MODULE

FOUNDATION MATHEMATICS

MAT 110
MODULE 3

COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Mathematics department
Copyright
© COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE 2010

Acknowledgements
The COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE wishes to thank the following for their
contribution to this module.

Editors

Directorate of Distance Education (DODE) Ministry of Education

Authors

1. Mr. L. Chikunduzi Lecturer

2. Mr. D. Kambilombilo Lecturer

3. Mr. M.K. Likando Lecturer

COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

BOX 20382
KITWE
ZAMBIA
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.cce.co.zm
 MAT 110

Contents

About this module 1

How this module is structured.......................................................................................... 1

Module overview 3
Welcome to module 3 MAT 110 ....................................................................................... 3
Is this module for you? ..................................................................................................... 3
Module outcomes ............................................................................................................. 3
Time frame ........................................................................................................................ 4
Study skills ......................................................................................................................... 4
Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 4
Assignments ...................................................................................................................... 4
Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 4

Getting around this module 5

Margin icons...................................................................................................................... 5

Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus 6

Introductory Differential Calculus .................................................................................... 6
3.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 6
3.1 Limits of Functions............................................................................................. 7
3.1.1 Definition of a Limit .............................................................................. 7
3.1.2 Existence of a limit .............................................................................. 11
3.1.3 Properties of Limits ........................................................................... 12
3.1.4 Continuity and discontinuity of functions .......................................... 14
3.2 Derivative of a function ................................................................................... 15
3.2.1 Definition of a derivative .................................................................... 15
3.2.2 Rate of change .................................................................................... 15
3.2.4 Gradient of function at a point using the first principle ..................... 19
3.2.5 Differentiation of polynomials ............................................................ 20
3.2.6 Rules of differentiation ....................................................................... 23
Function of a function .................................................................................. 23
Product Rule (a product of two functions in the same variable) ................ 24
Quotient Rule ............................................................................................... 25
The Second differential coefficient. ............................................................. 28
3.2.7 Implicit differentiation of Functions ................................................... 29
3.3 Stationary points ............................................................................................. 33
3.3.1 Definition ............................................................................................ 33
3.3.2 Nature of stationary points................................................................. 34
Distinguishing the nature of stationary points ............................................ 36
Using the value of the function ................................................................... 36
ii Contents

The first derivative test ................................................................................ 37

3.3.3 Solving Practical Problems ............................................................... 44
3.4 Asymptotes of functions ........................................................................ 48
Unit summary............................................................................................... 52
Assignment................................................................................................... 52
Assessment .................................................................................................. 53
Unit 3 Solutions to Activities ................................................................................. 54

Unit 4 57
Elementary Integration ................................................................................................... 57
4.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 57
4.1 Integral Calculus .............................................................................................. 57
4.1.1 Definition of Integration ..................................................................... 57
4.1.2 Indefinite Integral ............................................................................... 58
4.1.3 Techniques of Integration ................................................................... 58
Integration of a sum or difference of functions .......................................... 60
Integration by Substitution (change of variable) ......................................... 61
Before looking at further techniques, let us complete a special case that we
had shelved. ................................................................................................. 63
1
Integration of f ( x)  ............................................................................. 63
x
Integration by parts ..................................................................................... 68
4.2 Definite Integrals ............................................................................................. 71
4.2.1 Area Under a curve ............................................................................ 71
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 78
Assignment ..................................................................................................................... 78
Assessment ..................................................................................................................... 78
 MAT 110

About this module

MODULE3 has been produced by COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE and structured in the same way, as outlined below.

How this module is structured

The module overview

The module overview gives you a general introduction to the
module. Information contained in the module overview will help
you determine:
 If the module is suitable for you.
 What you will already need to know.
 What you can expect from the module.
 How much time you will need to invest to complete the
module.
The overview also provides guidance on:
 Study skills.
 Where to get help.
 Module assignments and assessments.
 Activity icons.
 Units.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully

before starting your study.

The module content

The module is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content.
 Unit outcomes.
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
 A unit summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.


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 Introductory Differential Calculus

Resources
For those interested in learning more on contents in this module,
we provide you with a list of additional resources at the end of this
module.
Your comments
After completing this module we would appreciate if you would
take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this
module. Your feedback might include comments on:
 Module content and structure.
 Module reading materials and resources.
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 Module duration.
 Module support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)
Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance
this module.

2
 MAT 110

Module overview

Welcome to module 3 MAT 110

This module is based on introductory concepts in mathematics and is

part of foundation mathematics course.

Is this module for you?

This module is intended for diploma holder teachers of mathematics

that aim to further their content knowledge and teaching skills.

Module outcomes

During and upon completion of this module you will be able to:

Understand, apply knowledge and solve problems in introductory

differential and integral calculus.

3
Module overview Introductory Differential Calculus

Time frame

The expected study time is 200 hours

Study skills

Need help?

For any help contact the University College through:

1. University College Secretary - Phone +260 212 239003

2. email: [email protected]
3. The Mathematics HOD – Cell: +260 955906714
4. District Resource centre in your district -
All contacts during Office hours.

Assignments

Two Tutor marked assignments will be considered for assessment.

To be submitted to the University College through selected District
Resource Centres before or at stipulated times in the four units of
Module 3.

Assessments

There will be several self- marked tasks during and at the end of
each unit.
A three hour test will be administered at the University College
during a residential school as advised.

4
 MAT 110

Getting around this module

Margin icons

While working through this module you will notice the frequent use
of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of
text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to
help you to find your way around this module.
A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize
yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Outcomes Summary Note it! Help

5
 Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus

Introductory Differential Calculus

3.0 Introduction
Mathematics has several branches. Calculus is one of such
branches that will be the focus of this unit.
Calculus which forms a major part of modern mathematics
focuses on limits, functions, derivatives, integrals, and infinite
series.
Calculus is the study of change, in the same way that
geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the study of
operations and their application to solving equations.
Calculus is broadly divided in two parts, differential calculus
and integral calculus.
In this unit we shall deal with differential calculus and related
concepts.

6
 MAT 110

During and upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
i. Understand the concept of limits
ii. Appreciate basic Differentiation rules
iii. Differentiate polynomial functions
iv. Apply the concept of differentiation in
a. Establishing gradients of curves
b. determining stationary points
v. identify asymptotes

3.1 Limits of Functions

3.1.1 Definition of a Limit
Recall from module 2 A when we looked at functions that they
display different types of characteristics and are defined over certain
domains. Some functions are not defined over given points in the
domain. We now explore more properties of functions.
Consider this case
Consider the linear function f ( x)  1  4 x which is obviously one-
valued.
We want to access the behaviour of f ( x)  1  4 x as the as x
approaches say 2.
We will use value close to 2 from either direction. Picking values as
close to 2 as possible
Now complete the following table;

x 1 1.99 1.999 1.999999 2.0 2.00001 2.001 2.01

f(x) 5 9

If you did the correct computations you should have found the
following values
8.96, 8.996, 8.999996, 9.00004, 9.004, and 9.04 respectively should
have been found.

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Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

What is your observation over the range and the domain?

You should have noticed that as x approaches the value 2, from
below or above, the values gets closer and closer to the value 9 and is
not above 9.
In a diagram form we could sketch it as shown below

Figure 1 Limit of a function

Thus it is seen that, as x approaches the value of 2, from above or

below, f ( x)  1  4 x approaches the value 9, and this value is said to
be the limit, or limiting value of the function f (x) when x tends to
the value 2.
Symbolically this can be written as, lim f ( x)  9
x 2

Read as, ‘the limit of f(x) as x approaches 2 is 9’.

What follows is not the precise definition but what would be
referred to as a working definition.

The limit of the function f(x) is L as x approaches a provided we can

make f(x) as close to L as we want for all x sufficiently close to a from
both sides, without actually letting x be a.
limf (x)L
xa

Let us look at examples of how to establish the limits of functions

over a certain values.

8
 MAT 110

Example 3.1
Evaluate lim 4 x  x 2 
x2

By the definition, we test the behaviour of the limit when as

close to 2 as possible, thereby letting x =2 is the starting point
as the ultimate is to access its value as close as possible.
 
lim 4 x  x 2  4(2)  22  4
x2

9
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Activity 3. 1 [Self marked]

Equally the following can be derived using this approach. Can
you evaluate the following:
(2x 5)
lim (23x)
lim (2x 5)
lim
a) x5 b) x3 c) x1

 4 
lim  (2x2 5)
lim
d) 
x5 1-2x
 e) x5

10
 MAT 110

There as well some cases that would not easily allow us to get
the limits unless with special approaches. For instance
Look at these two cases.

 x 2  16   4 x 2  5x 
lim   and lim  
x 1  3 x 2 
x 4
 x4   
What would you say about the limits at the points in
question?
In the first limit if we plugged in x =4 we would get 0 and in
0

the second limit if we “plugged” in infinity we would get 



Both of these are called indeterminate forms. In order for us

to get the limits we need to simplify the expressions before
we proceed.
Also note that 0 a , which means that each time we get
or
0 0
such values then the limits are not real values, therefore they
do not exist.
For the two limits above we would work them by first
simplifying as follows;
 x 2  16   ( x  4)( x  4)   x  4
lim    lim    lim  8
x4
 x4  x 4
 ( x  4)  x 4
 1 

  5   
5
 4 x 2  5x   x 4   
2
 4 
Also lim   = lim   x    lim  x 
4
x 1  3 x 2  x 
   1
x 2   3
 x  

1
 3  3
 
 x
2
  x2 

As you may have realised that it’s not always that a limit will exist.
There are conditions that would allow the existence of a limit at a
point. From the previous illustration in figure 1, as we were
approaching the 2 from either side, the values were getting closer to
some value.

3.1.2 Existence of a limit

In order for a limit to exist, the limit from the left and the limit
from the right must exist and be equal

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Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Example 3.2

x1
ifx0
f(
x)x

x1
ifx0
If
Since lim f ( x)  1 and lim f ( x)  1 the left and right
x 0 x 0

hand limits are not the same , therefore lim f ( x) does not
x0
exist
Now having noted that its always that a limit exist, there are a
number that can be used to evaluate limits of functions. Below are
some of the properties .

3.1.3 Properties of Limits

The following properties can used to evaluate these limits
Let f (x) and g (x) be two functions and assume that
lim
f
(x
) L
and
lim
g(
x)M

xa 
xa , where L and M are real
numbers (and in both limits exist) then:
lim
[
f(
x
)g
(
x
)] 
[lim
f
(x
)]
[
lim
g
(
x
)]
L
M

xa 
xa 
xa
(I)

lim
kf
(
x
)k
lim
f(
x
)kL
for
any
cons
tan
tk
(II) 
xa 
xa

lim
[
f(
x).
g(
x 
)]
[
lim
f
(x
)][
lim
g(
x 
)]
LM
(III) 
xa 
xa 
xa

f(
x) lim

f
(x) L
lim xa
,if
0

xag
(x) lim
g
(x)M
(IV) 
xa

n
lim
f
(x
)
nlim
f(
x
)n
L 
where
L0

xa 
xa
(V)

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 MAT 110

Using the properties above, work out the following activity

Activity 3. 2
1. Find all limits if they exist,
lim(2x 1) lim(3x 2) lim 7
i) x2 (ii) x1 (iii) x2

2. Evaluate the following limits if they exist;

3x215
x
lim2
a) 6 x  16 x
2
b) x x
03 x
14 5 c)
lim
x 0 16 x 2  36 x
4x2 x
lim
x0 x

x2 4 n2 2n
lim lim 2
x n n 1
d) x e)

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Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Having looked at ways of evaluating limits, we want now to establish

the connection between limits and the nature of function, whether
continuous or not.
3.1.4 Continuity and discontinuity of functions

A function is said to be continuous at a point where x = a if three

conditions hold:

If a is a limit then f (x) is continuous at a if and only if lim f ( x) exists

xa

and is equal to f (a)

Let us consider the following illustration
Example 3.3
Determine whether the function continuous or not

We need to test the conditions that would qualify a function to be

continuous or not.
Testing the conditions
Condition 1: g (1)  2(1)  3  5 and g (1)  4  (1) 2  3
Both exist, hence satisfied
Condition 2: existence of a limit :

Since the limits are not the same, hence not

continuous.
Would you test your understanding by exploring the questions
below.

14
 MAT 110

Activity 3.3

Given that and

Determine whether the functions are continous or not.

Having successfully covered the concept of limit, let us now look at

how this can be used in differential calculus.
The first concept to discuss in the idea of what a derivative is.

3.2 Derivative of a function

3.2.1 Definition of a derivative
As it has been described that this mathematics is concerned
with change, in your daily life, can you think of a quantity that
changes over given conditions?
You could have thought of several issues, for example ‘body
weight gain or loss over a time’. You should have realised that
you are simplifying looking at how much a certain quantity is
changing with respect to another. Let us look at rates of
change
3.2.2 Rate of change
Consider a ball thrown vertically upwards with a speed of
10m / s and that its height (h) in metres after t seconds is
approximately h(t )  8t  4t 2 .
Can you determine its average speed in the following time
intervals.

a) t  0.25s to 1s
Given the average speed to be change of distance in the
time given
distance covered
Average speed 
time taken
Since distance is given as a function of height in the
time taken, h(t )  8t  4t 2 then

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Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

[8(1)  4(12 )]  [8(0.25)  4(0.252 )] 4  1.75

Average speed    3.58333
1  0.25 0.75

b) t  0.25s to 0.75s
Equally the average speed to be change of distance in the
time given is worked out as
distance covered
Average speed 
time taken
Since distance is given as a function of height in the
time taken, h(t )  8t  4t 2 then
[8(0.75)  4(0.752 )]  [8(0.25)  4(0.252 )] 3.75  1.75
Average speed   4
0.75  0.25 0.5

c) t  0.25s to 0.5s

Similar approach gives us

[8(0.5)  4(0.52 )]  [8(0.25)  4(0.252 )] 3  1.75
Average speed   5
0.5  0.25 0.25
d) t  0.25s to 0.26s

[8(0.26)  4(0.26 2 )]  [8(0.25)  4(0.252 )] 1.8096  1.75

Average speed    5.96
0.26  0.25 0.01

e) t  0.25s to 0.251s

[8(0.251)  4(0.2512 )]  [8(0.25)  4(0.252 )] 1.755996  1.75

Average speed    5.996
0.251  0.25 0.001

f) t  0.25s to 0.2501s

This would give us 5.9996

What do you think is the best solution to of the speed

when t  0.25s ?

A general approach can be used to find the best estimate in

the given interval. As you may realise that the speed at
t  0.25s is arrived at as you narrow the interval to the
reference point.

To establish the average speed using the height function, we

need to have a smallest interval possible.

16
 MAT 110

Assuming we have the interval from t to, t  t

Then the height will be based on h(t ) and h(t  t) , also
the time difference t

[8(t  t )  4(t  t ) 2 ]  [8(t )  4(t 2 )] t (8  8t  4t ) 8  8t  4t

Average speed   
(t  t )  t t 1

From the above we can see that for us to get the best value of
the estimate is to let the interval be as small as possible,
thereby approaching zero. This can be written as
lim (8  8t  4t )  8  8t
t 0

This gives a general expression that can be used for

establishing the value of the speed.
From the previous example, the average speed at 0.25s
would be given by
8  8t  8  8(0.25)  6m / s

Comparing the two, can be generalized that the

average speed can be found using the same
expression, say after 0.5 seconds,
8  8t  8  8(0.5)  4m / s

This limit gives us the change of distance with time .

This measure of how one factor changes in response
to change in other factor is what is called a derivative.
In this case the derivative of h(t )  8t  4t 2 is given by
d (h(t ))  h(t  t )  h(t ) 
 lim    8  8t
dt t 0
 (t  t )  t 

Generally when given any function, say y  f (x) , the

derivative of y with respect to x is illustrated as figure
1

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Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Figure 2 Derivative of a function

dy  f ( x  x)  f ( x) 
 lim  
dx x 0
 ( x  x)  x 

Recall that this is the same as the gradient of the tangent of

the function at A(x, y). So the derivative of a function at a
point is the gradient of the function at the point. The process
of finding the derivative is called differentiation.

This approach of finding the derivative is what is referred to

as the first principle of differentiation.

Example 3.4

Find the derivative of the function y  3x 2 with respect to

x using the first principle.
dy  f ( x  x)  f ( x)  3( x  x) 2  3x 2
 lim    lim
dx x0 ( x  x)  x  x0 x
Simplifying
dy 3( x  x) 2  3x 2  3x 2  6 xx  3x 2  3x 2 
 lim  lim  
dx x0 x x0
 x 

dy 3( x  x) 2  3x 2  6 xx  3x 2 

 lim  lim  
dx x0 x x0
 x 

dy  6 xx  3x 2   6 x  3x 

 lim    lim    6x
dx x0 x  x0
 1 
The derivative of y  3x 2 would have been found to be 6 x .
We can as well explore the gradient of a function at a point, as you
may remember that gradient is also change of vertical axis with
respect to change in the horizontal axis.

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 MAT 110

3.2.4 Gradient of function at a point using the first principle

Using the Example 4, y  3x 2 we can find the gradient of the
curve at x = 2. As earlier worked out,

dy  f ( x  x)  f ( x)  3( x  x) 2  3x 2
 lim    lim
dx x0 ( x  x)  x  x0 x
Simplifying
dy 3( x  x) 2  3x 2  3x 2  6 xx  3x 2  3x 2 
 lim  lim  
dx x0 x x0
 x 

dy 3( x  x) 2  3x 2  6 xx  3x 2 

 lim  lim  
dx x0 x x0
 x 

dy  6 xx  3x 2   6 x  3x 

 lim    lim    6x
dx x 0
 x  x 0
 1 

Can you compare this answer to that of Example 4, what is your

conclusion?
You will discover the derivative of a function is the same as the
gradient function .

Then since we have now a gradient function dy  6 x

dx
The gradient at x = 2 is found by substituting this value in the
gradient function.
dy
 6 x  6(2)  12
dx

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Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Activity 3.4
1. Can you find the derivative of the following using the
first principle.
1
y
a) y  x b) y  x c) y  4x
4 2
d) x2

2. Determine the gradients of the functions at stated

points.

5
y
a) y  2x : x2
2
b) x2 : x  1
c) y  2x : x  1.5
3

we can now extend this concept to include polynomials with several

terms.

3.2.5 Differentiation of polynomials

Consider the equation y = t.
What do you think is the orientation of this equation on the
coordinate plane, the XOY axis?
This line represents a straight line parallel to the x –axis and so it has
a gradient of zero. Why do you think its gradient of zero?
This has to do with change in both the vertical and horizontal axes,
one of them is not changing.
dy
Which means that the  0 as the equation would equally be
dx
expressed as y  tx 0 and applying the first principle, this would give
us zero.

The gradient of any constant is equal to zero and the

derivative of a constant is zero;
dy
Given y  t , then 0
dx

20
 MAT 110

dy
Also that when given y  tx1 the gradient is t and hence the t
dx
From the Activity 1, you should have observed that the derivatives
of x, x2, x3 and x4, were 1, 2x, 3x2, and 4x3 respectively.

dy
when given y  ax n where n is rational, then  n(ax n 1 )
dx
When y  ax n , the index of the variable being differentiated should
reduce by 1 and the base to be multiplied by the index before being
reduced.
This can be extended to any polynomial f ( x)  ax  a2 x 2  ....  an x n
as it’s simply a sum of several such terms.

Example 3.5
1. Find the derivative of y y  5x 4  3x 2 with respect to
dy 4  


5(
4)
x1

3
2
x2
1

61
1
x0
dx
dy 3
 x
20 x
6 6
dx
2. Find the coordinates of the point where the function
yx32x2 xhas a gradient of 0.

dy 2
3x 4
x1
dx
dy
and we let  3x 2  4 x  1  0
dx
the formed equation can be solved using any method you are
comfortable with as covered in the earlier modules.
solving by factorisation we get

x2 3
3 xx10
x(x
3 )
1 (x
1 )0
1
x10 or
3 x10
1
this gives us x  1 and x 
3

21
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

to get corresponding values of y, we substitute in the

equation yx 2 x2 x
3

1 4 
getting coordinates (1,0) and  ,  .
 3 27 

22
 MAT 110

Activity 3.5
dy
1. Find for the following
dx
1

a) y  x b) y7x 2x3 c) y 1 x

5 5 2

1
y x4
d) 2x

2. Determine the value of x at which the function y  3x 2  6 x  2

has a gradient of zero.
3. Differentiate the following with respect to x

a) x(2 5x) b) x (25x) c) (x2)(x3)

2
d)
2x(25x)2
From the activity above in question 3, you may have realized that in
order for you to find the derivatives the terms should have been
expanded first. Now this may not easily be done if the powers were
higher than the ones we dealt with and as well as rational ones. It is
with this reason that we will deal ways of handling such.
3.2.6 Rules of differentiation
In some cases you will be required to find derivatives of products of
functions as well as quotients of functions.
Recall from module 2 how we dealt with composite functions. We
were able to deal with functions within given function (somehow).
Let us see how to handle such cases.
Function of a function
Would you think of how to differentiate a function like y  ( x  4) 5 .
The immediate approach probably you thought of is first expanding
as you did in binomial expansions and followed by differentiating the
expression.
Of course you are right.
The trouble is for instance when given a power say 20. This is the
whole reason of looking at a simpler approach.
Suppose we want to differentiate the function y  ( x  4) 5

We would want to make it simpler by letting u  x  4 and y  u 5

Which means that now y is now the function of u, hence creating
another function in terms of u.

23
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Let us now find the derivatives of y  u 5 and u  x  4 the

two functions in terms of the variable ( u and x )
dy du
This lead us to  5u 4 and 1
du dx
we can arrange the expression as
dy dy du
 
dx du dx
dy
This would result to  5u 4 1
dx
you may now check the question.
In what variable is the solution expected to be?
dy
Since implies that we need to derivative of y with respect to x,
dx
we therefore expect to get back to the initial form.
dy
hence having our solution  5( x  4) 4 1  5( x  4) 4
dx

Generally when we have a function of u, and u is a function of x,

then
dy dy du
 
dx du dx

dy
if y  (ax  b) n , then  n  a(ax  b) n1
dx
Example
dy
if y  (7 x  8)10 then  10  7(7 x  8)101  70(7 x  8) 9
dx
let us now look at a case when given a product of functions.
Product Rule (a product of two functions in the same variable)
Suppose you have a product of two functions in the same variable,
g ( x)  u( x)v( x)
Using the first principle of differentiation,
g ( x  h)  g ( x) [u ( x  h)v( x  h)  v( x)u ( x)]

h h

24
 MAT 110

g ( x  h)  g ( x) [u ( x  h)v( x  h)  u ( x)v( x  h)  u ( x)v( x  h)  v( x)u ( x)]


h h

g ( x  h)  g ( x) u ( x  h)v( x  h)  u ( x)v( x  h) u( x)v( x  h)  v( x)u ( x)

 
h h h
g ( x  h)  g ( x) v( x  h)[u ( x  h)  u ( x)] u( x)[v( x  h)  v( x)
 
h h h
g ( x  h)  g ( x )
 v( x  h)u / ( x)  u ( x)v / ( x)
h
Getting the limit as h approaches zero,
 g ( x  h)  g ( x ) 
lim  
  lim v( x  h)u ( x)  u ( x)v ( x)
/ /

h 0 h  h 0

g / ( x)  v( x)u / ( x)  u( x)v / ( x)

If g ( x)  u( x)v( x) where u and v are functions in x,

Then g / ( x)  v( x)u / ( x)  u( x)v / ( x)

Where u / ( x) and v / ( x) are derivatives of the functions.

Example 3.6
1. Differentiate y  ( x 3  7 x  1)(5x  2)

Then letting u and v be (5x  2) and ( x 3  7 x  1)

respectively and g ( x)  u( x)v( x) .

Then g / ( x)  v( x)u / ( x)  u( x)v / ( x)

g / ( x)  ( x 3  7 x  1)(5)  (5x  2)(3x 2  7)

That can be simplified as
dy
 g / ( x)  20 x 3  6 x 2  70 x  9
dx
2. Given that y  ( x 2 )(4  3x 3 ) , you can equally show that
dy 15  8 x 3

dx x6
When given a quotient, what do we do?
Quotient Rule
In a similar way we can derive the formula for differentiating the
quotient of functions

25
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

u
If y  where u and v are functions of the same variable say
v
x, then
du dv
v u
dy
 dx 2 dx
dx v

 u  u v  uv
' ' '
or using notation   
v v2

Example 3.7
2
Differentiate y  with respect to x.
x 1

 u  u v  uv
' ' '
Using    , u  2, v  x  1
v v2

dy ( x  1)(0)  2(1)
Then 
dx (x  1) 2

dy  2(1) 2
 
dx (x  1) 2
( x  1) 2
You may now attempt the questions after looking at the rules above.

26
 MAT 110

Activity 3.6
1. Differentiate the following w. r.t. x using any appropriate
method;
a) 5x2( 2x3-1)-2
b) 3 x( x  2)3
c) (2x3 –8)-2(3-2x )-4
2. Find the derivatives of the following; w.r.t. x
5x (2 x  1)3
a) b)
6x2  1 2x  1
2x
c) ,
3 6  2x
Hence determine the gradient of (2c) at the point where x = 1.

27
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

The Second differential coefficient.

dy
If y is a function of x, is also a function of x ( or a
dx
dy
constant). Hence we can differentiate with respect to x.
dx
dy
d( )
this gives us the second differential coefficient dx which
dx
2
d y
is written as (read dee two y dee x two). The 2’s are not
dx 2
squares but symbolise differentiating twice. The square of
2
dy  dy 
, for instance, is written as  
dx  dx 
d2y
is sometimes written as f (x) where y = f(x
dx 2
When you have repeated differentiation, say twice, you can write this
d  dy  d 2 y
as  
dx  dx  dx 2

Say y  4x 5

dy d 2 y d  dy  d(20 x 4 )
 20 x 4 and     80 x 3
dx dx 2
dx  dx  dx
dn y
This can even be generalised for higher derivatives such as
dx n
In order to help you consolidate the concept, would you work out
this question.

28
 MAT 110

Activity 3.7 Self marked.

dy d2y ( x  3)(3x  2)
Find and 2
, for the equation y  , given that
dx dx x
d 2 y d  dy 
  
dx 2 dx  dx 

3.2.7 Implicit differentiation of Functions

What do you think is the difference between an explicit and
implicit function?
When an expression can be written in the form y = f(x), such
that
y = x3 – 2x + 3,
y is said to be an explicit function of x.
But when an expression can not easily be expressed one
variable of the other is said to be an implicit function.
such as,
y3 + x2 = x + y2
Cannot be written in the form y = f(x).
y is Implicit Function of x and y or y can be an implicit
function of x
It is now necessary to differentiate an implicit function of y,
dy
with respect to x; that is, to find
dx
Let us consider y 3  x 2  x  y 2  0 and use the first principle to
determine the derivative.
Using the small increments in x and y
y 3  x 2  x  y 2  0 can be written as

( y  y) 3  ( x  x) 2  ( x  x)  ( y  y) 2  0

Using the binomial expansion we get
y 3  3 y 2y  3 yy 2  y 3  x 2  2 xx  x 2  x  x  y 2  2 yy  y 2  0

Rearranging the terms

29
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

( y 3  x 2  x  y 2 )  (3 y 2y  2 xx  2 yy  x)  (x 2  y 2  3 yy 2 )  y 3  0

notice that the first set of the expression is equal to zero.
0  (3 y 2y  2 xx  2 yy  x)  (x 2  y 2  3 yy 2 )  y 3  0

dy
Since we are interested in finding , we will let the increments
dx
y dy
approach zero and 
x dx
y y y y y
3y 2  2 x  2 y  1  x  y  3 y y  y 2  0
x x x x x
The terms in the expression will now approach zero and
y dy

x dx
dy dy
3y 2  2x  2 y 1 0  0  0  0  0
dx dx
dy dy
Finally we have 3 y 2  2x  2 y 1 0
dx dx
And we can as well rearrange it to have
dy
(3 y 2  2 y)  1  2x
dx

Therefore dy  1  2x
dx (3 y 2  2 y )

Can you notice what has happened to the terms in the in

dy dy
 1  0 from y  x  x  y  0
3 2 2
3y 2  2x  2 y
dx dx
The terms have been differentiated with respect to x and terms
with y the chain rule has been applied.
dy dy du
Where   like the first term
dx du dx
d 3
dx
 
y 
d 3 dy
dy
y 
dx
 
 3y 2
dy
dx

dy
To find from an implicit equation, differentiate each
dx
term with respect to x using the chain rule;

for any function f ( y) then

d
 f ( y) dy
dy dx

30
 MAT 110

Example 3.8
1. Differentiate wrt. x: 2y3 + x2 = x + y2
d d
(2 y 3  x 2 )  (x  y 2 )
dx dx
d (2 y 3 ) d ( x 2 ) d ( x) d ( y 2 )
   
dx dx dx dx
dy dy
 6y2  2 x  1  2 y , collecting like terms
dx dx
dy dy
 6y2  2y  1  2x
dx dx

dy
(6 y 2  2 y )  1  2x
dx

dy 1  2x
  2
dx 6 y  2 y

2. Determine the gradient of 3xy  y 2  x 2  3  0 at (1,1)

dy
First task is to for you to establish
dx
dy  dy  dy
 3 y  x   2 y  2x  0
dx  dx  dx
dy  2 x  3 y

dx 3x  2 y
dy  2(1)  3(1)
The gradient is   5
dx 3(1)  2(1)
Can you now attempt working out the following:

31
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

ACTIVITY 3. 8

1. Differentiate the following implicit functions, w.r.t x.

1
2 3
a) y + y = 4x 3
b) 3y +2 = 3x  4 yx
4 2

c) xy =10
dy
2. Find
dx
a) y3+ 3xy –x3 = 3
b) 5x2 +5y2 -6xy=13, hence determine its gradient at (1,2)
c) x2 + y3 =12, hence write down the equation of the tangent
at (2,2)
3. The point (2, 1) lies on the curve Ax2 + By2 = 11 where A and B
are constants. If the gradient of the curve at that point is 6, find
the value of A and B.
Let us now shift our attention some features that the functions
display when plotted on graphs.

32
 MAT 110

3.3 Stationary points

3.3.1 Definition
Would you consider the orientation of the curve and the tangents in
figure 3.

Figure 3 Stationary points

At What points do you think the curve changes its orientation?

What could be the values for the gradients at the identified points?

Recall that the derivative f’(x) of a function f(x) expresses the rate at
which f(x) changes with respect to x:
Observe the following;
If f’(x) > 0 then f(x) is increasing as x increases
If f’(x) < 0 then f(x) is decreasing as x increases
If there is a point where f’(x) = 0, then f(x) is momentarily neither
increasing nor decreasing: f(x) is said to have a stationary value.
Can you examine figure 4 below;

33
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Figure 4 Location of stationary points

From figure 4, A ,B and C shows the stationary points and the

gradients are zero as the tangents at the points are parallel to x-axis.
[the tangent to the curve at these points is horizontal or parallel to
the x-axis].
What is happening to the gradients between stationary points?
Note that between the stationary points the gradients are either
increasing or decreasing in value.
How can you distinguish the stationary points?

3.3.2 Nature of stationary points

When a function is increasing, what do you expect the value of the

gradient to be? Also what is your observation when the function is
decreasing?
Functions with a positive gradient throughout is said to be an
increasing function and also a decreasing function if the gradient is
through out negative. Figure 5 below shows this picture.

34
 MAT 110

Figure 5 Decreasing functions

Can we now explore further the graph in figure 4.

When moving from the left through A, what do you think will be
gradient changes?
You should have noted that as through A from left to right, the
gradient changes from positive [increasing], to zero at A, and then
becomes negative [decreasing]
At A there is a turning point. The value of y at A is called a maximum
value and A is called a maximum point.

Moving through B from left to right, the gradient changes from

negative, to zero at B, and then becomes positive. At B there is a
turning point. The value of y at B is called a minimum value and A is
called a minimum point.

The terms “maximum” and “minimum” apply only in the vicinity of a

stationary point, not to the curve overall: we may call the point a
local maximum or a local minimum.

Near C the gradient goes from positive, to zero at C, to positive again.

At C, the rate of change with respect to x of the gradient itself has
changed sign: to the left of C, the gradient gets smaller and smaller
(less positive) [so the rate of change of the gradient is negative]
whereas to the right of C, the gradient gets bigger (more positive) [so
the rate of change of the gradient is positive]. Points of inflexion

35
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

A point where the sign of the rate of change with respect to x of the
gradient itself does not changes is called a point of inflexion.

The point C is a special type of point of inflexion that has a horizontal

tangent so that it is also a stationary point. Not all points of inflexion
have zero gradients. For example there are non-stationary points of
inflexion at D and E. Between A and D, the gradient is negative and
getting more negative, whereas between D and B the gradient,
although still negative, is getting less negative.

Note: The tangent is not necessarily horizontal at a point of inflexion.

Distinguishing the nature of stationary points

How can you tell if the stationary point is a maximum, minimum or
point of inflexion?
Using the value of the function
From the figure 4, observe the following:
Just to the left, and just to the right, of A the value of y is less
than it is exactly at A.
Just to the left, and just to the right, of B the value of y is
greater than it is exactly at B.
Just to the left of C, the value of y is less than it is exactly at C,
but just to the right of C, the value of y is greater than it is
exactly at C.

This leads to the following rules for the values of y on each side of the
stationary point as compared to y exactly at the stationary point:

both smaller both larger 1 larger, 1

smaller

local maximum local minimum point of

inflexion

This only works if the points chosen for comparison are sufficiently
close to the stationary point.

36
 MAT 110

Apart from the value of the function we can as well make use of the
gradient.

The first derivative test

It is now a known fact that at a stationary point, the gradient is zero
dy
0
dx
As we pass through a stationary point, the sign of the gradient may
change.

Just to the left of A the gradient is positive and just to the right of A
the gradient is negative. [Check figure 4]
Just to the left of B the gradient is negative and just to the right of B
the gradient is positive.
Just to the left, and just to the right, of C the gradient is positive.

This leads to the following rules for the sign of the gradient on each
side of the stationary point:

local local point of inflexion

maximum minimum

dy + 0 - - 0 + + 0 + or - 0 -
sign of
dx

graphically:

Figure 6 Use of derivatives

37
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Figure 7 Quality of Derivative

Let us now look at how we can use the above methods of

identification
Example 3.9
1. Find the stationary points on the curve y  2 x 2  4 x 3 and state
their nature
(i.e. whether they are maxima , minima or points of inflexion).
dy
 4 x  12 x 2
dx

dy
At stationary points,  4 x  12 x 2  0
dx
 4x + 12x2 = 0 at stationary points

Solving the equation 4x (1 + 3x) = 0

Either 4x = 0 or 3x = -1
1
Therefore x  0, x  
3

To find the coordinates for stationary points we will use the

1
values of x  0, x   in the original equation.
3
Starting with x  0
Can you show that the corresponding value will be zero.

38
 MAT 110

1  12   13  2
When x   , y  2    4    .
3  3   3  27
 1 2 
the stationary points are at 0,0 and   , 
 3 27 

let us now use the gradient with reference to the stationary

points.
dy
Using the gradient function  4 x  12 x 2 and x  0
dx
Picking points just before and after x  0
dy
When x = -0.0001,  negative
dx
dy
When x = 0, 0
dx
dy
When x = 0.0001,  positive
dx

So the gradient goes progresses from -ve to zero and to +ve,

Can you check from figure 7
You can conclude that the point 0,0 is a minimum point.
1
a similar approach can be used for x  
3
dy
When x = -0.3334,  positive
dx
dy
When x = -0.3333..., 0
dx
dy
When x = -0.3332,  negative
dx
 1 2 
 , 
Using figure 7 we can conclude that the  3 27  is a maximum
point.

Now let us look at another method of testing the nature of

the stationary points.

39
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

The second derivative test

d  dy  d 2 y
Recall that  
dx  dx  dx 2
As we pass through a stationary point we can also examine the sign
of the rate of change of the gradient with respect to x: the second
derivative.

The test states that:

dy d2y
If 0 and  0 then there is a local maximum.
dx dx 2

dy d2y
If  0 and  0 then there is a local minimum.
dx dx 2

dy d2y
If  0 and  0 then this test fails
dx dx 2

If the second derivative is zero, the test fails because, while a

point of inflexion always has zero second derivatives, it is also
possible for a turning point to have zero second derivatives.

Let us look at some examples.

40
 MAT 110

Example 3.10

1. Find the nature of the stationary points of the function

f  x   x 3  3x
Solution

Figure 8 Cubic equation

We first establish the stationary points

The stationary points are where f’(x) = 0.

f x   x 3  3x  f x   3x 2  3
f x   0  3x 2  3  0
3x 2  3
x2 1
x  1

The stationary points are located at x  1 .

Can we establish the second derivative.

f x   3x 2  3  f x   6 x
 f x  1  6

The second derivative at x=+1 is positive so this is a local minimum.

41
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

f x   3x 2  3  f x   6 x
 f x  1  6

The second derivative at x = -1 is negative so this is a local maximum.

Can you now attempt the following questions.

42
 MAT 110

Activity 3.9
1. Find and determine the nature of the stationary points if they
exist;
a) y  x 2  3 b) y  x 3  12 x  1
1
c) y  2 x 4  2 x 3  x 2 d) y  x 
x
2. Sketch the following after finding the stationary points;
a) y  3x 2  x 3 b) y  x 3  6x 2 c) y  x 4  8x 3

43
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Apart from the algebraic questions, you will be able to solve

questions that involve practical situations. Let us look at such
questions.

3.3.3 Solving Practical Problems

This method of finding maxima and minima is very useful and can be
used to find the maximum and minimum values of all sorts of things.

Example 3.11
1. Find the least area of metal required to make a closed
cylindrical container from thin sheet metal in order that it
might have a capacity of 2000 π cm3.

The total surface area of the cylinder, S, is 2 π r2 + 2 π rh

The volume = π r2h = 2000 π

Therefore π r2h = 2000 π.

2000
Therefore h 
r2

 2000 
Therefore S = 2πr2 + 2πr  2 
 r 

S= 4000π + 2πr2
r
So we have an expression for the surface area.
To find when the surface area is a minimum, we need to Find
ds
dr

ds 4000
 4r - 2 (π)
dr r
ds
When  0 , then
dr

ds 4000
 4r - 2 (π) = 0
dr r

44
 MAT 110

Solving the r we able to get

r = 10

You should then check if this is indeed a minimum using

the technique above.

So the minimum area occurs when r = 10. This minimum

Area is found by substituting into the equation for the area
the value of r = 10.

S = 2 π r2 + 2 π rh
S = 600π
Therefore the minimum amount of metal required is
600π cm2.
2. A farmer wants to put up a fence of length 80m against an
existing structure. He intends to form a rectangular shaped fence ( 3
sides) with the other fourth side against an existing fence. What is
the maximum area that he can enclose?

Solution:

Sketching the diagram

Let’s call the length of the long side L and the length of each of the
other two sides w so that L + 2w = 80 metres. The area is A = wL. In
general, the area will change as both L and w change.

However, L and w are not independent because of the constraint

45
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

L + 2w = 80m, so there is only one independent variable, say L. We

can use this constraint L + 2w = 80 metres to express the area A in
terms of the length L of one side only:

L  2 w  80  2 w  80  L
L
w  40 
2
 A  wL
 L
A   40   L
 2
L2
A  40 L 
2

Now the area is expressed in terms of one independent variable L.

We must determine the maximum area.

Figure 9 Vertical axis (Area)

and Horizontal axis(L)

46
 MAT 110

2
We need to find the maximum value of A  40 L  L
2

The maximum value occurs at the turning point: dA  0

dL

L2
AL   40 L 
dA
  40  L
2 dL
dA
0  0  40  L
dL
L  40 metres

By setting the first derivative to zero we see that the maximum area
occurs where L = 40 metres.

We substitute this back into the expression for the width

L + 2w = 80 metres to find w

1
And w  (80  40)  20m
2

We can now use the expression for area.

L2
AL   40 L  AL  40  1600 
1600
  800 m 2
2 2

So maximum area is 800m2 and dimensions are 40m by 20m.

Would you now work out the following questions.

47
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Activity 3.10
1. Two numbers x and y are connected by the relation x + y = 6.
Find the values of x and y which are a stationary point of the
function T = 2x2 + 3y2 and determine whether they make T a
maximum or minimum. Hint: express T in one variable

2. A rectangular box, with a lid, is made from thin metal. Its

length is 2x cm and its width is x cm. if the box must have a
volume of 72cm3,
a) show that the area A cm2 of metal used is given by
216
A  4x 2 
x
b) find the value of x so that A is a minimum
let us also look at another feature of functions when plotted .
3.4 Asymptotes of functions
I would like us to explore some special types of functions that when
plotted on graphs display a unique feature.
1
Consider the curve y 
x
Can we analyse the orientation of the graph if plotted using the
values in the table

x -1000 -1 -0.01 0 1 1000 10000

y -0.001 -1 -200 1 0.001 0.0001

Figure 10 Table of values

Figure 11 Graph for y=1/x

48
 MAT 110

From the graph you can observe that as the values of x increase, the
values of keep reducing as close to zero. Also when the x values
keep reducing the values of y keep increasing up to infinity.
The common part is that the graph does not intersect the vertical and
horizontal axes for the graph. [ x =0 and y = 0]
These lines that the graph will not intersect whatever values you use
are referred to as Asymptotes.
As you would have noticed the two lines are horizontal and vertical,
hence the types of asymptotes.

Horizontal asymptote: The line y = y0 is a "horizontal asymptote" of

f(x) if and only if f(x) approaches y0 as x approaches + or -  .

Definition of a vertical asymptote: The line x = x0 is a "vertical

asymptote" of f(x) if and only if f(x) approaches + or -  as x
approaches x0 from the left or from the right.

In some cases we would still have asymptotes that are neither

vertical nor horizontal.

Slant asymptote: The line y = ax + b is a "slant asymptote" of f(x) if

and only if lim f ( x)  ax  b
x  /  

Figure 12 Slant asymptote

The equations for the asymptotes can be identified using the concept
of a limit.

49
Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Example 3.12
Determine the equation of asymptotes
1
a) lim  
 
x   x

Solution
1 1
lim     0
  
x  x

And this is the axis where line does not intersect.

 2x 
b) lim  
x   x  2
 
 2x   2 
   
 2 x  x  x   lim  1   2
lim  
 x
lim
x   x  2 x  x 2  x 1 2 
 
     
x x 1 x 
The equations of the asymptote are y = 2 and x =
2

50
 MAT 110

Activity 3.11
Determine the equation of asymptotes

1
a) y  1 
x2
4
b) y  2 
x
x2
c) y
x

51
 Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Unit summary

In this unit you learnt:

I. How to evaluate limits

II. Basic rules of differentiation
III. Differentiation of polynomial functions
IV. Application of the concept of differentiation in
a. Establishing gradients of curves
b. determining stationary points
V. How to identify equations of asymptotes

Assignment

One assignment will be given and to be submitted at an

appropriate time at the DRC.

52
 MAT 110

Assessment

Here are a few general questions to review some concepts.

1. Find the gradient for the equation xy 2  7 xy  4  0 at the point
(-1, 2).
1
2. Differentiate y  5 x  with respect to x.
x
3. Sketch the graph y  12 x  x 3 , showing all stationary points
4. The running costs C of a long distance train in millions of kwacha
is given in terms of it’s a average speed for a journey v km / s by
16000
an equation C   v 2 . Find the value of v that makes C
v
have its minimum value.
6
5. Determine the equation of the asymptote for y  3
x2

53
 Unit 3 Introductory Differential Calculus Introductory Differential Calculus

Unit 3 Solutions to Activities

Activity 3.2
1. i) 5 ii) 1 iii) 7
16
2. a)  b) None c) -1 d) 1 e) 1
36
Activity 3.3
Not
Activity 3.4
1. a) 4x 3 b) 1 c) 8 x d)  2 x 3
2. a) 8 b) 10 c) 13.5
Activity 3.5
1
1 2 1
1. a) 5x 4 b) 35x 4  2 c)  x d)  4 x 5
2 2x 2
2. 1
3. a) 2  20 x b) 4 x  15x 2 c) 2 x  1 d)
8  80 x  150 x 2
Activity 3. 6
10 x 60 x 4
1. a)  b)
(2 x 3  1) 2 (2 x 3  1) 3
1 3 1 1
3 2 9
x ( x  2) 2  x 2 ( x  2) 2
2 2
12 x 2 8
c)  
(2 x  8) (3  2 x)
3 3 4
(3  2 x) (2 x 3  8) 2
5

5 12 x
2. a) 
(6 x  1)
2 2
(6 x 2  1) 2

6(2 x  1) 2 2(2 x  1) 3
b) 
2x  1 (2 x  1) 2
2 2x 5
c) 1
 3
,
12
3(6  2 x) 2
3(6  2 x) 2

54
 MAT 110

Activity 3.8
12 x 2
1. a)
2 y  3y 2
1
3 2
x  4y
b) 2
12 y 3  4 x
y
c)
x
3x 2  3 y
2. a)
3 y 2  3x
1
b) c) 12y + 4x = 32
7
3. A =3 , B = -1.
Activity 3.9
1. a) ( 0,-3) Min
b) ( 2, -15) min, (-2,17) Max
 1 3 
c) (0,0) max (1, -1) min   ,  min
 4 128 
d) ( 1,2) min (-1,-2) max
Activity 3.10
1) ( 3.6, 2.4) Min
2) X = 3
Activity 3.11
a) y = 1
b) y = 2
c) y = 1

55
 MAT 110

Unit 4 Elemenrtary integration

Elementary Integration
4.0 Introduction
Having looked at the differential calculus, we shall look at the reversing
these changes, Integration.

During and upon completing this unit you will be able to:

i. Understand the process of reversing derivatives.

ii. Find indefinite integrals of algebraic expressions
iii. Use basic methods of integration
Outcomes
iv. Apply integration in evaluating areas under curves.

4.1 Integral Calculus

4.1.1 Definition of Integration

We have so far looked at different ways of differentiating various types of

functions. Now we want to find a way of reversing these derivatives.

dy
For example  2x
dx

What function was differentiated?

Possible solutions would be y  x 2  5 or y  x 2  15 or even

1
y  x 2  25
2

As you may have noticed that several derivatives would give us the same
solutions. How would you know the exact function?

Among several questions this is one of the cases that we shall explore in this
unit.

57
58 Unit 4 Elemenrtary integration Elementary Integration

This process of arriving at a function that was originally differentiated is

what referred to as Integration and an integral or an Anti-derivative is the
function that has resulted from the process.

4.1.2 Indefinite Integral

dy
Can you explore the integral for  2x
dx

There are several possible solutions that would result from the derivative
1 2
such as y  x 2  5 or y  x 2  15 or even y  x  25 .
2

Now how would take care of all these possible solutions?

In order to take care of this we assign an arbitrary constant as you can see
that all possible values are constants.

 dy 
 integral of   2x  = x 2  K
 dx 

Since we are not sure of the value of the constant, it’s the whole
reason we call this an indefinite integral

 dy 
The indefinite integral of   2 x  is y  x2  K
 dx 

To avoid using sentences some notation has been adopted where

We use the notation

 f (x)dx , read as the ‘integral of f(x) with respect to x’.

 2x dx ‘integral of 2x with respect to x’

4.1.3 Techniques of Integration

General Integration Rules

Consider these examples on differentiation

dy dy dy
 2 x,  3x 2 and  4x 3
dx dx dx

58
 MAT 110

From the derivatives above, we can observe that the functions should have
had x 2 , x 3 and x 4 , respectively as one of the terms.

which means that to reverse the process we need to increase the power of
the variable of integration by 1 and dividing by the resultant to get rid of
the constant as a result of the differentiation.

For example, to get to y  f (x) , we have

dy
 4x3
dx
 dy 
  dx dx   4 x dx
3

31
x
y  4  x4  K
3 1

Now note that even if the coefficient is not there, we still assume it was
there.
dy
 x4
dx
1 x5
y  x 41   K
4 1 5
Recall that since we do not know the constant we simply add it to the
solutions.
x n 1
 x dx =  K , where K is a constant and n  1.
n

n 1
cases where n = -1 will be explained at a later moment as when n = -1 we
1
have , that you know that its not defined.
0
This formula should work for any polynomial

Let us consider the function f ( x)  x n , where n is an integer greater than

or equal to 0.
For n = 0, what do you expect f ( x)  x n to be?
The result could be so obvious that we simply write it down: f(x) = 1, the
integral can be found by

59
60 Unit 4 Elemenrtary integration Elementary Integration

 f ( x)dx  1dx  x  C
This would also apply to cases where a constant has been given.

 5dx   5  x dx  5 x dx as x0 =1,
0 0

x 01
5 K
0 1
y  5x  K

Generally it means that  Tdx Tx  K , where T is a constant or not

the subject of integration.
if the subject of integration is different what ever is not in terms of that
variable, is treated as a constant.

 xdy xy  C
Integration of a sum or difference of functions
Just like we looked at the differentiation of a sum or difference of functions,
the distributive law also applies for integration.
Example 4.1
Find the  (3x 2  x  1) dx   3x 2 dx -  x dx   1dx
1
1
x2
x 1
3
 xC
2 1

2 32
= x3  x  xC
3
Can you now attempt the following:

60
 MAT 110

Activity 4.1
Integrate the following with respect to x
a) x14 b) x 5 c) 15x14 d) 2x e)
2 x  5x  3

Many integrals may not easy to perform at first hand. One smart idea
consists of “cleaning'' them through an algebraic substitution which
transforms the given integrals into easier ones.

Integration by Substitution (change of variable)

Let us look at these examples:
Example 4.2

1. Find  (4  15 x) 6 dx ,

It is clear that once we expand (4  15 x) 6 through the binomial

formula, we will get a polynomial function easy enough to integrate.

But due to time and possibility of errors, we introduce a shorter

approach.

Letting u  4  15x and its derivative du  15dx ,

du 1 u 7
Then  (4  15 x) dx   u 
6
 
6
K
15 15 7

Which does not complete the answer since the indefinite integral
 x( x  5) dx is a function of x not of u. Therefore, we have to go
2 75

back and replace u by U(x).

(4  15 x) 7
Giving us  (4  15 x) dx 
6
K
105

2. Find  x( x 2  5) 75 dx

Let us consider the substitution u  x 2  5

61
62 Unit 4 Elemenrtary integration Elementary Integration

du
du = 2x dx and dx  , therefore
2x
du du
 x( x  5) 75 dx   x(u ) 75   u 75
2

2x 2
We may check that the new integral is easier to handle since
u 76 1
 x( x  5) dx   C.
2 75

76 2
Hence
u 76
 x( x  5) dx  C
2 75

152
( x  5) 76
 x( x  5) dx  C
2 75

152

3. Find  x 1  x dx using the correct substitution of u  x  1

 x( 1  x )dx   (u  1)u 2 du since x = u -1 and du =

1
so that
dx

 x( 1  x )dx   u 2 du   u 2 du
3 1
and simplifying we get

5 3
u2 u2
 x( 1  x )dx  5
2
 3
2
C

Reverting to x, we have

2 2
 x(
5 3
1  x )dx  (1  x) 2  (1  x) 2  C
5 3

(a  bx) n 1
Generally  (a  bx) n dx  C
b  (n  1)

Can you now attempt the following.

62
 MAT 110

Activity 4.2

Integrate the following using substitution method

a) integrate the following using the suggested substitution

i)  x( x  3) 2 dx, u  x  3

ii)  ( x  4)( x  1) 3 dx, u  x  1 iii)

 x( 2 x  3) 2 dx, u  2 x  3

b) integrate using an appropriate substitution:

 x( x  1) x 4  x 2 dx
5
i) dx ii)

Before looking at further techniques, let us complete a special case that we

had shelved.
1
Integration of f ( x) 
x
We have discussed ant-derivatives for powers of x, if

x n 1
f ( x)  x n  x dx =  K , where K is a constant and n  1.
n
If then n 1

We now deal with the exceptional case where n = -1. The formula above for
powers of x fails when n = -1 because there is a zero in the denominator.

I believe you have realised that this function can still have functions that
would lead to this derivative.

We are looking for a function that will satisfy the requirement

1
f ( x) : f / ( x)  :x0
x

63
64 Unit 4 Elemenrtary integration Elementary Integration

dy f / ( x) 1
Take note that when f ( x)  ln x , then  
dx f ( x) x

f ' ( x)
It should follow from above that  f ( x)
dx  ln f ( x)  K

1
For the   dx  ln x  K
 x

Recall also that for f ( x)  ln x is not defined if x is less than one,

therefore we restrict x by letting it take absolute values. That is ln x

Examples 4.3

4x 3
1. Find  x 4  1dx
By inspection you should notice that the expression can be seen to
dy f ' ( x)
be of the form  and it can also be seen that the
dx f ( x)
numerator is the derivative of the denominator.

Which follows that if we let u  x 4  1 ,

4x 3 du
then  x 4  1dx   u  ln u  C
4x3
 x 4  1dx  ln ( x  1)  C
4
which gives us

2x 3
2. Find  x 4  1dx
Similarly, we let u  x 4  1 but as you can see that we do not have
an exact expression, so we manipulate the expression to suit what we
expect.

2 4x 3 1 du 1

4 x 1
4
dx  
2 u
 ln u  C
2

64
 MAT 110

1  4x 3  1
Getting   4 dx  ln ( x 4  1)  C
2  x  1 2

Let us as well extend the idea to some fractions that may not fall within the
cases discussed above, where before integrating, there is need to make the
fractions simple by expressing them into partial fractions.(Review the
techniques before proceeding)

1
3. Integrate  ( x  1)( x  2) dx
1 A B
Expressing into partial fractions  
( x  1)( x  2) x  1 x  2

Simplifying 1  A( x  2)  B( x  1) and letting x = -2 , we get A = 1

and also when x = -1, we get B = -1

65
66 Unit 4 Elemenrtary integration Elementary Integration

1 1 1
This simplifies to  ( x  1)( x  2) dx   x  1dx   x  2 dx
Giving us ln x  1  ln x  2  C

66
 MAT 110

Activity 4.3
Find the integrals of the following with respect to x:
1 3 2 3
a) b) c) d) e)
1 x 2  3x x 5  6x
2x  8
( x  5)( x  3)

8x  1 8x 2
f) g)
x2  x  2 ( x  1)( x  1)( x  3)

Let us now explore another technique that involves the application of

the product rule of differentiation.

67
68 Unit 4 Elemenrtary integration Elementary Integration

Integration by parts
Recall
If g ( x)  u( x)v( x) where u and v are functions in x,

Then g / ( x)  v( x)u / ( x)  u( x)v / ( x)

Where u / ( x) and v / ( x) are derivatives of the functions.

If u and v are functions of x, in short we would write

d dv du
(uv)  u v
dx dx dx
Rearranging, we have:
dv d du
u  (uv)  v
dx dx dx
Integrating throughout,
with respect to x,
 dv  d   du 
  u dx dx    dx (uv) dx    v dx dx

We obtain the formula for

 udv  uv   vdu
This is what is called integration by parts.
This formula allows us to turn a complicated integral into more simple ones.
We must make sure we choose u and dv carefully.
du
Function u is chosen so that is simpler than u.
dx
Examples 4.4

1. Find  x x  1 dx ,using integration by parts technique.

We would either let u = x or u  x  1 .

du
Once again, we choose the one that allows to be of a simpler form than
dx
u, so we choose
ux and dv  x  1 dx

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 MAT 110

Therefore du  dx and v   x  1 dx

2
x  1 2
3
du  dx and v 
3
Substituting into the integration by parts formula, we get:

x
2
3. Determine ln4x dx , using integration by parts technique.

We could let u = x2 or u  ln 4 x .
Considering the priorities given above,
we choose u = ln 4x and so we must let dv = x2 dx.
1 x3
du  dx and v 
x 3
Substituting, we get:

Attempt the following questions

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70 Unit 4 Elemenrtary integration Elementary Integration

Activity 4.4

1. Using Integration by parts technique, integrate the following;

a) x( x  1) 6 b) x(3x  1) 4 c) x(b  ax)12

2. Using integration by parts, integrate the following;

a) x 4x  1 dx b) x 2  x dx c)

 x ln xdx d)  ln x dx

e) x 2x  3dx

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 MAT 110

4.2 Definite Integrals

4.2.1 Area Under a curve
Consider the shaded area in Figure 13 and the boundaries; we would like to
estimate its size.
How would you estimate its area?

Figure 13

One possible way is to create as many rectangular strips as possible and add
up the areas as shown in figure 14

Figure 14

Can we now analyse the area of such a strip and let its dimensions be
shown as in figure 15.

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72 Unit 4 Elemenrtary integration Elementary Integration

y A y  y

x
Figure 15

The change in area as a result of small changes in y and x be A

Then its area will be yx  A  ( y  y)x
Taking the changes with respect to x
A
y  ( y  y)
x
A dA
As x  0, y  0 and 
x dx
dA
  y or we can get the Area (A) by integration, to have
dx
 dA 
  dx dx   ydx
A   ydx

Note that A is a function in x and at say x = a, the value would be

A(a) and A(a)  g (a)  C where the constant of integration is
include and this would give some area from a certain point say K
Area from x = K to x = a  A(a)  g (a)  C
Area from x = K to x = b  A(b)  g (b)  C
Therefore the area from a to b would be found by
A = A(b)  A(a)  g (b)  g (a)
Which is the same as writing
A  ydx   ydx 
b a

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 MAT 110

In order to indicate that this area start from a to b we use the notation
b
A   ydx
a

Where a I called the Lower limit and b the Upper limit

The integral for defining the area is also referred to as a

Definite Integral as we are able to get the value of the
constant.
As the area can be defined by a function, the integral can even be evaluated
and extended to any function as long as the limit is indicated.
Let us explore some examples
Example 4.5
5
1.  2xdx
2

This can be integrated just as before

5
5  2x 2 
2 2 xdx  
 2 2


Taking care of A(b)  A(a)  g (b)  g (a)

Area  (5) 2  (2) 2  21 unit 2

Or simply giving the solution as 21.

2. Given the function y  x 2 , find the area between x = 2 and x = 5.

5
Area   x 2 dx 
2 3
 
x 
1 3 5
2
1 1
 (5) 3  (2) 2  39 unit2
3 3

3. Find the area between y  7  x 2 and the x-axis between the values
x = –1 and x = 2.

Sketching the graph, we have

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74 Unit 4 Elemenrtary integration Elementary Integration

Figure 16
we need to evaluate the integral in the region specified.

4. Determine the area bounded by x = -1 and x = 1 and the x-axis for

y  x3  x
1
 x4 x2 
 
1
Area = x  x dx      0
3
1
 4 2  1

From the sketch

Figure 17

You can realize that the area is visible and it cannot be zero. what do
you think is the cause of the zero?

When the curve is above the ‘x’ axis, the area is the same as the area
b
a
f ( x)dx and is positive.

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 MAT 110

Figure 18

But when the graph line is below the ‘x’ axis, the area is negative. The area
is then given by:

Figure 19

Sometimes parts of the graphs may be both above and below the axis, so
there is need to take care of such. Consider the case below figure

5. Find the area between the graph of: y  x 2  x  2 and the ‘x’ axis,
from x = -2 to x = 3. The diagram below shows the area .

Figure 20

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76 Unit 4 Elemenrtary integration Elementary Integration

In this case there are limits are at x = -2, -1, and x = 2, and the three
separate areas to be found are A1, A2 and A3:

We need to calculate three separate integrals as follows:

So the total shaded area would be found by adding all sections

A = A1 + A2 + A3
There are also cases where the areas in question are enclosed by different
graphs. The following examples illustrate this.

6. Find the area between y  x 2 and y  x from x = 1 to x = 2.

First we can sketch the graphs on the same axis.

Figure 21

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 MAT 110

Attempt the following :

Activity 4.5

1. Evaluate the following:

4 2 4
 3 x  1 dx
5

4
a)  2
(x  4)dx b) g)
4 ( x  3)( x  1)
dx

1. Find areas enclosed by the x-axis, y  x and straight lines x  1, x  4 .

2. Find the area enclosed by the function and the boundaries stated.
a) yx  2 x = 1, x = 4 and the x-axis

b)The x-axis and the curve y  4  x 2

c)The y-axis and the x  16  y 2

3. The areas enclosed between the functions:
i) y  16  4 x  2 x 2 and y  x 2  2 x  8

ii) y  3x 2 - 13x  4 and y  4  3x  x 2

4. Show that the area enclosed by the curves y  9  x 2 and y  x 2  7 is given by

1
128(2 2 )
3
t
5. Determine the possible values of t given that  1
(8 x 3  6 x)dx  39

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 78 Unit 4 Elemenrtary integration Elementary Integration

Unit summary

In this unit you learnt

I. The process of reversing derivatives .
II. Integration of algebraic expressions
III. The use of basic methods of integration
IV. Application of integration in evaluating areas under
curves.

Assignment

One assignment will be given and to be submitted at an

appropriate time at the DRC.

Assessment

One 3 hour test will taken during a residential school while at

college.

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