​Chapter 1

Tribal society

Highlights

1.1 Meaning

1.2 Features

1.3 Classification

1.4 Marriage System

1.5 Issues

1.5.1 Deforestation

1.5.2 Displacement

1.6 Changes in Tribal Society

Introduction

India has a rich and varied tribal heritage. There are various tribal
communities scattered all over India which represent racial and
linguistic stocks at different levels of economic and technological
development. While several changes have occurred amongst them
with the spread of education and other programmes of
development initiated by the government of independent India,
most of these groups are still generally backward and receive
special attention from the government and other social reform
agencies.

The contemporary tribal cultures of India do not conform to the

ideal of a primitive culture. Their settlements are both rural and
urban, the rates of literacy among them are rising. However, some
tribal groups or some segments among them, still practice
primitive economy and their ways of life correspond to the
stereotypical image, but there are other groups which are on the
path to modernisation. Along with such changes all tribal societies
listed in the Schedule insist on maintaining their tribal status. They
are designated as Scheduled Tribes (STs).

These communities represent an important social group of Indian

social structure. India has the second largest concentration of tribal
population after Africa.

Box 1

The tribes in India live in different parts across the country in

varying proportions. The highest proportion of tribal population is
concentrated in central India, as well as, in the North Eastern part
of the country. They are known by different names. The Gonds, the
Bhils, the Santhals, and the Oraons etc. are some of the tribal
communities who live in the central parts of the country. The tribal
communities of India live in the forest hills and naturally isolated
regions and are known by different names such as Vanyajati (caste
of forest), Vanvasi (inhabitant of forest), Pahari (hill dwellers),
Adimjati (original communities), Adivasi (first settlers), Janjati (folk
people), Anusuchit Janjati (scheduled tribe) and so on. Among all
these terms Adivasi is known most extensively, and Anusuchit
Janjati or Scheduled Tribe is the constitutional name covering all of
them.
'Tribe' in the Indian context today is normally referred in the
language of the Constitution as 'Scheduled Tribe'. It was Dr. B. R.
Ambedkar, the chairman of the drafting committee of the
constitution, who preferred the concept of Scheduled Tribe to
'Adivasis'. The Scheduled Tribes constitute the second largest group
of the backward classes.

The word tribe is derived from the Latin word tribuz meaning 'one
third' Tribe can be defined as a social group, which occupies a
definite area and is primitive in nature characterised by cultural
homogeneity and a unifying social organisation. The identity and
culture of tribes are closely linked to the natural resources and the
environment in which they live. The word originally referred to
one of the three territorial groups that united to form Rome. The
Romans applied the word tribus to 35 people who became a part of
Rome before 241 BC. Initially, a tribe was simply a territorially
defined social group. The Romans identified tribe as a political unit
that had a distinct name, occupied a common territory and
followed a common leadership. Tribals are commonly referred to
as 'Adivasis'.

G.S. Ghurye termed the tribals as 'Backward Hindus'.

M. K. Gandhi popularised the word Girijan.
J. H. Hutton preferred to call the tribals Primitive Tribals.
The Constitution of India has accepted the term Scheduled Tribes.

The tribal population in India as per the 2011 Census constitutes

8.2% of the country's total population. The state with highest
population of tribal is Mizoram; the state witha lowest population
of tribes is Goa. The Union Territory (U.T.) with highest population
of tribals is Lakshadweep and the U.T. with lowest population of
tribals is Andaman & Nicobar Island. The largest tribal community
in India is the Santhals, who are found mainly in West Bengal,
Bihar, Jharkhand and Orissa.

Scheduled Tribes (STs)

Communities are notified as STs under Article 342 of the
Constitution of India based on the following characteristics:

Primitive traits

Graphical isolation

Distinct culture

Shyness of contact with community at large

Economic backwardness

Definitions

"A tribe is a society that has a common territory, a common name, a

common culture, a common dialect, a tradition of common descent,
and sometimes the presence of a chieftain". -Peter Murdoch

"A tribe is a group of local communities, which live in a common

area, speak a common dialect and follow a common culture".

-Lewis Gillin and Phillip Gillin

A tribe is thus a small, homogenous geographically isolated group

with a distinct language and culture. It is technologically primitive,
has an economy that is subsistence in nature and characterised by
barter system.
Features

1. Common Territory: A tribe is a territorial community. It means it

has a definite territory in which its members reside. For example,
the Naga reside Nagaland; the Khasis live in Assam; the Todas in
Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu and so on. Usually they do not like the
interference of outsiders.

2. Collection of Families: Tribals comprise a collection of families.

These collections may have various sizes. These families which
generally have relationships among themselves could be
matriarchal or patriarchal.

3. Common Name: Every tribe has its own distinctive name, for
example, the Garo, the Khasi, the Naga, the Santhal, the Muda, the
Kota, etc.

4. Common Language: Tribals have a common language or dialect

of their own. In general, tribal languages do not have a script. For
example, the Gonds speak Gondi dialect; the Bhils speak Bhili
dialect; the Santhol speak Santhali language; the Mundas speak
Mundari language, etc. A common language contributes much to
the development of community feeling.

5. Chieftainship: Every tribe has its own political system in which

their chief is elected either on the basis of physical strength or
experience or age, etc. The chief enjoys absolute authority. All
members give weightage to his decisions. The supreme and final
authority is in his hands.

6. Common Religion: Religion is the vital element in the social life

of tribals. Mostly their social life is regulated by religion. Their
religion primarily takes the form of ideas of spirits, nature worship,
ancestral worship and magic. In addition to ancestral and nature
worship, the tribals practice other types of faith such as fetishism,
animism and totemism.
7. Homogenous Societies: Tribal societies are quite homogenous
with respect to language, religion, culture, and economy, i.e., all the
members of the tribe share them.

8. Man-Land Relationship: A tribe is an integral part of its

environment. The attachment of people to the land on which they
live is the basis of their life and culture. All members of the tribe
identify themselves with their land. There is no individual
ownership of land or concept of land as property.

9. Feeling of Unity: The members of a tribe always feel that they are
united. This sense of unity is essential for them to retain their
identity. They are always ready to avenge the injustice done to the
group or the individuals.

10. Subsistence Economy: A tribal society is simple in character.

Their mode of production is based on hunting, gathering, fishing,
and on forest products. Along with the subsistence economy, barter
system also exists. Their economic activities are not based on the
notion of profit. However, due to the increase in their population
and changed economic conditions, their self-sufficiency has
declined. 11. Endogamous Group: All the members of the tribe
marry within their own groups and thus practice endogamy.
Within every tribe there are other groups and subgroups, which
help in preserving and regulating the purity of blood, cultural
peculiarities and retaining the property within the group.

12. Division of Labour: In tribal societies, division of labour is

based on age and sex. There is no specialisation in terms of socially
acquired technical skills as is seen in the more advanced societies.

13. Common Culture: Every tribe has a distinctive culture of its own
such as its own way of behaving, thinking, feeling and acting, as
well as, its own customs, traditions, morals, values etc.
Classification of Tribal Society

Tribes of India form an important part of Indian population. The

tribes of India are categorised into different groups on the basis of
racial, economic and integrational classification. The classifications
of the tribes are discussed in detail below.

Racial Classification of Tribes in India

Sir Herbert Risley attempted to classify the Indian peoples on

scientific basis. He recognised three racial types of people in India,
namely, the Indo-Aryans the Dravidian and the Mongoloids which
also mix with each other. It results in varying racial complexions of
the people in India. Therefore, he distinguished seven physical
types of tribes in India.

a) The Indo-Aryan: This type of tribal community is confined to

Punjab, Rajasthan and Kashmir. In terms of physical appearance
these people are mostly tall with fair complexion, dark eyes,
luxuriant growth of hair on face and body and narrow and long
prominent nose.

b) The Dravidian: They are deemed to extend from Ceylon to the

valley of the Ganges in Western Bengal including whole of Chennai,
Hyderabad, Central India and Chotta Nagpur. They are thought to
be probably the original inhabitants of India. Their complexion is
usually dark, they have dark eyes, long head and a very broad
nose.

c) The Mongoloid: The Mongoloid type is to be found in the belt

along the Himalayan region including North-East Frontier, Nepal
and Burma. Their chief features are broad head, dark complexion
with yellowish tinge, and scanty hair on face. They have short or
below average stature.
d) The Aryo-Dravidian: This type of tribe is considered to be the
inter-mixture in varying proportions of the Aryans and the
Dravidians. They are found in U.P., parts of Rajasthan and Bihar.
Their complexion varies from light brown to black, noses range
from medium to broad and their stature is shorter than that of the
Indo-Aryans.

e) The Mongolo-Dravidians: This type is a blend of the Dravidians

and Mongoloid elements. They are found in Bengal and Orissa.
They are characterised by broad and round heads, dark
complexion, plentiful hair on face and medium height.

f) The Scytho-Dravidian: This type is a mixture of the Scythians and

the Dravidians. They are found in the western region of India
extending from Gujarat to Coorg. They also include people from
Madhya Pradesh and

Maharashtra. This type has low-to-medium stature, fair

complexion, broad head, and moderate fine nose..

g) The Turko-Iranian: This type is present in Afghanistan,

Baluchistan and North Western Frontier Provinces (N.W.F.P., now
in Pakistan). They are regarded to be

formed probably by the fusion of Turkish and Persian elements.

Economic Classification of the Indian Tribes

The Indian tribals have also been classified on the basis of

economy. The

nature, man and spirit all function to give a particular way to the
tribals. They are interdependent and interact within this
framework. Therefore, we can classify the tribals of India into five
types on the basis of their economy.

a) Forest-Hunting: The tribals of this type engage in hunting, food

gathering and

fishing. There is an absence of technological aids. They also live in

deep forest. Shifting Cultivation is known by different names in
different parts of the world.

b) Hill Cultivation: The tribals who live in hilly areas practice

shifting cultivation. Shifting cultivation or Jhum cultivation is an
age old institution among the

c) Plain Agriculture: These tribals live in undulating plateaus and

are predominantly dependent on plough cultivation.

d) Simple Artisan and Folk Artist: The tribals who engage in

handicrafts and their folk arts to eke out their subsistence come
under this category. These tribals depend very much on the local
market and village people.

e) Industrial and Urban Workers: The tribals who have accepted

industrial life come under this category. Primarily the tribe may be
an agriculturalist or a forest hunting type or so on.

Classification of Indian Tribes Based on Levels of Integration

The tribals are an integral part of Indian population. Though they

have maintained their ethnic identities, they have adjusted well to
the non-tribal people
after coming into contact with them. They have adapted to the
situation. According to L.P. Vidyarthi and B.K. Rai, the Tribal
Welfare Committee constituted by the Indian Conference of Social
Work in 1952 divided tribes into four main divisions:
a) Tribal Communities: Tribals who confine themselves to original
habitats and are still distinctive in their pattern of life.
b)Semi-Tribal Communities: Tribals who have more or less settled
down in rural areas, taken up agriculture and other allied
occupations.
c) Acculturated Tribal Communities: Tribal communities those
have migrated to urban and semi-urban areas are engaged in
"modern" occupations such as working in industries and have
adopted some of the traits and culture of the host population.
d) Totally Assimilated Tribals: These are tribals who have adopted
Hindu religion in terms of their orientation toward the Hindu
social order. B. K. Roy Burman has classified such tribals into the
following categories: Tribes which have been incorporated in the
Hindu social order.
Tribes which are positively oriented toward the Hindu social order.
Tribes which are negatively oriented toward the Hindu social
order.

Tribes which are indifferent toward the Hindu social order. There
are seven major tribes such as the Gonds, the Bhils, the Santhals,
the Minas, the Oraons, the Mundas and the Khonds which account
for a population of a lakh or more. A brief description on The
Gonds, The Bhils and The Santhals is given below.

Major Tribes

•The Gonds

One of the largest tribes in the country.

Believed to belong to the Dravidian group.

Found in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, etc.

Speak Gondi dialect and Chhattisgarhi also.

Depend on agro-forest economy. A few groups still practice shifting

cultivation.

•The Bhils

Another large tribal group, also known as Bhilala.

Found in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan,

Tripura.

Speak Bhili dialect.

Main source of livelihood is agriculture.

Holi is one of their very important festivals.

The Santhals

The Santhal is the largest tribe of India.

Found in Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Orissa.

Speak Santhali language. Also speak Oriya language of Orissa,

Bangla of Bengal and Hindi of Bihar.
Sohrai, the harvest festival is their most important festival.

They worship Sun God.

The bride price practice is generally prevalent among them.

Family System of Tribal Society

Family is the basic unit in all human societies. There is more than
one form of family system existing in tribal societies, which are
discussed in Box 3:

Based on Residence

Based on Authority Patriarchal

Patrilocal

Based on Descent Patrilineal Matrilineal

Matrilocal Biolocal

Matriarchal

Neolocal

Double
Family System of Tribal Society

Based on Authority: In tribal society both patriarchal and

matriarchal families exist, for instance, among the Kharia and the
Garo tribes respectively. In the Kharia tribe the father is the central
figure in the family. All the authorities are vested in him and
descent is traced through him. This family is based on
monogamous marriage. Similarly, the Garos have a matriarchal
family system. Mother is the head of the family. All the authorities
are vested in her. Descent is traced through her. The proposal for
marriage always comes from the women's side. After marriage, the
son-in law comes to live in his wife's parent's house.

Based on Residence:

If the son stays and the daughter leaves her family of birth, and the
married couple live with or near the husband's parents, it is called
patrilocal residence. This system is found among the Santhals, the
Mundas, the Hos, the Bhils, etc.

If the daughter stays and the son leaves, so the married couple live
with or near the wife parents, it is called matrilocal residence, for
example, among the Khasi, the Chenchus, etc.

When either the son or the daughter leaves, so that the married
couple lives with or near either the wife's or the husband's parents,
it is called

bilocal residence. In Lakshadeweep and central Kerela, a few tribes

follow this family system.

When both the son and the daughter leave and married couple
lives aparta
from the relatives of either spouse call it neolocal residence, for

example, among the Oraon, the Gadaba, etc.

Based on Descent:

When descent is traced through father's side it is called patrilineal

descent. For example, the Kharia, the Santhal, the Munda etc.

When descent traced through mother's side it is called matrilineal

descent. For example, the Garo, the Khasi etc.

Some societies have followed double descent system in which

descent is traced through for some purposes from matrilineal. and
for other

purposes from patrilineal kin..

Marriage System of Tribal Society

Ways of Acquiring Mate

The institution of marriage among the tribals is different from that

in the Hindu society. Marriage among the tribals is not a religious
sacrament but a social contract with the purpose of enjoyment of
sex, procreation and companionship. The forms of marriage, the
ceremonies, the taboos and the laws of dissolution of marriage for
the tribals are different from those of the civilised society.
Mentioned below are some of the tribal ways of acquiring a mate:
Marriage Capture: This is when a man forcibly marries a woman.
custom of marriage is found among the Santhals, the Mundas, the
Gonds, the Bhils, etc.

Marriage by Purchase: Bride-price paid either in cash or in kind, is

the central theme in this type of marriage. This custom of marriage
is found among the Mundas, the Oraon, the Ho, etc.

Marriage by Exchange: Under this marriage system two households

exchange women with each other and thus, avoid the payment of
bride-price. Marriage by exchange is practiced by the Uralis, the
Maria the Gond etc.

Marriage by Elopement: In some cases if the parents do not give

consent to the love of the would-be spouses for marriage, they flee
away to some other place without any information to the parents.
They are, however, accepted by the families after a period of time.

Marriage by Service: This is when the man serves at his father-in-

law's house before marriage to avoid the payment of bride-price.

Marriage by Intrusion: When a woman forcibly marries a man. The

Birhor and the Ho are among the tribes who practice it.

Marriage by Trial: Under this type of marriage the man is required

to prove

himself courageous and brave. After that he is free to choose his

life partner. It is practiced by the Bhil tribe during their Holi
festival.

Marriage by Mutual Consent: In this form of marriage mutual

consent is taken for marriage.
Marriage by Probation: It allows a man to stay at woman's place for
a week

together after which they decide whether or not to get married.

Marriage by probation is practiced by the Kukis of Arunachal
Pradesh and the Nicobarese.

Economic System of Tribal Society

The tribes of India can be classified on the basis of their traditional

economica

organisation, material culture, and levels of technology. Their

economy is small in

scale, subsistence or marginal in nature, and makes use of simple

technology which fits in well with their ecological surroundings.
Tribes are economically independent, a with a distinctive division
of labour and specialisation, production and consumption patterns.

According to L.P. Vidyarti and B.K. Rai, D.N. Majumdar and T.N.
Madan

identified various characteristics of tribes:

a. Use of simple technology

b. Economy based on the principle of barter and exchange system

C Lack of profit motive

d. Cooperation and collective endeavour

e. Low degree of innovation

Absence of regular market but existence of weekly markets

g. Production of consumer goods rather than capital goods

h. Division of labour based on sex and age

i Presence of both individual and communal ownership of property

Issues concerning Tribal Communities

We have discussed above the cultural, social, political, economic

aspects and classifications of various tribes. Though they have a
rich culture, but they also face certain specific problems, as well,
deforestation and displacement being the most prominent of them.
Deforestation results in displacement of forest people, particularly
the aboriginal tribes and their traditional culture and knowledge
which they have inherited from their ancestors and through their
own experience while living in the forest. Let us discuss with each
of these problems in detail.

Deforestation

Issues

Displacement
Deforestation

Deforestation is one of the major causes of the environmental

degradation. It implies the cutting down of trees. Besides,
expansion of cropped areas and pastures are also the major
sources of deforestation. During earlier times, the tribals were able
to survive because of the availability of forest and natural
resources. They were totally dependent on forests for their
livelihood. But due to industrialisation, urbanisation, agriculture,
commercial logging, increase in population, fuel-wood collection,
etc. the deforestation has increased and affected the tribal's
livelihood directly and indirectly. The loss of forest covers also
influences the climate and contributes to loss of the biodiversity.

Causes of Deforestation

1. Deforestation for Agriculture: Conservation of forest land into

farmland is one of the most important causes of deforestation. The
forest is usually cleared by the landless peasants for their
livelihood. Shifting cultivation is practiced in several parts of the
tropical countries particularly by the aboriginal tribal people.

2. Deforestation for Timber Mining: Industrial timber mining is the

major cause of destruction of the forest. Demand for hardwood to
make house furniture and fixtures increased enormously since the
industrial revolution. Therefore, the timber was obtained from
tropical forests because the hardwood quality was excellent and
the labour was cheap.

3. Deforestation for Fuel-wood Production: Although fuel-wood

gathering rarely causes large scale destruction of forest, people cut
down trees from the forest areas to use it as firewood. This is their
main fuel supply, both for cooking food and for heat. For this
purpose the indigenous tribal people cut down the trees, building
stacks of them and make charcoal etc.
4. Urbanisation and Industrialisation: Since industrialisation and
urbanisation need land, so major portion of forest lands are
cleared in order to promote industrialisation and urbanisation.
This produces harmful effects on the

environment, as well as, on the forests' ecological balance. It also

contributes to the tribals becoming homeless. 5. Deforestation for
Pasture Land Development: Conversion of forest-land into fodder-
land to meet the greed of the rich meat-based affluent societies of
the world is yet another major cause of deforestation.

6. Deforestation for Paper and Pulp Industries: Wood is

transformed into paper that serves as an essential tool for
communication, commerce, education etc. Paper production and
paper use has increased dramatically all over the world for the past
several decades. Pulp used in paper making comes from
plantations. Therefore, paper and pulp industries are to a great
extent responsible for deforestation.

7. Deforestation for Commercial Logging: Logging means cutting

down forest trees for wood. Commercial logging companies cut
down mature trees selected for timber business. Wood is used for
many things including construction, building furniture and as
firewood.

Thus, we can say that deforestation has affected not only the
ecological system but also social and economic systems of the
tribals. At the global level, deforestation has resulted in the release
of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Deforestation causes many problems for the tribals such as
displacement of the indigenous communities, loss of biodiversity,
flooding, food problem, health issues, climate change, etc.

Displacement
Displacement is defined as the act of uprooting from one area to
another. It is also one of the major problems for the tribals.
Displacement of people from traditional habitats causes much
trauma to the affected persons. The effect of industrialisation and
urbanisation has been felt by the tribal population. As tribal areas
are rich in natural resources, various measures were taken to
exploit those areas for raw materials, power, and irrigation
projects. Therefore, the tribals have been deprived of their land
and paid meagre amounts as compensation, which they spent on
drinking and certain ritual practices. Thus, they became moneyless
and landless. For subsistence, they worked as labour in the
factories. No doubt, industrialisation initially provided
employment opportunities for tribal youth in unskilled jobs, but
due to illiteracy and lack of awareness, they are not in a position to
take up skilled or semi-skilled jobs.

According to Nadeem Hasnain, the major power and irrigation

projects, such as the Maithon, Konar, and Panchet in Bihar, the
steel projects of Rourkela, Durgapur, and West Bengal are the many
undertakings that have resulted in a substantial displacement of
the tribals. Very few of them have taken the advantage of the
various facilities offered by the authorities. The alternative land
offered by the authorities for cultivation was not irrigable and did
not offer adequate returns to maintain their families. The cash
compensation given is seldom utilised for productive purposes. It is
almost invariably spent on daily living expenses until alternative
employment is found.

Besides, no alternative space is provided to the tribal people by the

newly constructed factories or townships. The owners of the
townships are more interested in setting up their own factories and
getting profits at the cost of the tribal people. Having no other
alternative, the tribals are forced to set up small dwellings near the
outskirts of the townships, which have developed into slums
lacking even the basic civic amenities.

Causes of Displacement
1. Land Acquisition and Displacement: Tribal community from
whom land is alienated are thus deprived of their livelihood
because most of them live in a natural resource based informal
economy and depend on agriculture.

Land Acquisition and

Displacement

Displacement due to Special

Dam Building and Displcaement

Economic zones

Causes of Displacement

Industry and Displacement

Mining and Displacement

Compulsory acquisition of land for construction of dams and roads

and mining operations, industry and reservation of forests for
national parks forces people to leave their traditional land. Tribals
are the worst sufferers since most development projects such as
dams and industries are located in near tribal dwellings. Nearly 50-
60 million people have been displaced by development projects in
India as a whole and tribes constitute at least 40 per cent of them.

2. Dam Construction and Displacement: Dam construction is one of

the most important causes of development related displacement. In
recent times, large scale industrialisation, privatisation and
globalisation for the sake of development have emerged as the
biggest threat to the tribal identity. The tribals, their lands and the
other resources are now exposed to the exploitative market forces
and the numerous projects to exploit minerals and other natural
resources. Land alienation of the tribals by the powerful entities
has become a common phenomenon.

3. Mining and Displacement: In the globalisation era, mining has

become another important source of investment and profit for the
private sector. Mining Induced Displacement (MIDS) and re-
settlement has become a major risk from the point of the social
sustainability. In India, most of affected people are the tribal and
other indigenous people. the pipe line for the core of India's land
planned development for which large areas have to be acquired.
This means people's homes are destroyed resulting in their
displacement. In addition, the landowners give up land in the
process of acquisition by the State.

Changes in Tribal Society

Tribes are becoming aware, both socially and politically, in

maintaining and preserving their ethnic and cultural identity. They
are also trying their level best to protect themselves against
exploitation by outsiders. This may, however, result in a new form
of ecological-cultural isolation. After independence, lots of changes
in political, social and economic sectors have taken place in the
Indian society. These changes have promoted interaction and
association among various castes, tribes, cultural and religious
groups. There are numerous social and cultural changes that have
taken place among the tribals which are discussed below:

Local to global place

Social Stratification

Changes in Tribal Society

Non Agricultural Occupations

Political System

Migration

Economic System

1. Social Stratification: Some studies conducted on tribal societies

have revealed that change is taking place in tribal social
stratification. The tribals seem to have attained the status of class
from that of ethnicity. The difference in material possessions
creates new patterns of consumption in food, dress, housing etc.,
and also other parallel differences, for instance, the level of
education, religious orientation and preferences in political life.

2. Non-Agricultural Occupations: The tribals in India took to

agriculture during the first quarter of the 20th century. At that
point they had enough land in their possession. Increasingly, the
caste Hindus made their entry into the tribal land and since then
the tribal land slipped into the hands of these non-tribals. Hence,
the tribals experienced land alienation. This has made them
employed workers instead of peasants. This process of taking up of
non-agricultural occupation is called de-peasantisation.

3. Migration: Traditionally, social anthropologists have defined

tribals as an immobile stock of people. They hardly move beyond
their areas. But the search for employment has pushed them to
work in big cities. Today, these tribals are working as migrant
groups outside their village. Government jobs have also
encouraged them to move from one place to another. Economic
System: The tribal subsistence economy has become diversified.
4. Tribals were for a very long time dependent on the forests and
forest products. They were experts in hunting and gathering. But
unlike the caste Hindus, they do not have any hereditary
occupations. This has enabled them to take any occupation they
may find suitable at a given point in time.

5. Political System: Political factors are also causing change among

the Indian tribals. The universal right for voting, party functioning
and social activism have all initiated a strong process of political
socialisation among the tribals. This, along with Community
Development Programme for tribal welfare and development has
provided opportunities for politicisation and leadership among

tribals. 6. Local to global place: In the era of globalisation, the

tribals cannot be kept in isolation. The small places, that is, the
tribal homelands are linked with the region, state, nation and the
world. The tribals are no longer an encapsulated mass of people
restricted to hill and forests. They have become a part of the larger
process of globalisation.

Conclusion

Thus, it can be concluded from the above discussion that the tribals
are an integral part of India. They have been classified by
distinguished Indian and foreign scholars on the basis of their
origin. Deforestation and displacement are the major issues of
tribals. After Independence a lot of social, political, religious, and
cultural changes have occurred in tribal society.