G D GOENKA PUBLIC SCHOOL, MODEL TOWN

CLASS- XII PHYSICS PRACTICAL FILE

Teacher Guide: Ms. Shivangi Kathuria

General Instructions:
1. Please refer to Physics Practical Laboratory Manual –XII for reference.
2. As per the CBSE Curriculum 2024-25, record of atleast 8 experiments (with 4 each from section A and B)
is to be maintained.
3. Record of atleast 6 activities (with 3 each from section A and B) is to be maintained.
4. Report of the investigatory project.

Practical Writing Instructions:

1. Complete the file work in the given sequence only, in self neat handwriting.
2. Use black pen only for heading and blue pen for rest of the written work on ruled sheet
3. Draw diagrams very neatly with scale (no free hand diagrams) with ONLY PENCIL on the white sheet.
4. All observations, calculations, graph (to be drawn on graph paper) to be done with pencil on the white
sheet. Follow the instructions given with red color carefully.
5. Avoid cuttings
6. Do not make the graph very very tiny (i.e., on 1 graph paper max. 2 graphs can be drawn)
7. Write next experiment from new page.
8. Fill the index in the same sequence with full aim (don’t fill dates)
9. Consider the following template for sequence of white sheet and ruled sheet work.

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 EXPERIMENT-1
AIM: To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.

APPARATUS: Two resistance wire, a voltmeter (0 3) A of appropriate range, a battery

(0-3) V and an ammeter (0-3)
eliminator, a rheostat, a metre scale, one way key, a screw gauge, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY AND FORMULA USED: According to the Ohm’s law the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature, dimensions,
pressure) off the conductor remains the same.
(i) If I be the current flowing through a conductor and V be the potential difference across its ends, then
according to, Ohm’s Law,

(ii) Specific resistance (ρ) of the material of the given wire is given by

𝜌=

where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the given wire.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (DRAW

DRAW ON WHITE SHEET WITH PENCIL)

PROCEDURE:
1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner with neat, clean and tight connections as given in the
arrangement diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove the insulations, if any.
3. Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero err error, if any.
4. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable current passes through the resistance coil or
the resistance wire.
5. Note down the value of potential difference
dif V from voltmeter and current I from ammeter.
tact slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter show full divisions readings and not in
6. Shift the rheostat contact
fraction.

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 7. Take at least five sets of independent observations.
8. Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and find its length by the metre
scale and diameter using screw gauge.

OBSERVATIONS: (On white sheet with pencil)

1. Length of each resistance wire l = 50 cm
2.
Observations Voltmeter Ammeter
Range 0-3 V 0-3 A
Least Count 0.05V 0.05A
Zero Error Nil Nil
3.

OBSERVATION TABLE: (On white sheet with pencil)

(a) Resistance of Wire 1
S.No. V(div) Voltmeter Reading I(div) Ammeter Reading R= V/ I (Ω)
V* L.C (V) I* L.C. (A)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

(b) Diameter of wire 1

S.No. LSR(mm) CSR(mm) D= LSR+ CSR(mm)
1.
2.
3.

(c) Resistance of Wire 2

S.No. V(div) Voltmeter Reading I(div) Ammeter Reading R= V/ I (Ω)
V* L.C (V) I* L.C. (A)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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 (d) Diameter of wire 2
S.No. LSR(mm) CSR(mm) D= LSR+ CSR(mm)
1.
2.
3.

CALCULATIONS: (On white sheet with pencil) GRAPHS (To be made with pencil according to the readings)
1. Mean R1 =…………..Ω
2. Mean D1=…………..mm=……………..cm
3. 𝜌 = = …………………Ωcm

4. Mean R2=……………Ω
5. Mean D2=……………mm=……………cm
6. 𝜌 = = …………………Ωcm

RESULT:
1. Resistivity of two given wires are ………..and ………………
2. The graph between V and I is a straight line.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the insulations near their ends by
rubbing with sand paper.
3. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
4. A low resistance rheostat should be used.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. Rheostat may have high resistance.
3. The screw gauge may have faults like back lash error and wrong pitch.

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 EXPERIMENT 2
AIM: To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge.

APPARATUS: A metre bridge (slide wire bridge), a Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance
box, a jockey, a one way key, a resistance wire, a metre scale, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY AND FORMULA USED: A metre bridge is a practical application of Wheatstone Bridge i.e., when the
resistances are balanced, the galvanometer shows null deflection.
(i) The unknown resistance X is given by

where, R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the right gap of metre bridge. l is the
length of metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (DRAW ON WHITE SHEET WITH PENCIL)

PROCEDURE

1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in arrangement diagram.

2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined in the right gap between C and B. Take care
that no part of the wire forms a loop.
3. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B.
4. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohm) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
5. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
6. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in opposite directions, the
connections are correct. If the deflection is one side only, then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take
help of your teacher and rectify the fault.
7. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right till galvanometer gives zero deflection. The point
where the jockey is touching the wire is null point D.
8. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no deflection in the galvanometer
when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire (i.e.,between 40 cm to 60 cm).
9. Note position of point D to know length AD = l.
10. Take at least four sets of observations in the same way by changing the value of R in steps.

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OBSERVATIONS (On white sheet with pencil)
Length of given wire L = ……………..cm.

OBSERVATION TABLE: (On white sheet with pencil)

S.No. Resistance from Length Length Unknown resistance (Ω)
the Resistance AD= l (cm) DC= 100-l (cm)
Box R(Ω)

1.
2.
3.
4.

CALCULATIONS: (On white sheet with pencil)

RESULT

The value of unknown resistance X =………..Ω

PRECAUTIONS

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. Null point should be brought between 40 cm and 60 cm.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The instrument screws may be loose.

2. The wire may not have uniform thickness.

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 EXPERIMENT 3
AIM: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection
half method and to find its figure of merit.

eter, a voltmeter, a battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance boxes, two one-
APPARATUS: A galvanometer, one
way keys, a rheostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY AND FORMULA USED: A galvanometer is a device used to detect very small electric current in a circuit. It has
field. When electric current is passed through the coil it gets deflected.
a coil pivoted in a radial magnetic field.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (DRAW ON WHITE SHEET WITH PENCIL)

PROCEDURE
(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method
1. Make the connections
ections according to the circuit diagram.
2. Take out the high resistance (say 2000 Ω) from the resistance box R and insert the key K1 only.
3. Adjust the value of R so that deflection
deflection is maximum, even in number and within the scale.
4. Note the deflection. Let it be θ.
5. Insert the key K2 also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S, such that deflection in the
galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained in step 5 i.e., θ/2. Note the value of resistance S.
adjusting S every time.
6. Repeat steps 4 to 7 three times taking out different values of R and adjusting
(b) Figure of merit
7. Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F. by a voltmeter by connecting +ve of the
ve of the cell. Let it be E.
voltmeter with +ve of the cell and -ve of voltmeter with -ve
8. Make connections as in circuit diagram.
9. Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection θ (say 30 divisions) when the circuit is closed.
10. Note the values of resistance R and deflection θ.
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 11. Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again.
12. Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with different voltages like 2, 4, 6, 8, volts from battery
eliminator.

OBSERVATIONS (On white sheet with pencil)

Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale on each side=30

OBSERVATION TABLE (On white sheet with pencil)

1. Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method

2. Table for figure of merit

CALCULATIONS (On white sheet with pencil)

1. Mean G=………………..Ω
2. Mean k=…………………A/div

RESULT
1. Resistance of given galvanometer = …….. Ω
2. Figure of merit of given galvanometer = A/div.
PRECAUTIONS
1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit (otherwise for small
resistance an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter can be damaged).
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.
2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
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 EXPERIMENT 4
AIM: To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a voltmeter of desired range
and to verify the same.

APPARATUS: A galvanometer, a voltmeter of 0 0-3 volts range, a battery eliminator, resistance box (10,000 Ω), one way
key,, a rheostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.

THEORY AND FORMULA USED: A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a large resistance in
series to the galvanometer.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (DRAW ON WHITE SHEET WITH PENCIL)

PROCEDURE
1. Calculate the value of series resistance R to be connected in series with the galvanometer for the given range V
(say 3 volts).
2. Connect a resistance box in series with the galvanometer and take out the plugs of resistance R. Now the given
galvanometer is ready for use as a voltmeter of range V volts.
3. For verification make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. Here AB is a rheostat being used as a
potential divider. A and B are the fixed terminals and C is the variable terminal
terminal of the rheostat.
4. Take out the plugs of calculated resistance R from the resistance box. Insert the key K and adjust the movable
contact of the rheostat so that deflection in the galvanometer becomes maximum.
galvanometer. Convert the galvanometer reading into volts.
5. Note the readings of voltmeter and galvanometer.
6. Find the difference, if any, between the readings of voltmeter and galvanometer. The difference gives the
error.
7. Move the variable contact C of the rheostat and take at least five observations covering the whole range of the
voltmeter i.e., 0-3 volts.

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CALCULATIONS (On white sheet with pencil)

VERIFICATION (On white sheet with pencil)

RESULT
As the difference in actual and measured value of potential difference is very small, the conversion is perfect.

PRECAUTIONS
1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. The resistance box should be a high resistance one.
3. The voltmeter used for verification should preferably be of the same range, as the range of conversion.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Screws of the instrument may be loose.
2. Galvanometer divisions may not be equal.

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 EXPERIMENT 5
AIM: To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal length.

APPARATUS: An optical bench with three uprights, concave mirror, a mirror holder, two optical needles (one thin,
one thick), a spirit level and a half metre scale.

THEORY AND FORMULA USED : When beam of light parallel to principal axis falls on a concave mirror, it reflects the
beam which passes through the focus.. The nature and size of the image depends upon where the object is kept in
front of the mirror.

RAY DIAGRAM (DRAW ON WHITE SHEET WITH PENCIL)

PROCEDURE
To determine rough focal length
1. Obtain rough focal length by focusing the image of a distant object on wall.
2. Measure the distance between the mirror and the wall (screen). This will he equal to the rough focal length of
the mirror.
To set the mirror
3. Mount the mirror in the mirror holder and place the upright on the zero mark of the optical bench.
4. Level the optical bench with the help of screws and spirit level.
To set the object needle
5. Take the thin optical needle as object needle (O). Mount it in second upright.
6. Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance nearly 1.5 times the rough focal length of mirror.
7. Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on horizontal line through the pole of the mirror.
8. With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end of the optical bench. An inverted and
enlarged image of the needle will be seen Tip of the image must be in the middle of the mirror.
9. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.
To set the image needle

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 10. Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in third upright and move the upright near the other end of the
optical bench.
11. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the tip of the image when seen with
right open eye.
12. Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated . The image tip and the image needle tip have parallax.
13. Remove the parallax as described
14. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the image needle upright.

OBSERVATIONS (On white sheet with pencil)

Rough focal length of concave mirror= …………….cm

OBSERVATION TABLE (On white sheet with pencil)

S.No. Position of Position of Position of Object Image

object needle image needle Mirror distance distance
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5
CALCULATIONS (On white sheet with pencil)

GRAPH (To be made with pencil according to the readings)

RESULT

PRECAUTIONS
1. Principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to the central line of the optical bench.
2. The uprights should be vertical.
3. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the needle I and image of the needle O.
4. To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm away from the needle.
5. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as that of pole of the concave mirror.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

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 EXPERIMENT 6
AIM: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.

APPARATUS: An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two outer uprights with lateral movement),
a convex lens with lens holder, two optical needles, (one thin, one thick) a knitting needle and a half metre scale.

THEORY AND FORMULA USED:

The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is

where,
f = focal length of convex lens
u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens
v = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.
Note. According to sign-convention, u has negative value and v has positive value. Hence, f comes positive.

RAY DIAGRAM (DRAW ON WHITE SHEET WITH PENCIL)

PROCEDURE
1. Obtain the rough focal length of convex lens by focusing image of a distant object on wall.
2. Level the optical bench with the help of screws and spirit level.
3. Mount the lens on the lens holder and place the upright at position of 50cm mark on optical bench.
4. Place the object needle on one side of the lens between f and 2f and image needle on other side.
5. Obtain an inverted of the object needle through the convex lens coinciding with the tip of image needle.
6. Remove the parallax between both needles such that both tips move together with the movement of eye.
7. Note the positions of Object needle, Lens, Image needle.
8. Repeat the steps for different distances of object and image without disturbing the position of lens.

OBSERVATIONS (On white sheet with pencil)

Rough focal length of the given convex lens = …….cm

OBSERVATION TABLE (On white sheet with pencil)

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 Focal Length

(cm)

CALCULATIONS (On white sheet with pencil)

The coordinates of point A must

GRAPH (To be made with pencil according to the readings)

RESULT
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from

PRECAUTIONS
1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.
3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted image of it is formed.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

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 EXPERIMENT-7
AIM: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence and
the angle of deviation.

APPARATUS: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale, office pins, graph
paper and a protractor.

THEORY AND FORMULA USED: Refraction takes place when a light ray travels from one medium to another resulting
in deviation of the emergent ray from that of the incident ray.
The refractive index in) of the material of the prism is given by

where, Dm angle of minimum deviation and A angle of the prism.

A ray of light suffers two refractions on passing through a prism. If KL be a monochromatic light falling on the side AB,
it is refracted and travels along LM. It once again suffers refraction at M and emerges out along MN. The angle
through which the emergent ray deviates from the direction of incident ray is called angle of deviation 'd'.

RAY DIAGRAM (DRAW ON WHITE SHEET WITH PENCIL)

PROCEDURE
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins or tape.
2. Draw a straight line XX’ parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the middle of the paper.
3. Place the prism and draw its outlines with the help of a pencil.
4. Draw a normal N1 on side AB. Draw straight line KL , making 35ᶿ with normal.
5. Fix two pins at a distance 5cm on KL and look for their image through prism.
6. Take the third pin and place it at mirror image of first pin and fourth pin at the mirror image of second pin such
that all pins lie on same straight line.
7. Join the points of pin third and fourth to get emergent ray MN.
8. Introduce the emergent ray backward and incident ray forward to meet.
9. Measure the angle of deviation formed between them.
10. Repeat the above process for different angles and then plot the graph of i and D. The graph will be a parabola.

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OBSERVATIONS TABLE (On white sheet with pencil)
Angle of prism ‘A’ = 60ᵒ

OBSERVATIONS (Readings to be pasted on white sheet )

GRAPH (To be made with pencil according to the readings)

RESULT:
1. i-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of deviation (D) first decreases, attains
a minimum value (Dm ) and then starts increasing for further increase in angle of incidence.
2. Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = ……..

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm
4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. Pin pricks may be thick.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.

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 EXPERIMENT-8
AIM: To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.

APPARATUS: A p-n junction semi-conductor apparatus which includes a diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a
high resistance rheostat, one 0-1 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 volt voltmeter, one 0-1 mA ammeter, one 0-50 mA /μA
ammeter, connecting wires.

THEORY
Forward bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of a battery and n-
section is connected to negative terminal of the battery then junction is said to be forward biased. With increase in
bias voltage, the forward current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly. At about 0.7 V for Si diode (0.2 V
for Ge), the current increases suddenly. The value of forward bias voltage, at which the forward current increases
rapidly, is called cut in voltage or threshold voltage.

Reverse bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to negative terminal of high voltage
battery and n-section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of the same battery, then junction is said to be
reverse biased.
When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is a very small reverse current flow, which remains almost
constant with bias. But when reverse bias voltage increases to sufficiently high value, the reverse current suddenly
increases to a large value. This voltage at which breakdown of junction diode occurs (suddenly large current flow) is
called zener breakdown voltage or inverse voltage. The breakdown voltage may start from one volt to several
hundred volts, depending upon dopant density and the depletion layer.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM (DRAW ON WHITE SHEET WITH PENCIL)

PROCEDURE
For forward-bias
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 1. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.
2. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
3. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA).
4. Increase the forward-bias voltage upto 0.3 V for Ge diode. Current remains zero, (It is due to junction potential
barrier of 0.3 V).
5. Increase VF to 0.4 V. Milli-ammeter records a small current.
6. Increase VF in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding current. Current increases first slowly and then rapidly,
till VF becomes 0.7 V.
7. Make VF = 0.72 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents “forward break-down” stage.
8. If the VF increases beyond “forward breakdown” stage, the forward current does not change much.
9. Record your observations
For reverse-bias
10. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram.
11. Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
12. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA).
13. Apply a reverse-bias voltage (VR) of 0.5 V, a feebly reverse current starts flowing.
14. Increase VR in steps of 0.2 V. Current increases first slowly and then rapidly till VR becomes 20 V. Note the
current.
15. Make VR = 25 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents “reverse break-down” stage. Note the current
and take out the key at once.
16. Record your observations.

OBSERVATIONS (On white sheet with pencil)

Observations Voltmeter milli-ammeter

Forward Bias Reverse Bias Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Zero Error Nil Nil Nil Nil
Range 0-1V 0-100 V 0-50mA 0-1mA
Least Count 0.02V 2V 1mA 0.02mA

OBSERVATION TABLE: (On white sheet with pencil)

FOR FORWARD BIAS: FOR REVERSE BIAS:
S.No. Forward Bias Forward Current S.No. Reverse Bias Voltage Reverse Current
Voltage
div (n) n*L.C. (V) div (n) n*L.C. (mA) div (n) n*L.C. (V) div (n) n*L.C. (mA)
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
6. 6.
7. 7.
8. 8.
9. 9.
10. 10.
11. 11.
12. 12.
Page 18 of 19
GRAPH (To be made with pencil according to the readings)

RESULT: The I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias are plotted.

PRECAUTIONS
1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

SOURCES OF ERROR
The junction diode supplied may be faulty.

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