclusive Economic Zone belong to of life. Human beings considered
open ocean and no individual country can resources are free gift which resulted
utilise these without the concurrence into indiscriminate use of the resources.
of international institutions. (ISBA, yy Depletion of resources for satisfying the
UNCLOS). greed of a few individuals.
yy Accumulation of resources in few hands
Resources and Development

On the basis of the Status of which divided the society into two
Development: segments i.e. haves and have nots or
yy Potential Resources: These are those rich and poor.
resources which are found in a region yy Indiscriminate exploitation of resources
but they have not been utilised. For has led to global ecological crises
example - the Western parts of India such as, global warming, ozone layer
have not developed the wind and depletion, environmental pollution and
land degradation.

4.
 Chapter 1
Resource Planning: yy Resources can contribute to development
Resource planning is essential for only when they are accompanied by
sustainable existence of all forms of life. appropriate technological development
Sustainable existence is a component and institutional changes.
of sustainable development. yy In India, development, in general, and
yy Planning is the widely accepted strategy resource development in particular
for judicious use of resources. It has does not only involve the availability
importance in a country like India, which of resources, but also the technology,
has enormous diversity in the availability quality of human resources and the
of resources. historical experiences of the people.
yy There are some regions which can be
considered self sufficient in terms of Conservation of Resources:
the availability of resources and there Irrational consumption and over-
are some regions which have acute utilisation of resources may lead to
shortage of some vital resources. socio-economic and environmental
yy For example - the state of Rajasthan is problems. To overcome this problems
very well endowed with solar and wind resource conservation at various level is
energy but lacks in water resources. important.
yy A balanced resource planning at
national, state, regional and local level Land Resources:
is necessary. yy Land is natural resource of utmost
importance and supports natural
Resource Planning in India: vegetation, wild life, human life,
yy Resource Planning is a complex process economic activities, and transport and
which involves: communication systems.
⚪⚪ Identification and Inventory of yy In India 43 per cent of the land area is
resources: Across the regions of plain, 30 per cent Mountains and about
the country. It involves surveying, 27 per cent of the area of the country is
mapping and qualitative and the plateau region.
quantitative estimation and
measurement of the resources. Land Use Pattern:
⚪⚪ Evolving a Planning Structure: It is determined by:
It is endowed with appropriate yy Physical factors: Physical factors like
Resources and Development

technology, skill and institutional topography, climate and soil types.

set up for implementing resource yy Human factors: It includes population
development plans. density, technological capability and
⚪⚪ Matching the resource development culture and traditions etc.
plans with overall national
development plans. Categories of Land use pattern:
yy India has been working for resources yy Forests
planning since first five year plan. yy Land not available for Cultivation:

5.
Chapter 1

⚪⚪ Barren and waste land. sown area and it is also known as gross
⚪⚪ Land put to non-agricultural uses, cropped area.
e.g. buildings, roads, factories, etc.
yy Other Uncultivated land (excluding Land Use Pattern in India:
fallow land): yy Variation of Net Sown Area in states:
⚪⚪ Permanent pastures and grazing It is over 80 per cent of the total area
land. in Punjab and Haryana and less than 10
⚪⚪ Land under miscellaneous tree per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram,
crops groves (not included in net Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands.
sown area). yy Forest Area: It is far lower than the
⚪⚪ Cultural waste land (left uncultivated desired 33 per cent of geographical area
for more than 5 agricultural as outlined in the National Forest Policy
years). (1952).
yy Fallow Lands: Fallow land includes, yy Waste Land: It includes rocky, arid and
⚪⚪ Current fallow-(left without desert areas and land put to other non-
cultivation for one or less than one agricultural uses includes settlements,
agricultural year). roads, railways, industry etc.
⚪⚪ Other than current fallow-(left yy Land Conservation: Continuous use
uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 of land over a long period of time
agricultural years). without taking appropriate measures to
yy Net Sown area: The area sown more than conserve and manage it has resulted in
once in an agricultural year is called net land degradation.
Resources and Development

Fig. 1.3: Land use pattern in India

Land Degradation and Conservation water logging, formation of dust which

Measures: prevents infiltration of water, etc.
yy Land Degradation: It is caused by the yy Conservation of Land Degradation:
Mining, over grazing, over irrigation, Some of the ways are - Afforestation and

6.
 Chapter 1
proper management of grazing, Planting Alluvial Soils:
of shelter belts of plants, control on yy Source: These have been deposited
over grazing and stabilisation of sand by three important Himalayan river
dunes by growing thorny bushes etc. systems which are the Indus, the Ganga
and the Brahmaputra.
Soil as a Resource: yy Regions: It covers entire northern plains,
Soil is the most important renewable extended through narrow corridor
natural resource and is a living system. into Gujarat and Rajasthan, eastern
The important factors in its formation coastal plain particular in deltas of the
are Relief, parent rock or bed rock, Mahanadi, the Godavari, etc.
climate, vegetation and other forms of yy It consists of various proportions of
life and time. It also consists of organic sand, silt and clay. The inland soil near
(humus) and inorganic materials. the river valley appears bigger in size
and in upper reaches of the river valley,
near the place of break of slope, soil are
coarse as found in in piedmont plains
such as Duars, Chos and Terai
yy Classification based on age: These can
be classified as old alluvial (Bangar)
and new alluvial (Khadar). The bangar
soil has higher concentration of kanker
nodules than the Khadar. The khadar
has more fine particles and is more
fertile than the bangar.
yy Chemical components: Potash,
phosphoric acid and lime.
yy Important crops: Sugarcane, paddy,
wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.
yy Soils in the drier areas are more
alkaline.

Black Soil:
Fig. 1.4: Soil Profile yy These soils are black in colour and are
Resources and Development

also known as regur soils. It is ideal for

Classification of Soils: growing cotton and is also known as
The soils in India are classified into black cotton soil. It is made up of lava
different types on the basis of the flows.
factors responsible for soil formation, yy The most important factors for its
colour, thickness, texture, age, chemical development are climatic conditions
and physical properties. and parent rocks.

7.
Chapter 1

yy It is made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey forests. However, its humus content
material. They are rich in soil nutrients, is poor under sparse vegetation and in
such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, semi-arid environment.
potash and lime and poor in phosphoric yy Areas: They are found in southern states,
contents. Western Ghats region of Maharashtra,
yy Regions: It cover the plateaus of Odisha, some parts of West Bengal and
Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, North-east regions.
Madhya Pradesh etc. and extend in the yy This soil is very useful for growing tea
south east direction along the Godavari and coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil
and the Krishna valleys. Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are
yy They are well-known for capacity to hold more suitable for crops like cashew nut.
water. It is sticky when wet and difficult
to work on unless tilled immediately Arid Soils:
after the first shower or during the pre- yy Arid soils range from red to brown in
monsoon period. colour and are generally sandy in texture
and saline in nature and sometime salts
Red and Yellow Soils: can be obtained from it. Soil lacks in
yy Red soil develops on crystalline igneous humus and moisture.
rocks in areas of low rainfall in the yy Lacks humus and moisture: Due to
eastern and southern parts of the the dry climate, high temperature,
Deccan plateau. evaporation is faster.
yy These soils develop a reddish colour yy The lower horizons of the soil are
due to diffusion of iron in crystalline occupied by Kankar because of the
and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow increasing calcium content downwards.
when it occurs in a hydrated form. Kankar formation prevents water
yy Regions: They are found in parts of infiltration.
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of yy With proper irrigation this soil can be
the middle Ganga plain and along the used for cultivation.
piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.
Forest Soil:
Laterite Soil: yy These soils are found in the hilly and
yy Laterite has been derived from the Latin mountainous areas where sufficient
word ‘later’ which means brick. rain forests are available.
Resources and Development

yy It develops under tropical and yy They are loamy and silty in valley sides
subtropical climate with alternate wet and coarse grained in the upper slopes.
and dry season and result of intense yy In the snow covered areas of Himalayas,
leaching due to heavy rain. It is mostly these soils experience denudation and
deep to very deep acidic. are acidic with low humus content.
yy This soil lacks in plant nutrients. yy The soils found in the lower parts of the
yy Presence of Humus: It is humus rich valleys particularly on the river terraces
and support deciduous and evergreen and alluvial fans are fertile.

8.
 Chapter 1
Fig. 1.5: India - Major Soil Types

Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation: gullies, due to gullies the land becomes
Soil Erosion: It is the denudation of unfit for cultivation and is known as
the soil cover and subsequent washing bad land. In the Chambal basin such
down. The processes of soil formation lands are called ravines.
and erosion go on simultaneously and yy Human Reasons: Deforestation, over-
generally there is a balance between the grazing, construction and mining etc.
Resources and Development

two.
Various Types of Soil Erosion:
Reasons for Soil Erosion: yy Sheet Erosion: Sometimes water flows
yy Natural Reasons: It includes natural as a sheet over large areas down a slope
forces like wind, glacier and water. The which wash away the top soil.
running water cuts through the clayey yy Wind Erosion: Wind blows loose soil off
soils and makes deep channels called as flat or sloping land.

9.
Chapter 1

yy Soil erosion is also caused due to not compromise with the needs of the
defective methods of farming. Like- future generations.’
Wrong ploughing. yy At the international level, the Club of
Rome advocated resource conservation
Measures to Reduce Soil Erosion: for the first time in a more systematic
yy Contor Ploughing: Ploughing along the way in 1968. Gandhian philosophy was
contour lines which decelerate the flow presented by Schumacher in his book
of water down the slopes. Small is Beautiful.
yy Terrace Cultivation: Steps can be cut yy Brundtland Commission Report, 1987:
out on the slopes making terraces. This report introduced the concept
yy Strip Cropping: Strips of grass are left to of ‘Sustainable Development’ and
grow between the crops which breaks advocated it as a means for resource
up the force of the wind. conservation, which was subsequently
yy Shelter Belt: Rows of trees planted in published in a book entitled Our
lines to create shelter. Common Future.
yy Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992:
Interesting Points: ⚪⚪ It was the first International Earth
yy “There is enough for everybody’s need Summit which was convened
and not for any body’s greed.” – Gandhiji. for addressing urgent problems
yy In India, Land use data is available only of environmental protection and
for 93 per cent of the total geographical socioeconomic development at the
area because: global level.
⚪⚪ The land use reporting for most of ⚪⚪ The assembled leaders signed the
the north-east states except Assam Declaration on Global Climatic
has not been done fully. Change and Biological Diversity.
⚪⚪ Moreover, some areas of Jammu and ⚪⚪ The Rio Convention endorsed the
Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and global Forest Principles and adopted
China have also not been surveyed. Agenda 21 for achieving Sustainable
yy India has got the right to mine Development in the 21st century.
manganese nodules from the bed of the yy Agenda 21: It is the declaration signed
Indian Ocean from that area which lies by world leaders in 1992 at the United
beyond the exclusive economic zone Nations Conference on Environment
(EEZ). and Development (UNCED), which
Resources and Development

yy Sustainable economic development: It took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It

means ‘development should take place aims at achieving global sustainable
without damaging the environment, development.
and development in the present should

10.
 2 Forest and Wildlife Resources

Chapter 2
Humans along with all living organisms population may move into the
form a complex web of ecological endangered or vulnerable category if the
system. Forests play a key role in the negative factors affecting them continue
ecological system as these are also the to operate. For example - Himalayan
primary producers on which all other brown bear, wild Asiatic buffalo, desert
living beings depend. India is one of the fox and hornbill, etc.
world’s richest countries in terms of its yy Endemic Species: These are species
biological diversity. which are only found in some particular
areas usually isolated by natural or
Flora and Fauna in India: geographical barriers. For examples
yy It is estimated that at least 10 per cent - the Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon,
of India’s recorded wild flora and 20 Andaman wild pig, mithun in Arunachal
per cent of its mammals are on the Pradesh.
threatened list. yy Extinct Species: These species are
yy Many of these have been categorised not found after searches of known
as ‘critical’ and are on the verge of or likely areas where they may occur.
extinction, such as: A species may be extinct from a local
⚪⚪ Animals: Cheetah, pink-headed area, region, country, continent or the
duck, mountain quail, forest spotted entire earth. Examples of such species
owlet, and are the Asiatic cheetah, pink head
⚪⚪ Plants: madhuca insignis (a wild duck.
variety of mahua) and hubbardia
heptaneuron,(a species of grass). Reasons for Depletion of Flora and
Different categories of plants and animal Fauna:
species: The following classification is yy Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching,
done based on the International Union over-exploitation, environmental
for Conservation of Nature and Natural pollution, poisoning and forest fires are
Resources (IUCN): factors.
yy Normal Species: Species whose yy Other causes of environmental
population levels are considered to be destruction are unequal access,
normal for their survival, such as cattle, inequitable consumption of resources
sal, pine, rodents, etc. and differential sharing of responsibility
yy Endangered Species: These are species for environmental well-being.
Forest and Wildlife Resources

which are in danger of extinction. For Socio-Cultural Impact of Loss of Forest:

example - Asian lion, Bengal tiger etc. The biological loss is strongly correlated
yy Vulnerable Species: These are species with the loss of cultural diversity.
whose population has declined to levels yy Such losses have increasingly
from where it is likely to move into the marginalised and impoverished many
endangered category in the near future. indigenous and other forest-dependent
yy Rare Species: Species with small communities.

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Chapter 2

yy Forest communities directly depend yy Reserved Forest: These are regarded

on various components of the forest as the most valuable as far as the
and wildlife for food, drink, medicine, conservation of forest and wildlife
culture, spirituality, etc. resources are concerned. It covers more
than half of the total forest land.
Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in yy Protected Forests: It covers almost
India: one-third of the total forest area and
Conservation preserves the ecological as declared by the Forest Department.
diversity and our life support systems This forest land are protected from any
– water, air and soil. It also preserves further depletion.
the genetic diversity of plants and yy Unclassed Forests: These are other
animals for better growth of species and forests and wastelands belonging to
breeding. both government and private individuals
and communities.
Steps Taken to Protect and Conserve Reserved and Protected Forests are also
Wildlife: referred to as permanent forest estates
yy Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: It maintained for the purpose of producing
has various provisions for protecting timber and other forest produce, and
habitats. An all India list of protected for protective reasons.The largest area
species was also published. The thrust of under permanent forests is in Madhya
the programme was towards protecting Pradesh.
the remaining population of certain
endangered species by banning hunting, Community and Conservation:
giving legal protection to their habitats, Conservation strategies are not new in
and restricting trade in wildlife. India and forests are also home to some
yy The central government also announced of the traditional communities. In some
several projects for protecting specific areas of India, local communities are
animals, which were gravely threatened, struggling to conserve these habitats
including the tiger, the one-horned along with government officials,
rhinoceros, etc. recognising that only this will secure
yy The plants were also added to the list their own long-term livelihood.
for the first time in 1991. yy The famous Chipko movement in the
Himalayas has not only successfully
Forest and Wildlife Resources

Types and Distribution of Forest and resisted deforestation in several areas

Wildlife Resources: but has also shown that community
In India, much of its forest and wildlife afforestation with indigenous species
resources are either owned or managed can be enormously successful.
by the government through the Forest yy Farmers and citizen’s groups like the
Department or other government Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and
departments. These are classified under Navdanya have shown that adequate
the following categories: levels of diversified crop production

12.
 Chapter 2
without the use of synthetic chemicals decline of available habitat and prey.
are possible and economically viable. The species was declared extinct in
yy Joint Forest Management (JFM) India long back in 1952.
programme: It furnishes a good yy The Buxa Tiger Reserve is in West
example for involving local communities Bengal.
in the management and restoration yy Enrichment Plantation: In this single
of degraded forests. (Odisha passed commercially valuable species is
the first resolution for joint forest extensively planted and other species
management). It depends on local are eliminated. For instance, teak
institutions which took forestation drive monoculture has damaged the natural
on degraded land, mostly controlled by forest in South India and Chir Pine
forest department. plantations in the Himalayas have
yy Sacred Grooves: Nature worship is an replaced the Himalayan oak and
age old tribal belief based on the premise Rhododendron forests.
that all creations of nature have to be yy The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana):
protected. Such beliefs have preserved This is a medicinal plant found in
several virgin forests in pristine form various parts of Himachal Pradesh
called Sacred Groves (the forests of God and Arunachal Pradesh. A chemical
and Goddesses). compound called ‘taxol’ is extracted
from the bark, needles, twigs and roots
Interesting Facts: of this tree, and it has been successfully
yy Biodiversity or Biological Diversity: It is used to treat some cancers – the drug
immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated is now the biggest selling anti-cancer
species, diverse in form and function but drug in the world.
closely integrated in a system through yy “Project Tiger”: It is one of the well-
multiple network of interdependencies. publicised wildlife campaigns for saving
yy Asian cheetah: It is world’s fastest land tigers and was launched in 1973.
mammal and is nearly extinct due to a

Forest and Wildlife Resources

13.
 3 Water Resources
Chapter 3

The three fourth surface of the earth yy The quality of the water is decreasing
is covered with water but only small due to the pollution by domestic waste,
proportion of it accounts for fresh water industrial wastes, chemicals, fertilisers
that can be put to use. This freshwater used in agriculture which makes it
is mainly obtained from surface run off hazardous for human use.
and ground water that is continually yy India’s major rivers are highly polluted
being renewed and recharged through like Yamuna and Ganga which makes
hydrological cycle. them unfit for human consumption.

Water Scarcity: Water Conservation and Management

Water scarcity refers to less availability Multi-Purpose River Projects and
of water for fulfilling human and Rainwater harvesting are some major
environmental needs. techniques of Water Conservation and
Management.
Quantitative Aspects of Water Scarcity:
yy The water availability varies over space Multi-Purpose River Projects:
and time due to the variations in seasonal yy In ancient times construction of
and annual precipitation. For example - structures like dams built of stone rubble,
drought are common in Rajasthan. reservoirs or lakes, embankments and
yy Mostly water scarcity is caused by over- canals for irrigation were built.
exploitation, excessive use and unequal yy Considered Vehicle of Development:
access to water among different social They has been constructed since
groups. independence for conservation and
yy Growing Population: It leads to greater integrated water management.
domestic demands for food grains. yy They are meant for irrigation, electricity
Irrigation requires lot of water and infact generation, water supply for domestic
agriculture is biggest consumer of water. and industrial uses, flood control,
yy Falling Groundwater Level: Irrigation is recreation, inland navigation and fish
one of the main reason behind it. Falling breeding.
groundwater levels may adversely affect yy Example of Multi-Purpose Rivers: The
water availability and food security of Bhakra – Nangal in the Sutluj-Beas
the people. river basin and the Hirakud project in
yy Increasing Urbanisation and the Mahanadi basin.
Industrialisation: It increased water
demand manifold as multiplying urban Issues with Large Dams and Multi-
centres with large and dense populations Purpose Projects:
and urban lifestyles have not only added yy The regulating and damming of rivers
to water and energy requirements but affect their natural flow causing
Water Resources

have further aggravated the problem. poor sediment flow and excessive
sedimentation at the bottom of the
Qualitative Aspects of Water Scarcity: reservoir, resulting in rockier stream

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 Chapter 3
beds and poorer habitats for the rivers’
aquatic life.
yy Sedimentation also meant that the flood
plains were deprived of silt, a natural
fertiliser which adds to the problem of
land degradation.
yy Dams fragment rivers which makes it
difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate.
yy The reservoirs that are created on
the floodplains also submerge the
existing vegetation and soil leading
to its decomposition over a period of
time.
yy Large-Scale Displacement of Local
Communities: It led to various
environment movements like ‘Narmada
Bachao andolan’, Tehhri dam Andolan.
yy Irrigation has also changed the
cropping pattern of many regions with
farmers shifting to water intensive and
commercial crops. It led to ecological Fig. 3.1: India- Major Rivers and Dams
consequences like salinisation of the
soil.
Rainwater Harvesting:
yy Increased Social Inequality: Irrigation
It is a viable alternative, both socio-
has also increased the social gap
economically and environmentally.
between the richer landowners and the
yy In ancient India people had developed
landless poor.
wide ranging techniques to harvest
yy Inter-State Water Disputes: They are
rainwater, groundwater, river water and
also becoming common with regard to
flood water in keeping with the local
sharing the costs and benefits of the
ecological conditions and water needs.
multi-purpose project.
yy In Hill and Mountainous Regions: People
yy The dams that have triggered floods
built diversion channels like the ‘guls’
due to sedimentation in the reservoir.
or ‘kuls’ of the Western Himalayas for
Also, the big dams have mostly been
agriculture.
unsuccessful in controlling floods at the
yy ‘Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting’: It was
time of excessive rainfall.
commonly practised to store drinking
yy They also induced earthquakes, caused
water, particularly in Rajasthan.
water-borne diseases and pests and
Water Resources

yy In the Flood Plains of Bengal: People

pollution resulting from excessive use
developed inundation channels to
of water.
irrigate their fields.

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Chapter 3

yy In Arid and Semi-Arid Regions: yy Sardar Sarovar Dam: It has been built
Agricultural fields were converted into over the Narmada River in Gujarat.
rain fed storage structures that allowed It covers four states—Maharashtra,
the water to stand and moisten the Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
soil like the ‘khadins’ in Jaisalmer and yy Narmada Bachao Andolan or Save
‘Johads’ and traditional underground Narmada Movement: It is a Non
water storage like tankas in Rajsthan. Governmental Organisation (NGO)
Rainwater, or palar pani, as commonly that mobilised tribal people, farmers,
known in these parts is considered the environmentalists and human rights
purest form of natural water. activists against the Sardar Sarovar
Dam.
Interesting Points: yy Krishna-Godavari Dispute: It is due
yy Some Important Water Conservation to the objections raised by Karnataka
Techniques in Ancient India: and Andhra Pradesh governments. It is
⚪⚪ In the first century B.C., regarding the diversion of more water at
Sringaverapura near Allahabad Koyna by the Maharashtra government
had sophisticated water harvesting for a multipurpose project.
system channelling the flood water yy Jawaharlal Nehru proudly proclaimed
of the river Ganga. the dams as the ‘temples of modern
⚪⚪ In the 14th Century, the tank in India’.
Hauz Khas, Delhi was constructed
by Iltutmish for supplying water to
Siri Fort area.
Water Resources

16.
 4 Agriculture

Chapter 4
Agriculture is a primary activity which the help of primitive tools like hoe,
produces food grains, raw material dao and digging sticks, and family or
for various industries etc. Two-thirds community labour.
of India’s population is engaged in yy It depends upon monsoon, natural
agricultural activities. fertility of the soil and suitability of
other environmental conditions to the
Types of Farming: crops grown.
Over the years, cultivation methods yy ‘Slash and Burn’ Agriculture: Farmers
have changed significantly depending clear a patch of land and produce
upon the characteristics of physical cereals and other food crops to sustain
environment, technological know-how their family. The shifting allows nature
and socio-cultural practices. At present, to replenish the fertility of the soil
in different parts of India, the following through natural processes. Here the
farming systems are practised: land productivity is low as the farmer
does not use fertilisers or other modern
Primitive Subsistence Farming: inputs.
yy Primitive subsistence agriculture is
practised on small patches of land with

Different Names of Primitive Subsistence Farming:

In India In World

• Bewar or Dahiya: Madhya Pradesh • Milpa: Mexico and Central

• Podu or Penda: Andhra Pradesh America
• Pama Dabi or Koman or Bringa: • Conuco: Venzuela
Odisha • Roca: Brazil
• Kumari: Western Ghats • Masole: Central Africa
• Valre or Waltre: South-eastern • Ladang: Indonesia
Rajasthan • Ray: Vietnam
• Khil: Himalayan belt
• Kuruwa: Jharkhand
• Jhumming: North-eastern states
namely Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram
and Nagaland
• Pamlou: Manipur
• Dipa: Bastar (Chhattishgarh),
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Agriculture

17.
Chapter 4

Intensive Subsistence Farming:

yy This type of farming is practised in areas of high population pressure on land.
yy It is labour-intensive farming where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are
used for obtaining higher production.

Issues in Indian Farming: Right to inheritance leads to division of land among successive
generations has rendered land-holding size uneconomical. Farmers are continuously taking
increased output from limited land resources which is leading to increased pressure on
land.

Commercial Farming: ⚪⚪ Production is mainly for market: A

yy The main characteristic of this type well-developed network of transport
of farming is the use of higher doses and communication connecting
of modern inputs, e.g., high yielding the plantation areas, processing
variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, industries and markets plays an
insecticides and pesticides in order to important role in the development
obtain higher productivity. of plantations.
yy The degree of commercialisation of
agriculture varies from one region Cropping Pattern:
to another. For example – Rice is a yy The physical diversities and plurality
commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab of cultures in India are reflected in
whereas it is a subsistence crop in agricultural practices and cropping
Odisha. patterns in India.
yy Plantation: It is one type of commercial yy Various types of food and fibre crops,
agriculture, in this type of farming, a vegetables and fruits, spices and
single crop is grown on a large area. condiments, etc. constitute some of the
The plantation has an interface of important crops grown in India.
agriculture and industry. Some of the yy India has three Cropping Seasons —
features of Plantation are: Rabi, Kharif and Zaid.
⚪⚪ Plantations cover large tracts of land,
using capital intensive inputs, with Rabi Season:
the help of migrant labourers. All the yy Rabi crops are sown in winter from
produce is used as raw material in October to December and harvested in
respective industries. summer from April to June.
⚪⚪ In India, tea, coffee, rubber, yy Important Crops:
sugarcane, banana, etc., are ⚪⚪ Cereals: Wheat and barley.
important plantation crops. Tea in ⚪⚪ Pulses: Peas and gram.
Assam and North Bengal and coffee ⚪⚪ Oil seeds: Mustard.
in Karnataka and Bamboo in north yy Major producing states: States from
Agriculture

eastern states. the north and north-western parts such

18.
 Chapter 4
as Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Major Crops:
Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and yy A variety of food and non food crops are
Uttar Pradesh. grown in India which depends upon the
yy The western temperate cyclone, also variations in soil, climate and cultivation
called western disturbances, helps in practices.
to grow these crops in these states as it yy Major crops grown in India are rice,
brings rainfall. wheat, millets, pulses, tea, coffee,
yy The Green revolution in Punjab, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute,
Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and etc.
parts of Rajasthan has also been an
important factor in the growth of the Rice:
abovementioned rabi crops. yy It is the staple food crop of a majority of
the people in India. India is the second
Kharif Crops: largest producer of rice in the world
yy kharif crops are grown with the onset after China.
of monsoon in different parts of the yy Necessary Conditions: It is a kharif
country and these are harvested in crop which requires high temperature,
September-October. (above 25°C) and high humidity with
yy Important Crops: annual rainfall above 100 cm.
⚪⚪ Cereals: Paddy, maize, jowar, bajra. yy Major Producing States: It is grown in
⚪⚪ Pulses: Tur (arhar), moong, urad. the plains of north and north-eastern
⚪⚪ Fibre crops: Cotton and jute. India, coastal areas and the deltaic
⚪⚪ Oil seeds: Groundnut and soyabean. regions.
yy Important Rice Growing Regions: Assam, yy Development of dense network of canal
West Bengal, coastal regions of Odisha, irrigation and tubewells have made it
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, possible to grow rice in areas of less
Kerala and Maharashtra. rainfall such as Punjab, Haryana and
yy In staes like Assam, West Bengal and western Uttar Pradesh and parts of
Odisha, three crops of paddy are grown Rajasthan.
in a year and varities are called Aus,
Aman and Boro. Wheat:
yy Wheat is the second most important
Zaid Season: cereal crop.in north and north-western
yy Zaid season is the short season during part of India.
the summer season between the rabi yy Conditions: It is a rabi crop which
and the kharif seasons. requires a cool growing season and a
yy Important Crops: Watermelon, bright sunshine at the time of ripening.
muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall
fodder crops. Sugarcane takes almost a evenly distributed over the growing
year to grow. season.
Agriculture

19.
Chapter 4

yy Major Producing States: Punjab, yy Major Producing States: Rajasthan,

Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and
Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan. There are Haryana.
two important wheat-growing zones in
India – The Ganga-Satluj plains in the Maize:
North-West and black soil region of the yy It is a kharif crop which requires
Deccan. temperature between 21°C to 27°C and
grows well in old alluvial soil. In some
Millets: states like Bihar maize is grown in rabi
These are known as coarse grains and season also.
have very high nutritional value. Jowar, yy It is a crop which is used both as food
bajra and ragi are the important millets and fodder.
grown in India. yy Its production has increased due to
the use of modern inputs such as HYV
Ragi: seeds, fertilisers and irrigation.
yy High Nutritional Value: This is very rich yy Major Producing States: Karnataka,
in iron, calcium, other micro-nutrients Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
and roughage. Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
yy It is a crop of dry regions and grows well
on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow Pulses:
black soils. yy Pulses need less moisture and they
yy Major Producing States: Karnataka, survive even in dry conditions. Being
Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, leguminous crops, all these crops
Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Jharkhand and except arhar help in restoring soil
Arunachal Pradesh. fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air.
These are mostly grown in rotation with
Jowar: other crops.
yy It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in yy These are the major source of protein.
the moist areas which hardly needs Major pulses that are grown in India are
irrigation. It is the third most important tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas
food crop with respect to area and and gram. India is the largest producer
production. as well as the consumer of pulses in the
yy Major Producing States: Maharashtra, world.
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya yy Major Producing States: Madhya
Pradesh. Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar
Pradesh and Karnataka.
Bajra:
yy It grows well on sandy soils and shallow
black soil.
Agriculture

20.
 Chapter 4
Food Crops other than Grains  In 2016 India was the second
Sugarcane: largest producer of groundnut in
yy It is a tropical as well as a subtropical the world after china.
crop.  Major groundnut producing
yy Conditions: states: Gujarat was the largest
⚪⚪ It grows well in hot and humid producer followed by Rajasthan
climate with a temperature of and Andhra Pradesh.
21°C to 27°C and an annual rainfall ⚪⚪ Other Oil Seeds:
between 75cm. and 100cm. Irrigation  Linseed and Mustard are rabi
is required in the regions of low crops.
rainfall.  Sesamum is a kharif crop in north
⚪⚪ It can be grown on a variety of soils and rabi crop in south India.
and needs manual labour from  Castor seed is grown both as rabi
sowing to harvesting. and kharif crop.
yy India is the second largest producer of  In rapeseed production India
sugarcane after Brazil and is the main was third largest producer in the
source of sugar, gur (jaggary), khandsari world after Canada and China in
and molasses. 2016.
yy Major Producing States: Uttar Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Plantation Crops:
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Tea:
Punjab and Haryana. yy It is an important beverage crop
introduced in India initially by the
Oil Seeds: British.
yy Different oil seeds are grown covering yy Conditions:
approximately 12 per cent of the total ⚪⚪ The tea plant grows well in tropical
cropped area of India. and sub-tropical climates endowed
yy Most of these are edible and used as with deep and fertile well-drained
cooking mediums but some of these soil and rich in humus and organic
are also used as raw material in the matter.
production of soap, cosmetics and ⚪⚪ Tea bushes require warm and moist
ointments. frost-free climate all through the
yy Main oil-seeds produced in India are year. Frequent showers evenly
groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum distributed over the year ensure
(til), soyabean, castor seeds, cotton continuous growth of tender
seeds, linseed and sunflower. leaves.
⚪⚪ Groundnut: yy Labour-intensive industry: It requires
 It is a kharif crop and accounts abundant, cheap and skilled labour.
for about half of the major yy Tea is processed within the tea garden
oilseeds produced in India. to restore its freshness.
Agriculture

21.
Chapter 4

yy Major Producing States: Assam, hills of Non-Food Crops

Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Rubber:
Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. They are yy It is an equatorial crop, but under
also produced in Himachal Pradesh, special conditions, it is also grown in
Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh tropical and sub-tropical areas. It is an
and Tripura. important industrial raw material.
yy Conditions: It requires moist and humid
Coffee: climate with rainfall of more than 200
yy Indian coffee is known in the world for cm. and temperature above 25°C.
its good quality. yy Major Producing States: It is mainly
yy The Arabica variety initially brought from grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
Yemen is produced in the country and and Andaman and Nicobar Islands and
Initially its cultivation was introduced Garo hills of Meghalaya.
on the Baba Budan Hills and even today
its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri Fibre Crops:
in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. yy Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are
the four major fibre crops grown in
Horticulture Crops: India. The first three are derived from
yy In 2016, India was the second largest the crops grown in the soil and the
producer of fruits and vegetables in the silk is obtained from cocoons of the
world after China. India is a producer of silkworms fed on green leaves specially
tropical as well as temperate fruits. mulberry.
yy India is an important producer of pea, yy Rearing of silk worms for the production
cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, of silk fibre is known as sericulture.
brinjal and potato.
yy There is great demands of: Cotton:
⚪⚪ Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra yy It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8
Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh months to mature.
and West Bengal. yy India is believed to be the original home
⚪⚪ Oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee of the cotton plant. India was second
(Meghalaya). largest producer of cotton after China.
⚪⚪ Bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, yy Conditions: Cotton grows well in
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. drier parts of the black cotton soil of
⚪⚪ Lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and the Deccan plateau. It requires high
Bihar. temperature, light rainfall or irrigation,
⚪⚪ Pineapples of Meghalaya. 210 frost-free days and bright sun-
⚪⚪ Grapes of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana shine for its growth.
and Maharashtra. yy Major Producing States: Maharashtra,
⚪⚪ Apples, Pears, Apricots and Walnuts Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka,
of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu,
Agriculture

Pradesh. Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

22.
 Chapter 4
Jute: Institutional and Technological
yy Jute is known as the golden fibre. Reforms:
yy Conditions: It grows well on well- yy The collectivisation, consolidation of
drained fertile soils in the flood plains holdings, cooperation and abolition
where soils are renewed every year and of zamindari, etc. were given priority
high temperature is required during the to bring about institutional reforms in
time of growth. the country after Independence. Land
yy Major Producing States: West Bengal, reform was the main focus of our First
Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya. Five Year Plan.
yy It is used in making gunny bags, mats, yy The Green Revolution based on the use
ropes, yarn, carpets and other artefacts. of package technology and the White
yy It is losing market due to high cost to Revolution (Operation Flood) were some
synthetic fibres and packing materials of the strategies initiated to improve the
such as the nylon. situation.
yy Important Policy Inititiatives: In the
Issues with Indian Agriculture: 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive
yy Technological Issues: Sustained uses land development programme was
of land without compatible techno- initiated. It includes the provision for
institutional changes have hindered the crop insurance against drought, flood,
pace of agricultural development. cyclone, fire and disease, establishment
yy Monsoon Dependent: Most of the of Grameen banks, cooperative societies
farmers in large parts of the country and banks for providing loan facilities to
still depend upon monsoon and natural the farmers at lower rates of interest.
fertility in order to carry on their yy Institutional Credit Facilities: Kissan
agriculture. Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident
yy Land Fragmentation: The inheritance Insurance Scheme (PAIS) were
right had lead to fragmentation of land introduced. The government also
holdings. announces minimum support price,
yy Small and Marginal Farmers: Indian remunerative and procurement prices
agriculture is dominated by small and for important crops to check the
marginal land holding which impact the exploitation of farmers by speculators
overall agricultural development. and middlemen.
yy Investments and Other Issues: Farmers
are withdrawing their investment Other Ways to Improve Agriculture:
from agriculture causing a downfall in yy Efforts to Modernise Agriculture:
the employment in agriculture. The Establishment of Indian Council
growth rate in agriculture has been of Agricultural Research (ICAR),
decelerating. Reduction in import duties agricultural universities, veterinary
on agricultural products have proved services and animal breeding centres,
detrimental to agriculture in the country. horticulture development, research and
Agriculture

23.
Chapter 4

development in the field of meteorology cotton, rubber, tea, coffee, jute and
and weather forecast. spices our agricultural products
yy To make Agriculture Successful and are not able to compete with the
Profitable: Proper thrust should be given developed countries because of the
to the improvement of the condition of highly subsidised agriculture in those
marginal and small farmers. countries.
yy Indian farmers should diversify their
cropping pattern from cereals to high- Interesting Points:
value crops. This will increase incomes yy Vinobha Bhave: Mahatma Gandhi
and reduce environmental degradation. declared Vinoba Bhave as his spiritual
India’s diverse climate can be harnessed heir. He was one of the votaries of
to grow a wide range of high-value crops. Gandhi’s concept of gram swarajya.
yy Bhoodan: Once, when Vinoba Bhave
Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture: was delivering a lecture at Pochampalli
yy In the nineteenth century when European in Andhra Pradesh, some poor landless
traders came to India, Indian spices villagers demanded some land for
were exported to different countries of their economic well-being. Suddenly,
the world and farmers of south India Shri Ram Chandra Reddy stood up and
were encouraged to grow these crops. offered 80 acres of land to be distributed
yy During the British period cotton belts of among 80 land-less villagers. This act
India attracted the British and ultimately was known as ‘Bhoodan’.
cotton was exported to Britain as a raw yy Gramdan: Some zamindars, owners of
material for their textile industries. many villages offered to distribute some
yy Cotton textile industry in Manchester villages among the landless. It was
and Liverpool flourished due to the known as Gramdan.
availability of good quality cotton from yy The Bhoodan-Gramdan movement
India. initiated by Vinoba Bhave is also known
yy Under globalisation, particularly after as the Blood-less Revolution.
1990, the farmers in India have been yy Genetic engineering is recognised as a
exposed to new challenges. Despite powerful supplement in inventing new
being an important producer of rice, hybrid varieties of seeds.
Agriculture

24.
 5 Minerals and Energy
Resources

Chapter 5
The earth’s crust is made up of different yy Rocks: They are combinations of
minerals embedded in the rocks. homogenous substances called
Various metals are extracted from these minerals. Some rocks such as limestone
minerals after proper refinement. They consist of a single mineral only but
are an indispensable part of the lives of majority of the rock consist of several
human. minerals in varying proportions.
yy A particular mineral that will be
Mineral: formed from a certain combination of
yy Geologists define mineral as a elements depends upon the physical
“homogenous, naturally occurring and chemical conditions under which
substance with a definable internal the material forms. This results in a
structure.” They are found in varied wide range of colours, hardness, crystal
forms in nature ranging from the hardest forms, lustre and density of particular
diamond to the softest talc. minerals.

Fig. 5.1: Classification of Minerals

Mode of Occurrence of Minerals: Forms of Minerals

yy Minerals are usually found in “ores” (ore Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks:
is used to describe an accumulation of yy In igneous and metamorphic rocks,
Minerals and Energy Resources

any mineral mixed with other elements). minerals may occur in the cracks,
yy The mineral content of the ore must be crevices, faults or joints. The smaller
in sufficient concentration to make its occurrences are called veins and the
extraction commercially viable. larger are called lodes.
yy The type of formation or structure yy Mostly they are formed when minerals
determines the relative ease with which in liquid/ molten and gaseous forms are
mineral ores may be mined. forced upward through cavities towards

25.
Chapter 5

the earth’s surface. They cool and yy The common salt, magnesium and
solidify as they rise. bromine are largely derived from ocean
yy Major metallic minerals like tin, copper, waters.
zinc and lead etc. are obtained from yy The ocean beds, too, are rich in
veins and lodes. manganese nodules.

Sedimentary Rocks: Minerals in India:

yy In sedimentary rocks, a number of India is fortunate to have fairly rich and
minerals occur in beds or layers and varied mineral resources which are are
they have been formed as a result unevenly distributed.
of deposition, accumulation and yy The Peninsular rocks contain most of the
concentration in horizontal strata. reserves of coal, metallic minerals, mica
yy Coal and some forms of iron ore have and many other non-metallic minerals.
been concentrated as a result of long Rajasthan with the rock systems of the
periods under great heat and pressure. peninsula, has reserves of many non-
yy Another group of sedimentary minerals ferrous minerals.
include gypsum, potash salt and yy Sedimentary rocks on the western
sodium salt. These are formed as a and eastern flanks of the peninsula, in
result of evaporation especially in arid Gujarat and Assam have most of the
regions. petroleum deposits.
yy The vast alluvial plains of north India are
Decomposition of Surface Rocks and almost devoid of economic minerals.
the Removal of Soluble Constituents: These variations exist largely because
It leave a residual mass of weathered of the differences in the geological
material containing ores. This way is structure, processes and time involved
used to produce Bauxite. in the formation of minerals.

Placer Deposits: Factors Affecting Economic Viability of

yy Certain minerals may occur as alluvial Minerals:
deposits in sands of valley floors and yy The concentration of mineral in the ore.
the base of hills. yy The ease of extraction.
yy Generally it contain minerals which are yy The closeness to the market.
not corroded by water. When this is done a mineral ‘deposit’ or
Minerals and Energy Resources

yy Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most ‘reserve’ turns into a mine.
important among such minerals.
Major Minerals in India
Minerals in Ocean: Ferrous Minerals:
yy The ocean waters contain vast quantities yy It accounts three-fourth of total metallic
of minerals but most of these are too minerals and provide a strong base
widely diffused to be of economic for the development of metallurgical
significance. industries.

26.
 Fig. 5.2: India: Distribution of Iron Ore, Manganese, Bauxite and Mica Chapter 5
Minerals and Energy Resources

yy India exports substantial quantities yy India is rich in good quality iron ores.
of ferrous minerals after meeting her yy Types of Iron Ore:
internal demands. ⚪⚪ Magnetite: It is the finest iron ore
with a very high content of iron up to
Iron Ore: 70 per cent. It has excellent magnetic
yy Its is basic mineral and considered as qualities, especially valuable in the
backbone of the modern industrial electrical industry.
development.

27.
Chapter 5

⚪⚪ Hematite: It is the most important

industrial iron ore in terms of the
quantity used but has a slightly
lower iron content than magnetite.
(50-60 per cent).

Major Iron Ore Belts in India:

yy Odisha-Jharkhand Belt: In Odisha
high grade hematite ore is found in
Badampahar mines in the Mayurbhanj
Fig. 5.3: Production of iron ore
and Kendujhar districts. In the adjoining
Singbhum district of Jharkhand
haematite iron ore is mined in Gua and
Noamundi.
yy Durg-Bastar -Chandrapur belt: It lies
in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. Very
high grade hematites are found in the
Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar
district of Chhattisgarh. The range of
hills super high grade hematite iron
ore. It has the best physical properties
needed for steel making. Iron ore from
these mines is exported to Japan
and South Korea via Vishakhapatnam
Fig. 5.4: Production of Manganese
port.
yy Ballari-Chitradurga-Chikkamagaluru
Tumakuru belt: It lies in Karnataka Manganese:
and has large reserves of iron ore. yy Manganese is mainly used in the
The Kudremukh mines located in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-
Western Ghats of Karnataka are a 100 per manganese alloy. Nearly 10 kg of
cent export unit. Kudremukh deposits manganese is required to manufacture
are known to be one of the largest. The one tonne of steel.
ore is transported as slurry through a yy It is also used in manufacturing bleaching
Minerals and Energy Resources

pipeline to a port near Mangaluru. powder, insecticides and paints.

yy Maharashtra-Goa belt: it includes the Non-Ferrous Minerals:
state of Goa and Ratnagiri district of yy India’s reserves and production of non-
Maharashtra. Though, the ores are not of ferrous minerals is not very satisfactory.
very high quality, yet they are efficiently yy These minerals, which include coppe
exploited. Iron ore is exported through bauxite, lead, zinc and gold play a
Marmagao port. vital role in a number of metallurgical,
engineering and electrical industries.

28.
 Chapter 5
Copper: yy Major bauxite Deposits: They are mainly
yy India is critically deficient in the reserve found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal
and production of copper. hills and the plateau region of Bilaspur-
yy It is mainly used in electrical cables, Katni. Odisha was the largest bauxite
electronics and chemical industries as producing state where the Panchpatmali
copper is malleable, ductile and a good deposits in Koraput district are the most
conductor. important.
yy Leading Producers: The Balaghat mines
in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Non-Metallic Minerals
Rajasthan and Singhbhum district of
Mica:
Jharkhand.
yy Mica is a mineral made up of a series of
plates or leaves and it splits easily into
Bauxite:
thin sheets.
yy Though, several ores contain aluminium,
yy Properties: Excellent di-electric
it is from bauxite, a clay-like substance
strength, low power loss factor,
that alumina and later aluminium is
insulating properties and resistance to
obtained.
high voltage.
yy Bauxite deposits are formed by the
yy Due to such properties mica is one of
decomposition of a wide variety of rocks
the most indispensable minerals used
rich in aluminium silicates.
in electric and electronic industries.
yy Aluminium is an important metal because
yy Important Mica Deposits:
it combines the strength of metals such
⚪⚪ They are are found in the northern
as iron, with extreme lightness and
edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau
also with good conductivity and great
and Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh
malleability.
belt of Jharkhand is the leading
producer.
⚪⚪ In Rajasthan, the major mica
producing area is around Ajmer.
⚪⚪ Nellore mica belt of Andhra Pradesh.

Rock Minerals
Limestone:
Minerals and Energy Resources

yy It is found in association with rocks

composed of calcium carbonates or
calcium and magnesium carbonates.
yy It is found in sedimentary rocks of most
geological formations.
yy It is the basic raw material for the cement
Fig. 5.5: Production of Bauxite
industry and essential for smelting iron
ore in the blast furnace.

29.
Chapter 5

⚪⚪ Improved technologies need to be

constantly evolved to allow use of
low grade ores at low costs.
⚪⚪ Recycling of metals and using scrap
metals and other substitutes.

Energy Resources:
yy Energy can be generated from fuel
minerals like coal, petroleum, natural
gas, uranium and from electricity.
yy Classification of Energy Resources:.
⚪⚪ Conventional Sources: It includes
Fig. 5.6: Production of Limestone
firewood, cattle dung cake, coal,
petroleum, natural gas and electricity
Hazards of Mining: (both hydel and thermal).
yy The dust and noxious fumes inhaled ⚪⚪ Non-Conventional Sources:
by miners make them vulnerable to It includes solar, wind, tidal,
pulmonary diseases. geothermal, biogas and atomic
yy The risk of collapsing mine roofs, energy. Firewood and cattle dung
inundation and fires in coalmines are a cake are most common in rural India.
constant threat to miners.
yy The water sources in the region get Conventional Energy Resources
contaminated due to mining. Coal:
yy Dumping of waste and slurry leads to yy In India, coal is the most abundantly
degradation of land, soil, and increase in available fossil fuel.
stream and river pollution. yy It is used for power generation, fulfil
energy needs to industry as well as for
Conservation of Minerals: domestic needs.
yy Need for Conservation: yy The coal is a bulky material which loses
⚪⚪ Slow Rate of Replenishment: As weight on use as it is reduced to ash.
the geological processes of mineral Hence, heavy industries and thermal
formation are slow. Mineral resources power stations are located on or near
are finite and non-renewable.
Minerals and Energy Resources

the coalfields.
⚪⚪ Continued extraction of ores leads yy In India coal occurs in rock series of two
to increasing costs as mineral main geological ages:
extraction comes from greater ⚪⚪ Gondwana: They are a little over
depths along with decrease in 200 million years in age. They are
quality. metallurgical coal and are located
yy Steps to Conserve Minerals: in Damodar valley (West Bengal and
⚪⚪ Planned and sustainable use of Jharkhand). The important coalfields
resources.

30.
 Chapter 5
are Jharia, Raniganj and Bokaro. The materials for a number of manufacturing
Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha industries.
valleys also contain coal deposits. yy Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal
⚪⚪ Tertiary deposits: These are only industry” for synthetic textile, fertiliser
about 55 million years old and and numerous chemical industries.
occur in the north eastern states yy Occurrence of Petroleum:
of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal ⚪⚪ In India, most of them are associated
Pradesh and Nagaland. with anticlines and fault traps in the
yy It is formed due the compression of rock formations of the tertiary age.
plant material over millions of years In regions of folding, anticlines or
and hence it is found in a variety of domes, it occurs where oil is trapped
forms depending on the degrees of in the crest of the upfold.
compression and the depth and time of ⚪⚪ The oil bearing layer is a porous
burial. limestone or sandstone through
⚪⚪ Peat: It is produced by the decaying which oil may flow.
plants and has a low carbon, high ⚪⚪ The oil is prevented from rising or
moisture contents and low heating sinking by intervening non-porous
capacity. layers.
⚪⚪ Lignite: It is a low grade brown coal ⚪⚪ Petroleum is also found in fault traps
which is soft with high moisture between porous and non-porous
content. The principal lignite rocks. Gas, being lighter usually
reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil occurs above the oil.
Nadu and are used for generation of yy Major Petroleum Production Areas:
electricity. Mumbai High, Gujarat and Assam.
⚪⚪ Bituminous: This coal has been Ankeleshwar is the most important
buried deep and subjected to field of Gujarat and Assam is the
increased temperatures. It is the oldest oil producing state of India.
most popular coal in commercial Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran-Hugrijan
use. Metallurgical coal is high grade are the important oil fields in the
bituminous coal which has a special Assam.
value for smelting iron in blast
furnaces. Natural Gas:
⚪⚪ Anthracite: It is the highest quality yy It is an important clean energy resource
Minerals and Energy Resources

hard coal. found in association with or without

petroleum. It is used as industrial raw
Petroleum: material in the petrochemical industry.
yy The Petroleum or mineral oil is the next yy Environment Friendly: As it has low
major energy source in India after coal. carbon dioxide emissions.
yy It provides fuel for heat and lighting, yy Large reserves of natural gas have been
lubricants for machinery and raw discovered in the Krishna-Godavari
basin.

31.
Chapter 5

yy Along the west coast the reserves of yy The 1700 km long Hazira-Vijaipur-
the Mumbai High and allied fields are Jagdishpur cross country gas pipeline
supplemented by finds in the Gulf of links Mumbai High and Bassien with
Cambay. Andaman and Nicobar islands the fertilizer, power and industrial
also has large reserves of natural complexes in Western and Northern
gas. India.
Minerals and Energy Resources

Fig. 5.7: India: Distribution of Coal, Oil and Natural Gas

32.
 Chapter 5
Electricity: made, much energy is released in the
yy It has such a wide range of applications form of heat and this is used to generate
in today’s world that, its per capita electric power.
consumption is considered as an index yy Uranium and Thorium are available in
of development. Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges of
yy Electricity is generated mainly in two Rajasthan and are used for generating
ways: atomic or nuclear power. The Monazite
⚪⚪ Hydro Electricity: It is is generated sands of Kerala is also rich in
by fast flowing water, which is a Thorium.
renewable resource. India has a
number of multi-purpose projects Solar Energy:
like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar yy Photovoltaic technology converts
Valley corporation, the Kopili Hydel sunlight directly into electricity.
Project etc. producing hydroelectric yy India is a tropical country and has
power. enormous possibilities of tapping solar
⚪⚪ Thermal Electricity: It is generated energy.
by using coal, petroleum and natural yy Some big solar power plants are being
gas. The thermal power stations established in different parts of India
use non-renewable fossil fuels for which will minimise the dependence of
generating electricity. rural households on firewood and dung
cakes, which in turn will contribute
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy to environmental conservation and
Need of Non-Conventional Sources of adequate supply of manure in agriculture.
Energy:
yy Dependence on Fossil Fuels: As there is Wind Power:
growing consumption of energy in the yy India has great potential of wind power.
country. yy The largest wind farm cluster is located
yy Uncertainties about the Security of in Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai.
Energy: Due to rising prices of oil and Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat,
gas and their potential shortages. Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep
yy The usage of fossil fuels also causes have also important wind farms.
serious environmental problems.
Biogas:
Minerals and Energy Resources

There is a pressing need to use

renewable energy sources like solar yy It is produced by shrubs, farm waste,
energy, wind, tide, biomass and energy animal and human waste for domestic
from waste material. These are called consumption in rural areas.
nonconventional energy sources. yy Decomposition of organic matter yields
gas, which has higher thermal efficiency
Nuclear or Atomic Energy: as compared to kerosene, dung cake
yy It is obtained by altering the structure and charcoal.
of atoms. When such an alteration is yy Gobar Gas Plants: The plants which use

33.
Chapter 5

cattle dung in rural India. It provide twin Conservation of Energy Resources:

benefits to the farmer in the form of yy There is an urgent need to develop a
energy and improved quality of manure. sustainable path of energy development.
yy It prevents the loss of trees and manure yy Promotion of energy conservation
due to burning of fuel wood and cow and increased use of renewable
dung cakes. energy sources are the twin planks of
sustainable energy.
Tidal Energy: yy There is a need to adopt a cautious
yy Use of Oceanic Tides: Floodgate dams approach for the judicious use of limited
are built across inlets. During high tide energy resources.
water flows into the inlet and gets
trapped when the gate is closed. After Interesting Points:
the tide falls outside the flood gate, yy Abrasive minerals like silica, limestone,
the water retained by the floodgate aluminium oxide and various phosphate
flows back to the sea via a pipe that minerals do the cleaning in toothpaste.
carries it through a power-generating The sparkle in some toothpastes comes
turbine. from mica.
yy In India the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf yy Fluoride is used to reduce cavities
of Kuchchh in Gujarat on the western comes from a mineral fluorite.
coast and Gangetic delta in Sunderban yy Titanium Oxide: It is used to made
regions of West Bengal provide ideal toothpaste and comes from minerals
conditions for utilising tidal energy. called rutile, ilmenite and anatase.
yy The mineral intake represents only
Geo Thermal Energy: about 0.3 per cent of our total intake of
yy It refers to the heat and electricity nutrients.
produced by using the heat from the yy In Meghalaya, there are large deposits of
interior of the Earth. coal, iron ore, limestone and dolomite
yy Where the geothermal gradient is etc.
high, high temperatures are found at yy Rat-Hole Mining:
shallow depths. Groundwater in such ⚪⚪ Coal mining in Jowai and Cherapunjee
areas absorbs heat from the rocks and is done by family members in the
becomes hot. It is so hot that when form of a long narrow tunnel, known
it rises to the earth’s surface, it turns as ‘Rat hole’ mining.
Minerals and Energy Resources

into steam. This steam is used to drive ⚪⚪ The National Green Tribunal has
turbines and generate electricity. declared such activities illegal.
yy Two Experimental Projets in India: yy Kudre in Kannada means horse. The
Parvati valley near Manikarn in highest peak in the western ghats of
Himachal Pradesh and the Puga Valley, Karnataka resembles the face of a horse.
Ladakh. The Bailadila hills look like the hump of
an ox, and hence its name is Bailadila.

34.
 Chapter 5
Minerals and Energy Resources

Fig. 5.8: India: Distribution of Nuclear and Thermal Power Plants

35.
 6 Manufacturing Industries
Chapter 6

Manufacturing is the Production Relation between Agriculture and

of goods in large quantities after Industry:
processing from raw materials to more yy Agriculture and industry are not
valuable products. People employed in exclusive of each other and move hand in
the secondary activities manufacture hand. For example - The agro-industries
the primary materials into finished in India have given a major boost to
goods such as the workers employed agriculture by raising its productivity.
in steel factories, car, breweries, etc. yy The industries depends on agriculture
The economic strength of a country for raw materials and sell their products
is measured by the development of such as irrigation pumps, fertilisers,
manufacturing industries. insecticides, pesticides, plastic and PVC
pipes, tools, etc.
Importance of Manufacturing: yy Development and competitiveness of
Manufacturing sector is considered the manufacturing industry has assisted
backbone of development in general agriculturists in increasing their
and economic development in particular production and made the production
mainly because: processes very efficient.
yy Manufacturing industries help in
modernising agriculture and reduce Contribution of Industry to National
the heavy dependence of people on Economy:
agricultural income by providing them yy In last two decades, the share of
jobs in secondary and tertiary sectors. manufacturing sector has stagnated at
yy Industrial development is a precondition 17 per cent of GDP – out of a total of 27
for eradication of unemployment per cent for the industry which includes
and poverty from India. This was the 10 per cent for mining, quarrying,
main philosophy behind public sector electricity and gas.
industries and joint sector ventures in yy This is much lower in comparison to
India. It was aimed at bringing down some East Asian economies, where it is
regional disparities by establishing 25 to 35 per cent.
industries in tribal and backward areas. yy Since 2003, manufacturing is growing
yy Export of manufactured goods expands at the rate of 9 to 10 per cent per
trade and commerce, and brings in annum.
much needed foreign exchange.
yy Countries that transform their raw Industrial Location:
materials into a wide variety of finished yy Industrial locations are complex in
Manufacturing Industries

goods of higher value are prosperous. nature and are influenced by availability
India’s prosperity lies in increasing and of raw material, labour, capital, power
diversifying its manufacturing industries and market, etc.
as quickly as possible.

36.
 Chapter 6
Fig: 6.2: Ideal Location for industries

yy In the Pre-Independence period, most

manufacturing units were located
in places from the point of view of
Fig: 6.1: Industry – Market Linkage overseas trade such as Mumbai, Kolkata,
Chennai, etc. Consequently, there
emerged certain pockets of industrially
yy It is rarely possible to find all these
developed urban centres surrounded by
factors available at one place.
a huge agricultural rural hinterland.
Consequently, manufacturing activity
tends to locate at the most appropriate
Classification of Industries
place where all the factors of industrial
location are either available or can be On the Basis of Source of Raw Materials
arranged at lower cost. Used:
yy The industrialisation and urbanisation yy Agro Based: Cotton, woollen, jute, silk
go hand in hand. Cities provide markets textile, rubber and sugar, tea, coffee,
and also provide services such as edible oil.
banking, insurance, transport, labour, yy Mineral Based: Iron and steel,
consultants and financial advice, etc to cement, aluminium, machine tools,
the industry. petrochemicals.
yy Many industries tend to come together
to make use of the advantages offered According to their main role:
by the urban centres known as yy Basic or key Industries: These are those
agglomeration economies. Gradually, which supply their products as raw
a large industrial agglomeration takes materials to manufacture other goods
place. e.g. iron and steel and copper smelting,
yy The key to decision of the factory aluminum smelting.
Manufacturing Industries

location is the least cost. Government yy Consumer Industries: They produce

policies and specialised labour also goods for direct use by consumers
influence the location of industry. – sugar, toothpaste, paper, sewing
machines, fans etc.

37.
Chapter 6

On the Basis of Capital Investment: proportionately. For example - The

yy A Small Scale industry: It is defined with sugar industry in Maharashtra, the coir
reference to the maximum investment industry in Kerala.
allowed on the assets of a unit. At
present the maximum investment Based on the Bulk and Weight of Raw
allowed is rupees one crore. Material and Finished Goods:
yy Heavy industries such as iron and steel.
On the Basis of Ownership: yy Light industries that use light raw
yy Public Sector: They are owned and materials and produce light goods such
operated by government agencies such as electrical goods industries.
as BHEL, SAIL etc.
yy Private Sector Industries: They are Agro-Based Industries:
owned and operated by individuals or a Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar
group of individuals such as TISCO, Bajaj and edible oil, etc. industries are based
Auto Ltd., Dabur Industries. on agricultural raw materials.
yy Joint Sector Industries: They are jointly
run by the state and individuals or a Textile Industry:
group of individuals such as Oil India yy It contributes significantly to industrial
Ltd. (OIL). production, employment generation and
yy Cooperative Sector industries: They are foreign exchange earnings.
owned and operated by the producers yy It is the only industry in India which is
or suppliers of raw materials, workers self-reliant and complete in the value
or both. They pool in the resources chain i.e., from raw material to the
and share the profits or losses highest value added products.
Manufacturing Industries

Fig. 6.3: Value addition in the textile industry

Cotton Textiles: yy After the 18th century, power-looms came

yy In ancient India, cotton textiles were into use and our traditional industries
produced with hand spinning and suffered a setback during the colonial
handloom weaving techniques. period because they could not compete

38.
 Chapter 6
with the mill-made cloth from England. yy Most of the mills are located in West
yy In the early years, the cotton textile Bengal mainly along the banks of the
industry was concentrated in the Hugli river in a narrow belt. The main
cotton growing belt of Maharashtra and factors responsible for their location in
Gujarat due to availability of raw cotton, the Hugli basin are:
market, transport including accessible ⚪⚪ Availability of Inputs: Proximity
port facilities, labour, moist climate, etc. of the jute producing areas and
yy This industry has close links with abundant water for processing raw
agriculture and provides a living to jute.
farmers, cotton boll pluckers and ⚪⚪ Transportation: There is inexpensive
workers engaged in ginning, spinning, water transport which is supported
weaving, dyeing, designing, packaging, by a good network of railways,
tailoring and sewing. roadways and waterways to facilitate
yy The industry by creating demands movement of raw material to the
supports many other industries, such mills.
as, chemicals and dyes, packaging ⚪⚪ Availability of Labour: There is
materials and engineering works. cheap labour from West Bengal and
yy Exporting areas: India exports yarn to adjoining states of Bihar, Odisha and
Japan and other cotton goods to U.S.A., Uttar Pradesh.
U.K., Russia, etc. ⚪⚪ Infrastructure: Kolkata as a large
urban centre provides banking,
Issues with Cotton Textile Industry: insurance and port facilities for
yy Mismatch between demand and supply: export of jute goods.
Most of the production is in fragmented Challenges faced by the Industry:
small units which cater to the local It Includes stiff competition in the
market. As a result, many of spinners international market from synthetic
export cotton yarn while apparel/ substitutes and from other competitors
garment manufactures have to import like Bangladesh, Brazil, Philippines,
fabric. Egypt and Thailand. To stimulate
yy Power supply is erratic and machinery is demand, the products need to be
outdated in the weaving and processing diversified.
sectors. Opportunities: The growing global
yy There is low output of labour. concern for environment friendly,
yy It has stiff competition with the biodegradable materials, has opened
synthetic fibre industry. the opportunity for jute products.
Manufacturing Industries

The internal demand has been on

Jute Textiles: the increase due to the Government
yy India is the largest producer of raw jute policy of mandatory use of jute
and jute goods and stands at second packaging.
place as an exporter after Bangladesh.

39.
Chapter 6

Fig. 6.4: Distribution of cotton, woollen and silk industries in India

Manufacturing Industries

Sugar Industry: yy The raw material used in this industry is

yy India is the second largest producer of bulky and its sucrose content reduces
sugar and occupies the first place in in haulage.
the production of gur and khandsari.

40.
 Chapter 6
yy This industry is seasonal in nature and industry, old and inefficient methods of
it is ideally suited to the cooperative production, transport delay in reaching
sector. cane to factories and the need to
yy In recent years, there is a tendency for maximise the use of baggase.
the mills to shift and concentrate in the
southern and western states, especially Mineral-based Industries:
in Maharashtra because: These are the industries that use
⚪⚪ The cane produced has a higher minerals and metals as raw materials.
sucrose content.
⚪⚪ The cooler climate ensures a longer Iron and Steel Industry:
crushing season. yy The iron and steel industry is the basic
⚪⚪ The cooperatives are more industry since all the other industries
successful in these states. (heavy, medium and light) depend on it
yy Location of Mills: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, for their machinery.
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, yy It is a heavy industry because all the
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Punjab, raw materials as well as finished goods
Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. Sixty per are heavy and bulky entailing heavy
cent mills are located in Uttar Pradesh transportation costs.
and Bihar. yy Production and consumption of steel
yy Major Challenges: The challenges is often regarded as the index of a
include: the seasonal nature of the country’s development.

Fig. 6.5: Process of Manufacture of Steel

Manufacturing Industries

yy Iron ore, coking coal and lime stone are yy Steel is needed to manufacture a variety
required in the ratio of approximately of engineering goods, construction
4 : 2 : 1 to manufacture steel. Some material, defence, medical, telephonic,
quantities of manganese, are also scientific equipment and a variety of
required to harden the steel. consumer goods.

41.
Chapter 6

yy The per capita consumption of steel is yy Maximum concentration of Iron

low in India as compared to the world. and Steel industries: It is found in
yy In 2018, India ranked 2nd among the Chhotanagpur plateau because low cost
world crude steel producers and is the of iron ore, high grade raw materials in
largest producer of sponge iron. proximity, cheap labour and vast growth
yy China is the largest producer as well as potential in the home market.
largest consumer of steel.
Manufacturing Industries

Fig. 6.6: Iron and Steel Plants in India

42.
 Chapter 6
Unrealised Potential of India: yy Properties: It is light, resistant to
India is not able to perform to its full corrosion, a good conductor of heat,
potential due to: malleable and becomes strong when it
yy High costs and limited availability of is mixed with other metals.
coking coal. yy Regular supply of electricity and an
yy Lower productivity of labour. assured source of raw material at
yy Irregular supply of energy. minimum cost are the two prime factors
yy Poor infrastructure. for location of the industry.
yy Bauxite, the raw material used in the
Aluminium Smelting: smelters is a very bulky, dark reddish
yy Aluminium smelting is the second most coloured rock.
important metallurgical industry in
India.

Fig. 6.7: Process of Manufacturing in Aluminium Industry

yy It is used to manufacture aircraft, Chemical Industries:

utensils and wires. yy The Chemical industry in India is fast
yy It has gained popularity as a substitute growing and diversifying. It comprises
of steel, copper, zinc and lead in a both large and small scale manufacturing
number of industries. units.
Manufacturing Industries

yy Location of Aluminium Smelting Plants: yy The chemical industry is its own largest
Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar consumer. Basic chemicals undergo
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra and processing to further produce other
Tamil Nadu. chemicals that are used for industrial

43.
Chapter 6

application, agriculture or directly for dams and for other commercial

consumer markets. establishments.
yy Classification of Chemicals: yy This industry requires bulky and heavy
⚪⚪ Inorganic Chemicals: It includes raw materials like limestone, silica and
sulphuric acid (used to manufacture gypsum.
fertilizers, synthetic fibres, plastics, yy Coal, electric power and rail
adhesives, paints, dyes stuffs), nitric transportation are crucial for cement
acid, alkalies, soda ash (used to make industry.
glass, soaps and detergents, paper) yy The cement industry has strategically
and caustic soda. These industries located plants in Gujarat that have
are widely spread over the country. suitable access to the market in the
⚪⚪ Organic Chemicals: It includes Gulf countries.
petrochemicals, which are used for
manufacturing of synthetic fibers, Automobile Industry:
synthetic rubber, plastics, dye-stuffs, yy Automobiles provide vehicle for
drugs and pharmaceuticals. Organic quick transport of good services and
chemical plants are located near oil passengers.
refineries or petrochemical plants. yy Trucks, buses, cars, motor cycles,
scooters, three-wheelers and multi-
Fertilizer Industry: utility vehicles are manufactured in
yy The fertilizer industry is centred around India at various centres.
the production of nitrogenous fertilizers yy The liberalisation has led to the healthy
(mainly urea), phosphatic fertilizers growth of the industry.
and ammonium phosphate (DAP) yy Location of Industries: Delhi,
and complex fertilizers which have a Gurugram, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai,
combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore, Hyderabad,
(P), and potash (K). Jamshedpur and Bengaluru.
yy The potash is entirely imported as
India does not have any reserves Information Technology and Electronics
of commercially usable potash or Industry:
potassium compounds in any form. yy The electronics industry covers a wide
yy Fetilizer Producting States: Gujarat, range of products such as transistor sets,
Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and television, cellular telecom, telephone
Kerala contribute half of India’s fertilizer exchange, radars, computers etc.
production. yy Bengaluru has emerged as the electronic
Manufacturing Industries

capital of India.
Cement Industry: yy Important Centres for Electronic
yy Cement is essential for construction Goods: Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad,
activity such as building houses, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow and
factories, bridges, roads, airports, Coimbatore.

44.
 Chapter 6
yy A major impact of this industry has plants is drained into rivers and ponds
been on employment generation. The before cooling.
continuing growth in the hardware and
software is the key to the success of IT Noise Pollution:
industry in India. yy It causes irritation, anger, hearing
impairment, increased heart rate
Industrial Pollution and Environmental and blood pressure among other
Degradation physiological effects.
Air Pollution: yy Unwanted sound is an irritant and a
yy It is caused by the presence of high source of stress.
proportion of undesirable gases and yy It is also created by the Industrial and
unwanted particles such as sulphur construction activities, machinery,
dioxide and carbon monoxide. generators, etc.
yy Airborne particulate materials contain
both solid and liquid particles like dust, Control of Environmental Degradation
sprays mist and smoke. Ways to Reduce the Industrial Pollution
yy Toxic gas leaks can be very hazardous of Fresh Water:
with long-term effects. yy Minimising use of water for processing
by reusing and recycling it in two or
Water Pollution: more successive stages.
yy It is caused by organic and inorganic yy Harvesting of rainwater to meet water
industrial wastes and affluents requirements.
discharged into rivers. yy Treating hot water and effluents before
yy Major Polluting Industries: Paper, pulp, releasing them in rivers and ponds.
chemical, textile and dyeing, petroleum Treatment of industrial effluents can be
refineries, tanneries and electroplating done in three phases:
industries. ⚪⚪ Primary Treatment: It is done by
yy The polluting industries let out dyes, mechanical means and involves
detergents, acids, salts and heavy screening, grinding, flocculation and
metals like lead and mercury pesticides, sedimentation.
fertilisers, synthetic chemicals with ⚪⚪ Secondary Treatment: It is done by
carbon, plastics and rubber, etc. into biological process.
the water bodies. ⚪⚪ Tertiary Treatment: It is done by
yy Fly ash, phospo- gypsum and iron and biological, chemical and physical
steel slags are the major solid wastes processes and involves recycling of
Manufacturing Industries

in India. wastewater.
yy There is a need to regulate overdrawing
Thermal Pollution: of ground water reserves by
Thermal pollution of water occurs when industry.
hot water from factories and thermal

45.
Chapter 6

Other ways of Reducing Pollution: area went to Bangladesh (erstwhile East

yy To reduce Air Pollution: Pakistan).
⚪⚪ Particulate matter in the air can be yy The first cement plant was set up in
reduced by fitting smoke stacks Chennai in 1904.
to factories with electrostatic yy Mini Steel Plants: They are smaller,
precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers have electric furnaces, use steel scrap
and inertial separators. and sponge iron. They have re-rollers
⚪⚪ Smoke can be reduced by using oil that use steel ingots as well. They
or gas instead of coal in factories. produce mild and alloy steel of given
yy To reduce Noise Pollution: specifications.
⚪⚪ Machinery and equipment can be yy An integrated steel plant is large,
used and generators should be fitted handles everything in one complex –
with silencers. Almost all machinery from putting together raw material to
can be redesigned to increase energy steel making, rolling and shaping.
efficiency and reduce noise. yy Every litre of waste water discharged
⚪⚪ Noise absorbing material may be by our industry pollutes eight times the
used. quantity of freshwater.
yy NTPC is a major power providing
Interesting Points: corporation in India. It has ISO
yy The first successful textile mill was certification for EMS (Environment
established in Mumbai in 1854. Management System) 14001.
yy The first jute mill was set up near yy The challenge of sustainable
Kolkata in 1855 at Rishra. After Partition development requires integration
in 1947, the jute mills remained in India of economic development with
but three-fourth of the jute producing environmental concerns.
Manufacturing Industries

46.
 7 Lifelines of National Economy

Chapter 7
The pace of development of a country Means of Transport:
depends upon the production of goods Movement of goods and services can be
and services as well as their movement over three important domains of earth
over space. Therefore, efficient means i.e. land, water and air. Based on these,
of transport are prerequisites for fast transport can also be classified into
development. land, water and air transport.

Fig. 7.1: Means of Transportation

Relation between Transport and Trade: Importance of Road transport vis-à-vis

yy Transport has been able to connect Rail transport:
villages, towns, cities and countries yy Low Construction cost: The Construction
globally with the help of equally cost of roads is much lower than that of
developed communication system. railway lines.
Therefore, transport, communication yy Ease of Movement:
and trade are complementary to each ⚪⚪ Roads can traverse comparatively
other. more dissected and undulating
yy A dense and efficient network of topography.
transport and communication is a ⚪⚪ Roads can negotiate higher gradients
prerequisite for local, national and global of slopes and can traverse mountains
trade. such as the Himalayas.
yy The modern means of transport and yy Economicial for short distance: Road
communication serve as lifelines of transport is economical in transportation
Lifelines of National Economy

India. of few persons and relatively

smaller amount of goods over short
Roadways: distances.
India has one of the largest road yy Low Handling Cost: It provides door-to-
networks in the world, aggregating to door service, thus the cost of loading
about 56 lakh km. In India, roadways and unloading is much lower.
have preceded railways.

47.
Chapter 7

yy Feeder to other modes of Transport: road development project linking Delhi-

Road transport provides a link between Kolkata-Chennai-Mumbai and Delhi by
railway stations, air and sea ports. six-lane Super Highways.
yy It includes:
Classification of Roads according to ⚪⚪ The North-South corridors linking
their Capacity: Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and
In India, roads are classified in the Kanniyakumari (Tamil Nadu).
following six classes. ⚪⚪ The East-West Corridor connecting
Silchar (Assam) and Porbander
Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways: (Gujarat).
yy The government has launched a major
Lifelines of National Economy

Fig. 7.2: National Highways

48.
 Chapter 7
yy Major Objective: To reduce the time and ⚪⚪ Under this scheme special provisions
distance between the mega cities of are made so that every village in the
India. country is linked to a major town
yy Implementing Agency: The National in the country by an all season
Highway Authority of India (NHAI). motorable road.

National Highways: Border Roads:

yy It links extreme parts of India and are yy The Border Roads Organisation
the primary road systems. (Government of India undertaking)
yy These are laid and maintained by the constructs and maintains roads in the
Central Public Works Department bordering areas of India.
(CPWD). ⚪⚪ This organisation was established
yy A number of major National Highways in 1960 for the development of the
run in North-South and East-West roads of strategic importance in the
directions. Northern and North-Eastern border
yy The historical Sher-Shah Suri Marg is areas.
called National Highway No.1, between yy These roads have improved accessibility
Delhi and Amritsar. in areas of difficult terrain and have
helped in the economic development of
State Highways: these area.
yy These are roads linking a state capital
with different district headquarters. Railways:
yy These roads are constructed and yy Railways are the principal mode
maintained by the State Public Works of transportation for freight and
Department (PWD) in State and Union passengers in India.
Territories. yy It make it possible for people to
conduct multifarious activities like
District Roads: business, sightseeing, pilgrimage along
yy These roads connect the district with transportation of goods over longer
headquarters with other places of the distances.
district. yy Railway has been considered great
yy These roads are maintained by the Zila integrating force for more than 150
Parishad. years.
Lifelines of National Economy

yy Railways in India bind the economic

Other Roads: life of India as well as accelerate
yy These includes rural roads, which link the development of the industry and
rural areas and villages with towns. agriculture.
yy These roads received special impetus yy The Indian Railway is now reorganised
under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen into 16 zones. (According to NCERT).
Sadak Yojana.

49.
Chapter 7

Distribution Pattern of the Railway Pipelines:

Network in India: yy Pipeline transport network is a new
It has been largely influenced arrival on the transportation map of
by physiographic, economic and India.
administrative factors. yy Apart from water transportation it has
yy The Northern Plains: It has vast level been now used for transporting crude
land, high population density and rich oil, petroleum products and natural
agricultural resources which provides gas from oil and natural gas fields to
the most favourable condition for their refineries, fertilizer factories and big
growth. However, a large number of thermal power plants.
rivers requiring construction of bridges yy Solids can also be transported through
across their wide beds posed some a pipeline when converted into
obstacles. slurry.
yy The Hilly Terrains of the Peninsular yy The far inland locations of refineries
Region: The railway tracts are laid like Barauni, Mathura, Panipat and gas
through low hills, gaps or tunnels. based fertilizer plants could be thought
yy The Himalayan Mountainous Regions: of only because of pipelines.
It is unfavourable for the construction yy Initial cost of lying pipelines is very high
of railway lines due to high relief, but but subsequent running costs are
sparse population and lack of economic minimal. It rules out trans-shipment
opportunities. losses or delays.
yy Konkan Railway: It lies along the west
coast and has facilitated the movement Three important Networks of Pipeline
of passengers and goods in this most Transportation in India:
important economic region of India. It yy From oil field in Upper Assam to Kanpur
has also faced a number of problem such (Uttar Pradesh): It passes through
as sinking of track in some stretches Guwahati, Barauni and Allahabad. It has
and landslides. branches from Barauni to Haldia, via
yy Other areas with difficulty to lay Railway Rajbandh, Rajbandh to Maurigram and
Lines: On the sandy plain of western Guwahati to Siliguri.
Rajasthan, swamps of Gujarat, forested yy From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in
tracks of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Punjab: It passes through Viramgam,
Odisha and Jharkhand. Mathura, Delhi and Sonipat. It has
Lifelines of National Economy

branches to connect Koyali (near

Challenges for Railways: Vadodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and other
yy Many passengers travel without tickets. places.
yy Thefts and damaging of railway property. yy Gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat
yy People stop the trains and pull the connects Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh:
chain unnecessarily which cause heavy It passes through Vijaipur in Madhya
damage to the railway. Pradesh. It has branches to Kota in

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 Chapter 7
Rajasthan, Shahajahanpur, Babrala and Major Ports:
other places in Uttar Pradesh. yy With a long coastline of 7,516.6 km, India
is dotted with 13 major and 200 notified
Waterways: non-majors (minor/intermediate) ports.
yy Advantages: yy These major ports handle 95 per cent of
⚪⚪ Waterways are the cheapest means India’s foreign trade.
of transport.
⚪⚪ They are most suitable for carrying Ports on Western Coast:
heavy and bulky goods. yy Kandla in Kuchchh:
⚪⚪ It is a fuel-efficient and environment ⚪⚪ It was the first port developed soon
friendly mode of transport. after Independence to ease the
yy India has inland navigation waterways of volume of trade on the Mumbai port
14,500 km in length. Out of these only , in the wake of loss of Karachi port
5685 km are navigable by mechanised to Pakistan after the Partition.
vessels. ⚪⚪ It is also known as the Deendayal
Port and is a tidal port.
National Waterways (NW) of India: ⚪⚪ It caters to the convenient handling
yy NW No 1: The Ganga river between of exports and imports of highly
Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km). productive granary and industrial
yy NW No 2: The Brahmaputra river belt stretching across the states
between Sadiya and Dhubri (891 km). of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
yy NW No 3: The West-Coast Canal in Kerala Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan
(Kottapurma-Kollam, Udyogamandal and Gujarat.
and Champakkara canals-205 km). yy Mumbai: It is the biggest port with a
yy NW No 4: Specified stretches of Godavari spacious natural and well-sheltered
and Krishna rivers along with Kakinada harbour.
Puducherry stretch of canals (1078 yy The Jawaharlal Nehru Port: It was
km). planned with a view to decongest the
yy NW No 5: Specified stretches of river Mumbai port and serve as a hub port for
Brahmani along with Matai river, delta this region.
channels of Mahanadi and Brahmani yy Marmagao Port (Goa): It is the premier
rivers and East Coast Canal (588 km). iron ore exporting port of India and
yy Some other inland water ways on which accounts for about fifty per cent of
Lifelines of National Economy

substantial transportation takes place India’s iron ore export.

are Mandavi, Zuari and Cumberjua, yy New Mangalore Port (Karnataka):
Sunderbans, Barak and backwaters of It caters to the export of iron ore
Kerala. concentrates from Kudremukh mines.
yy Kochchi: It is the extreme south-
western port, located at the entrance
of a lagoon with a natural harbour.

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Chapter 7

Ports on Eastern Coast: yy Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd: It provides

yy Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu): helicopter services to Oil and Natural
⚪⚪ It is extreme south-eastern port Gas Corporation in its off-shore
and has a natural harbour and rich operations, to inaccessible areas and
hinterland. difficult terrains like the north-eastern
⚪⚪ It has a flourishing trade handling states and the interior parts of Jammu
of a large variety of cargoes to even and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and
neighbouring countries like Sri Uttarakhand.
Lanka, Maldives, etc. and the coastal yy Issues: Air travel is not within the reach
regions of India. of the common people.
yy Chennai: It is one of the oldest artificial
ports of India and is ranked next to Communication:
Mumbai in terms of the volume of trade yy There are different means of
and cargo. communication and the pace of change
yy Vishakhapatnam: It is the deepest has been rapid in modern times.
landlocked and well-protected port. It yy Long distance communication is far
was originally conceived as an outlet for easier without physical movement of
iron ore exports. the communicator or receiver.
yy Paradwip Port (Odisha): It specialises in yy Personal communication and mass
the export of iron ore. communication including television,
yy Kolkata: It is an inland riverine port and radio, press, films, etc. are the major
serves a very large and rich hinterland of means of communication in the country.
Ganga-Brahmaputra basin. It is a tidal yy The Indian postal network is the largest
port and requires constant dredging of in the world.
Hoogly. ⚪⚪ It handles parcels as well as personal
yy Haldia Port: It was developed as a written communications.
subsidiary port in order to relieve ⚪⚪ First-class Mail: These are cards and
growing pressure on the Kolkata port. envelopes and are airlifted between
stations covering both land and air.
Airways: ⚪⚪ Second-class Mail: It includes book
yy The air travel is the fastest, most packets, registered newspapers
comfortable and prestigious mode of and periodicals. They are carried
transport. by surface mail, covering land and
Lifelines of National Economy

yy It can cover very difficult terrains like water transport.

high mountains, dreary deserts, dense ⚪⚪ To facilitate quick delivery of mails
forests and also long oceanic stretches in large towns and cities, six mail
with great ease. channels have been introduced
yy The air transport was nationalised in recently. They are called Rajdhani
1953. Channel, Metro Channel, Green
yy Air India: It provides domestic and Channel, Business Channel, Bulk
international air services. Mail Channel and Periodical Channel.

52.
 Chapter 7
Telecom: International Trade:
yy India has one of the largest telecom yy International Trade: It is the exchange
networks in Asia. Excluding urban places of goods between two countries which
more than two-thirds of the villages may take place through sea, air or land
in India have already been covered routes.
with Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD) yy Advancement of international trade of
telephone facility. a country is an index to its economic
yy The government has made special prosperity. It is, therefore, considered
provision to extend twenty-four hours the economic barometer for a
STD facility to every village in the country country.
to strengthen flow of information from yy Export and import are the components
grassroot level to higher level. of trade.
yy There is a uniform rate of STD facilities ⚪⚪ Balance of Trade of a country: It is
all over India. the difference between its export
yy It has been made possible by integrating and import.
the development in space technology ⚪⚪ Favourable Balance of Trade: When
with communication technology. the value of export exceeds the
value of imports.
Mass Communication: ⚪⚪ Unfavourable Balance of Trade: If
yy It provides entertainment and creates the value of imports exceeds the
awareness among people about various value of exports.
national programmes and policies. yy Commodities exported from India:
yy It includes radio, television, newspapers, Gems and jewellery, chemicals and
magazines, books and films. related products, agriculture and allied
yy All India Radio (Akashwani): It products, etc.
broadcasts a variety of programmes in yy Commodities imported to India:
national, regional and local languages Petroleum crude and products, gems
for various categories of people. and jewellery, chemicals and related
yy Doordarshan, the national television products, base metals, electronic
channel of India, is one of the largest items, machinery, agriculture and allied
terrestrial networks in the world. products.
yy India publishes a large number of
newspapers and periodicals annually. Tourism as a Trade:
Lifelines of National Economy

Newspapers are published in about 100 yy More than 15 million people are directly
languages and dialects. engaged in the tourism industry.
yy India is the largest producer of feature yy Tourism promotes national integration,
films in the world. The Central Board provides support to local handicrafts
of Film Certification is the authority and cultural pursuits.
to certify both Indian and foreign yy Foreign tourists visit India for heritage
films. tourism, eco tourism, adventure tourism,

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cultural tourism, medical tourism and yy Digital India Programme:

business tourism. ⚪⚪ It is an umbrella programme to
prepare India for a knowledge based
Interesting Points: transformation.
yy The Indian Railways is the largest public ⚪⚪ Its focus is on being transformative
sector undertaking in the country. to realise – IT (Indian Talent) +
yy The first train steamed off from Mumbai IT (Information Technology)=IT
to Thane in 1853, covering a distance of (India Tomorrow) and is on making
34 km. technology central to enabling
change.
Lifelines of National Economy

54.