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UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO WEARABLE SYSTEMS AND

SENSORS
Wearable Systems- Introduction, Need for Wearable Systems, Drawbacks
of Conventional Systems for Wearable Monitoring, Applications of
Wearable Systems, Types of Wearable Systems, Components of wearable
Systems. Sensors for wearable systems-Inertia movement sensors,
Respiration activity sensor, Inductive plethysmography, Impedance
plethysmography, pneumography, Wearable ground reaction force
sensor.

Chapter 1
Wearable Systems- Introduction
Wearable technology is any kind of electronic device designed to be worn
on the user's body. Such devices can take many different forms, including
jewelry, accessories, medical devices, and clothing or elements of
clothing. The term wearable computing implies processing or
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communications capabilities, but in reality, the sophistication among
wearables can vary.

The most sophisticated examples of wearable technology

include artificial intelligence (AI) hearing aids, Google Glass and
Microsoft's HoloLens, and a holographic computer in the form of a virtual
reality (VR) headset. An example of a less complex form of wearable
technology is a disposable skin patch with sensors that transmit patient
data wirelessly to a control device in a healthcare facility.

Need for wearables

Fundamentally, wearables can perform the following basic functions or
unit operations
• Sense
• Process (Analyze)
• Store

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• Transmit
• Apply (Utilize)
Of course, the specifics of each function will depend on the application
domain and the
wearer, and all the processing may occur actually on the individual or at
a remote location
(e.g., command and control center for first responders, fans watching the
race, or viewers
enjoying the mountaineer’s view from the Mount Everest base camp).

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Figure 2 is a schematic representation of the unit operations associated

with obtaining and
processing situational data using wearables. For example, if dangerous
gases are detected by a wearable on a first responder, the data can be
processed in the wearable and an alert issued. Simultaneously, it may be
transmitted to a remote location for confirmatory testing and the results –
along with any appropriate response (i.e., put on a gas mask) – can be
communicated to the user in real-time to potentially save a life . This same

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philosophy can also be used by an avid gamer who might change his
strategy depending on what “weapons” are available to him and how his
opponents are performing. Each of these scenarios requires personalized
mobile information processing, which can transform the sensory data into
information and then to knowledge that will be of value to the individual
responding to the situation. While wearables are being used in many
fields, as discussed, this chapter will focus primarily on wearables in the
healthcare domain. Wearables provide an unobtrusive way to
longitudinally monitor an individual – not just during the day but, over
the individual’s life-time. Such an expansive view of the individual will
be valuable in detecting changes over time and help in early detection of
problems and diseases leading to preemptive care and hence, a better
quality of life. Inferring the potential of wearables in other application
domains should be straightforward and can be accomplished by
instantiating the fundamental principles and concepts presented here.
Attributes of wearables
A sensor is defined as “a device used to detect, locate, or quantify energy
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or matter, giving a signal for the detection of a physical or chemical
property to which the device responds”. Not all sensors are necessarily
wearable, but all wearables, as discussed earlier and shown in Figure 2,
must have sensing capabilities. The key attributes required of an ideal
wearable are shown in Figure 4. From a physical standpoint, the wearable
must be lightweight and the form factor should be variable to suit the
wearer. For instance, if the form factor of the wearable to monitor the vital
signs of an infant prone to sudden infant death syndrome prevents the
infant from (physically) lying down properly, it could have significant
negative implications. The same would apply to an avid gamer – if the
form factor interferes with her ability to play “naturally,” the less likely
that she would be to adopt or use the technology. Esthetics also plays a
key role in the acceptance and use of any device or technology. This is
especially important when the device is also seen by others i.e., the
essence of fashion. Therefore, if the wearable on a user is likely to be
visible to others, it should be esthetically pleasing and, optionally, even
make a fashion statement while meeting its functionality. In fact, with

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wearables increasingly becoming an integral part of everyday lives, the

sociological facets of the acceptance of wearables open up exciting
avenues for research. Ideally, a wearable should become such an integral
part of the wearer’s clothing or accessories that it becomes a “natural”
extension of the individual and “disappears” for all intents and purposes.
It must have the flexibility to be shape-conformable to suit the desired
end-use; in short, it should behave like the human skin. The wearable must
also have the multifunctional capability and be easily configurable for the
desired end-use application. Wearables with single functionality (e.g.,
measuring just the heart rate) are useful, but in practical applications,
more than one parameter is typically monitored; and, having multiple
wearables – one for each function or data stream – would make the
individual look like a cyborg and deter their use even if the multiple data
streams could be effectively managed. The wearable’s responsiveness is
critical, especially when used for real-time data acquisition and control
(e.g., monitoring a first responder in a smoke-filled scene). Therefore, it
must be “always on.” Finally, it must have sufficient data bandwidth to
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enable the degree of interactivity, which is key to its successful use.
Finally, wearables can be classified based on their field of application,
which can range from health and wellness monitoring to position tracking.
“Information processing” is listed as one of the application areas because
many of these traditional functions such as processing e-mail can now be
done on a wearable in the form of a wristwatch. It is important to note that
not all the classes are mutually exclusive. For instance, a wearable can be
multifunctional, active, noninvasive, and be reusable for health
monitoring. The proposed taxonomy serves two key functions: First, it
helps in classifying the currently available wearables so that the
appropriate ones can be selected depending upon the operating
constraints; second, it helps in identifying opportunities for the design and
development of newer wearables with performance attributes for sp ecific
areas that need to be addressed.

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Taxonomy for wearables

Figure 5 shows the proposed taxonomy for wearables. To begin with, they
can be classified as a single function or multifunctional. They can also be
classified as invasive or noninvasive. Invasive wearables (sensors) can be
further classified as minimally invasive, those that penetrate the skin
(subcutaneous) to obtain the www.EnggTree.com
signals, or as an implantable, such as a
pacemaker. Implantable sensors require a hospital procedure to be put into
place inside the body. Noninvasive wearables may or may not be in
physical contact with the body; the ones not in contact could either be
monitoring the individual or the ambient environment (e.g., a camera for
capturing the scene around the wearer or a gas sensor for detecting
harmful gases in the area). Noninvasive sensors are typically used in
systems for continuous monitoring because their use does not require
extensive intervention from a healthcare professional.
Wearables can also be classified as active or passive depending upon
whether or not they need the power to operate; pulse oximetry sensors fall
into the former, while a temperature probe is an example of a passive
wearable that does not require its power to operate. Yet another view of
wearables is the mode in which the signals are transmitted for processing
wired or wireless. In the former, the signals are transmitted over a physical
data bus to a processor; in the wireless class of wearables, the

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communications capability is built into it, which transmits the signals

wirelessly to a monitoring unit.

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Components of wearable Systems.

The main components of wearable devices are as follows

1. Control
Wearable-specific microcontrollers are small, so as to be comfortable and
discrete. On the other hand, the distinctive shapes and colors can function
as a decorative element. Several of the boards available are hand-
washable (minus the power source). Read the documentation carefully.

2. Input/Output
In place of pins, these boards have metal eyelets which you can loop
conductive thread through to sew soft circuit connections. Some boards
also have snaps — or eyelets large enough to solder on snaps — for easy
removal.

3. Conductive Textiles
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A material containing metals, such as silver or stainless steel, through
which an electrical current can flow is said to be conductive. Wearable
systems can make use of these materials in a variety of ways, such as:
 Thread for making circuits
 Fabric for capacitive touch sensors
 Hook-and-loop for switches

4. Sensors
Sensors gather information about the environment, the user, or both.
Examples of the former include light, temperature, motion (ACC), and
location (GPS). Examples of the latter include heart rate (ECG), brain
waves (EEG), and muscle tension (EMG). A few wearable
microcontrollers have basic sensors onboard. Other manufacturers offer a
range of external sensor modules that connect to the main board.

5. Power

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When scoping out a wearable design one of the first things to consider is
the power requirement. Do you just want to illuminate a few LEDs, or do
you want to run a servomotor? Boards with an integrated holder for a
lithium coin battery are nice for low-power projects that need to be self-
contained. However, boards with a standard JST connector (with or
without a circuit to charge LiPo batteries) are more versatile.

6. Actuators
One generic way to describe a wearable system is: In response to X, where
X is the input from a sensor, Y happens. Actuators such as LEDs, buzzers
or speakers, and servomotors are what make things happen.

7. Networking
To communicate with smart devices, the internet, or other wearable
systems, you need wireless connectivity. In addition to Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth, wearable-friendly options include:
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BLE, which has lower power consumption than classic Bluetooth, a
range of 50m, and a data transmission rate up to 1 Mbps
 NFC, a radio frequency field with a range of approximately 20cm and
data transmission rate up to about 400 Kbps

Types of Wearable Systems

1.Smartwatches:

These days, the watches are tech-enabled. They double up as a fitness

tracker, and sleep monitor in addition to being the classic time-keeping
device. Smartwatches provide us with many other features including
enabling us to make & attend phone calls and check messages. Some
watches have the feature of playing FM radio or audio & video files with
a Bluetooth headset. They generally connect to the smartphone via an app
and act as a supporting device. They are often referred to as a ‘Wearable

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Computer’ on your wrist because of the bundle of features that can use
through the touchscreen.

2.FitnessTrackers:

Fitness Trackers are among the wearable technology devices wearable on

the wrist. Fitness trackers were primarily launched to perform the function
of pedometer, i.e. counting the number of steps but they have evolved to
become an overall health monitor since then. They perform various
functions including tracking your heartbeat, monitoring your sleep,
calories burned, and other metrics. They share the data to the app on the
smartphone. In toto, they make a perfect health tracker. Some devices are
enabled to regularly share the information on the metrics of the wearer to
their physicians to keep them informed and help early detection of any
issue.
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3.SmartJewelry:

Jewelry no more acts like pieces of ornaments on your neck or hand, they
have become smart. Smart Jewelry are those wearables like necklaces,
wrist bands, bracelets, or rings that are tech-enabled to help you track your
steps, track monitor your heartbeat & sleep, and some even notify you of
incomingcalls.

4.GameSimulators:

The rise of VR in gaming has given rise to many wearable devices that
simulate an environment and make the experience more realistic,
engrossing, and adventurous. The devices include VR Headsets (also
called Head-Mounted Displays or HMDs) that create a visual simulation
and bands that come with built-in sensors to detect your movements.
These bands enable you to control your movements through hand

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gestures.

5.SmartClothing:

The advancement of technology with IoT has fostered many inventions

including Smart Clothes. Smart clothes are also popularly known as E-
Textile as they come integrated with electronic devices that measure the
health metrics of the wearer. Smart clothes help measure health-related
aspects like heart rate, respiration rate, sleep, the body temperature, and
provide you with that information. Smart clothing also includes smart
shoes that examine your health, steps, fatigue, and collect other metrics to
help you improve health and prevent injury.

6.SmartGlasses:

Ranging from simple smart glasses that are equipped with Bluetooth
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wireless music and hands-free calling to the glasses that can live stream
videos to take photos, to advanced smart glasses that are AR-enabled to
give you an immersive experience, these smart glasses are the of eyewear.
Smart glasses can enable the user to read text messages and reply to them
hands-free. Smart glasses by some companies are equipped with features
like internet access and browsing through voice commands.

7.HeartbeatTrackers&BloodPressureMonitors:

There are fitness trackers for a specific use case like monitoring the
heartbeat or regularly measuring the blood pressure. These devices help
track the metrics among the people who suffer from related diseases. The
fitness trackers record and provide the measurements to the wearer
regularly. Some devices are enabled to share the data with the physician.

8.SmartEarbuds:

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New to enter the wearable technology market are earbuds. Though

Bluetooth earbuds are existing for a while now, they aren’t considered
among wearable technology because they do not collect and send data.
But some companies are making earbuds smart. Smart earbuds have a
built-in gyroscope, GPS, and compass. The sensors in the earbuds relay
the information to the smartphone, which enables it to know your
direction and movement. Hence, the smart earbuds are equipped to
provide directions in real-time.

9.SmartContactLens:

Smart Contact Lens is among the recent inventions made possible with
IoT. The smart contact lenses currently available in the market are helpful
for medical reasons. It helps monitor eyes for various diseases like
Diabetes, Glaucoma, and cataracts. It helps in the treatment of
farsightedness. Apart from medical reasons, some companies are working
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on smart contact lenses that are AR-enabled, work on solar power, and
capture and store images and videos. Smart lenses are among the
implantable devices.
Applications of wearables
Currently other applications within healthcare are being explored, such
as:

 Applications for monitoring of glucose, alcohol, and lactateor blood

oxygen, breath monitoring, heartbeat, heart rate and
its variability, electromyography (EMG), electrocardiogram (ECG)
and electroencephalogram (EEG), body temperature, pressure (e.g. in
shoes), sweat rate or sweat loss, levels of uric acid and ions – e.g. for
preventing fatigue or injuries or for optimizing training patterns,
including via "human-integrated electronics"
 Forecasting changes in mood, stress, and health
 Measuring blood alcohol content

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 Measuring athletic performance

 Monitoring how sick the user is
 Detecting early signs of infection
 Long-term monitoring of patients with heart and circulatory problems
that records an electrocardiogram and is self-moistening
 Health Risk Assessment applications, including measures
of frailty and risks of age-dependent diseases
 Automatic documentation of care activities
 Days-long continuous imaging of diverse organs via a
wearable bioadhesive stretchable high-resolution ultrasound imaging
patch or e.g. a wearable continuous heart ultrasound imager (potential
novel diagnostic and monitoring tools)
 Sleep tracking
 Cortisol monitoring for measuring stress
 Measuring relaxation or alertness e.g. to adjust their modulation or to
measure efficacy of modulation techniques
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 Epidermal skin technology. According to Science Daily, the
Terasaki Institute for Biomedical Innovation invented wearable
electronic skin for monitoring health. A next-generation of
wearables, this ultra-thin e-skin patch can be attached to the wearer's
chest area along with a small wireless transmitter by using water
spray and can be worn for up to a week. It is sensitive enough to
pick up and record electro signals, such as heartbeats and muscle
movements, which can be sent to healthcare providers via the cloud
so they can monitor the user's vitals remotely. This powerful
wearable is a steppingstone for monitoring chronic illnesses such as
heart failure and diabetes.

 Health monitoring. People use wearable technology to track and

receive notifications for their heart rate and blood pressure, watch
their calorie intake or manage their training regimens. The COVID-
19 pandemic boosted the use of wearable technology, as consumers
gained a broader awareness of personal hygiene and taking

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precautions to prevent the spread of infections. Apple, for instance,

updated its Cardiogram app by introducing a new sleeping beats-
per-minute feature that monitors heart rate fluctuations for COVID-
19 patients.

 Entertainment and gaming. The gaming and entertainment

industries were the first to adopt VR headsets, smart glasses and
controllers. Popular VR head-mounted displays, such as Oculus
Quest, Meta Quest and Sony PlayStation VR, are used for all types
of entertainment purposes, including gaming, watching movies and
virtual traveling.

 Fashion and smart clothing. Clothing known as smart clothing,

or intelligent fashion, has been gaining wide popularity over the past
few years. Smart jackets, such as Levi's jacket made with Google's
Project Jacquard technology whose threads are composed of
electrical fibers, enable the wearer to answer calls, play music or
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their sleeves. Smartwatches, wristbands,
smart shoes and smart jewelry are also popular examples of
wearable technology.

 Military. These wearables include technology that tracks soldiers'

vitals, VR-based simulation exercises and sustainability technology,
such as boot inserts that estimate how well the soldiers are holding
their equipment weight and how terrain factors can affect their
performance.

 Sports and fitness. Sports use wearable athletic devices that are
either built into the fabric of the sports apparel or are incorporated
into sports equipment, such as bats and balls. The GPS and
Bluetooth-linked devices relay real-time data to coaches for analysis
through connected electronic devices such as laptops. Besides
wearable athletic devices, familiar wearable technology such as
Fitbit, Apple Watch, Garmin, Samsung Galaxy Watch and Polar are

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used extensively to track various areas of the player's health and

performance metrics.

Advantages of Wearable Technology

 Rapid data results can help drive improvements. Having

immediate data to make decisions and drive improvements may
be helpful, rather than waiting for more formal or detailed
assessments.
 Detailed data can supplement loss analysis and loss
trends. Additional data can help identify specific trends in your
claims history.
 Can help build a business case for senior management. It can
be challenging to help senior management make decisions or
determine if some of your funding should be spent on
improvements. The data from wearable technology devices can
help support your business case for that spend.
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 Data from wearable sensors offers promising job risk analysis
and evaluation opportunities for safety and ergonomics
practitioners. Most ergonomic assessments or evaluations
require additional time to observe and manually collect data.
Having instant data can save time and expedite ergonomic
assessments or evaluations.
 Enhance employee wellness programs. More organizations are
starting to promote wellness programs for employees. Some
wearable technology devices can assist with easily tracking
wellness program data that could supplement or support your
efforts.

Disadvantages of Wearable Technology

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 Requires a time commitment to review and analyze data. A

team or committee may need to review the large amount of data
that is generated from the devices.
 Requires financial commitments and planning. You may need
senior management or finance team approval prior to the full
implementation stage. The cost of wearable technology depends
on how many employees and locations are involved.
 Devices could lead to distraction. For many employees, wearing
this device for an entire shift can be distracting, especially if the
device has haptic feedback or vibration reminders.
 Data security and privacy could be compromised with legal,
financial, and personal consequences. An information
technology (IT) department will need to ensure the data generated
from the devices is secured for authorized individuals and ensure
proper consent is obtained from each individual whose data is
being collected.
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 Devices could lead to over-trust or under-trust. This could be
challenging when reviewing all the data to determine realistic
trends. Sometimes this results in trusting or not trusting all the
reviewed data before making any decisions or improvements.

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Sensors for Wearable Systems

Introduction
When designing wearable systems to be used for physiological and
biomechanical parameters monitoring, it is important to integrate sensors
easy to use, comfortable to wear, and minimally obtrusive. Wearable
systems include sensors for detecting physiological signs placed on-body
without discomfort, and possibly with capability of real-time and
continuous recording. The system should also be equipped with wireless
communication to transmit signals, although sometimes it is opportune to
extract locally relevant variables, which are transmitted when needed.
Most sensors embedded into wearable systems need to be placed at
specific body locations, e.g. motion sensors used to track the movements
of body segments, often in direct contact with the skin, e.g. physiological
sensors such as pulse meters or oximeters. However, it is reasonable to
embed sensors within pieces of clothing to make the wearable system as
less obtrusive as possible. In general, such systems should also contain
some elementary processing capabilities to perform signal pre-processing
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and reduce the amount of data to be transmitted. A key technology for
wearable systems is the possibility of implementing robust, cheap
microsystems enabling the combination of all the above functionalities in
a single device. This technology combines so-called micro-electro-
mechanical systems (MEMS) with advanced electronic packaging
technologies. The former allows complex electronic systems and
mechanical structures (including sensors and even simple motors) to be
jointly manufactured in a single semiconductor chip. A generic wearable
system can be structured as a stack of different layers. The lowest layer is
represented by the body, where the skin is the first interface with the
sensor layer. This latter is comprised of three sub-layers: garment and
sensors, conditioning and filtering of the signals and local processing. The
processing layer collects the different sensor signals, extracts specific
features and classifies the signals to provide high-level outcomes for the
application layer. The application layer can provide the feedback to the
user and/or to the professional, according to the specific applications and
to the user needs. Recent developments embed signal processing in their

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