Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 57 (2024) 104316

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Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/csite

Combustion and specific fuel consumption evaluation of a single-

cylinder engine fueled with ethanol, gasoline, and a hydrogen-rich
mixture
Lucimar Venancio Amaral a, *, Augusto César Teixeira Malaquias a, Marco A. Fraga b,
Ricardo Belchior Torres c, Rita C.O. Sebastião d, Fabrício J.P. Pujatti a
a Programa de Pós-Graduação Em Engenharia Mecânica, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (PPGMEC-UFMG), Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, Belo
Horizonte, MG, CEP 31270-901, Brazil
b Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia (INT), Brazil
c Departamento de Engenharia Química, Centro Universitário FEI, Brazil
d Departamento de Química. Instituto de Ciências Exatas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This study evaluates the effects of adding a hydrogen gaseous mixture (HGM) to primary fuel in a
Ethanol single cylinder research engine (SCRE). Storage and transportation of high-purity hydrogen limit
Gasoline the application of this gas. With the development of fuel reforming methods, using hydrogen-
Hydrogen enriched mixtures in spark-ignited internal combustion engines is a convenient option to fossil fu-
Synthetic mixtures
els. Ethanol and gasoline were used as primary fuel by direct injection (DI), and gaseous mixture
Fuel consumption
was added by fumigation system (FS). The experimental analysis was developed in Spark Ignition
(SI) four-stroke engine 4 valves and 0.45 L of cubic capacity. For each operation condition and
primary fuel, spark timing and amount of HGM were adjusted in order to keep air-fuel ratio sto-
chiometric (λ = 1,00). However, the spark timing and the percentage of gas varied, aiming to
evaluate the behavior of the air-fuel mixture. It was evaluated the specific fuel consumption and
the evolution of the combustion process. The results showed that the addition of reformed gas
promotes acceleration of the combustion process ethanol and gasoline. Results were expressive
when using ethanol. A reduction in fuel-specific consumption - for this fuel - with combustion
centralized, which did not occur when gasoline was employed.

Nomenclature

ATDC After Top Dead Center

CA Crank Angle
CO Carbon Monoxide
COVIMEP IMEP Covariance
DI Direct Injection
H2 Hydrogen

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (L.V. Amaral).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2024.104316
Received 23 December 2023; Received in revised form 2 March 2024; Accepted 25 March 2024
Available online 26 March 2024
2214-157X/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
L.V. Amaral et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 57 (2024) 104316

HC Hydrocarbon
HGM Hydrogen Gaseous Mixture
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
IMEP Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
INT Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia
ISFC Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption
LHV Low Heat Value
MFB 10 10% Mass burned fraction
MFB 10-50 10%–50% Mass burned fraction
MFB 50-90 50%–90% Mass burned fraction
MFB 50 50% Mass burned fraction
NOx Nitrous Oxides
MBT Maximum Brake Torque
FS Fumigation System
SOC Starf of Combustion
TDC Top Dead Center
WOT Wide Open Throttle

1. Introduction
The current energetic and environmental policies aimed at tackling climate change increased the search for cleaner fuels, which
emit fewer pollutants resulting from combustion. This initiative is particularly relevant in the face of estimates that point to a global
fleet of 1.6 billion vehicles by 2035 [1], which will still rely on the use of fossil fuels in internal combustion engines for power genera-
tion [2].
A negative consequence of depending on petroleum-derived fuels in future mobility is the increase in greenhouse gas emissions,
which causes an increase in the Earth's temperature above its average level and leads to atmosphere pollution, glacier melting and the
increase of the ocean level [3]. Within this context, hydrogen has emerged as one of the most promising alternative fuel sources for
spark-ignited internal combustion engines [4,5]. Besides its positive impacts on road transport decarbonization, since it does not emit
carbon compounds as combustion by-products, H2 presents suitable physicochemical properties for engine combustion compared to
conventional fuels, such as higher calorific value and laminar flame speed [6,7]. However, its greater adiabatic flame temperature ex-
poses combustion chamber components to greater thermal stress and leads to increased NOx emissions [8].
Hydrogen might be obtained from electrolysis and catalytic reforming [9]. Electrolysis splits water into two gases, hydrogen, and
oxygen, employing an external source of electricity [10]. On the other hand, reformers do not need external electricity for catalytic re-
forming because they are made by reactors, in which the fuel reacts with air and releases heat, activating the reforming process. Still
in the reactor, the same fuel reacts with water and produces hydrogen [11,12]. Nevertheless, some challenges still restrict the use of
hydrogen as the sole fuel in internal combustion engines, which makes its use more viable as a supplementary fuel, combined with an-
other primary energy source. Some of these challenges are its low density, which demands storage in tanks or cylinders under high
pressure and presents some safety concerns; the still low availability of renewable hydrogen, as well as the need to redesign engine
components due to the unique H2 characteristics, which differ from commercial fuels commonly used in ICE [13,14].
The literature presents studies about hydrogen addition to ICE primary fuels. Purayil et al. [15] investigated the H2 effects in the
combustion, performance, emissions, and cyclic variations under different gaseous flow rates of a gasoline direct-injection engine.
The specific fuel consumption decreased with an increased hydrogen flow rate and the maximum reduction was observed at low en-
gine speeds, in which there was greater substitution of liquid for gaseous fuel. For all assessed hydrogen rates, the engine thermal effi-
ciency and in-cylinder maximum pressure increased as a function of H2 addition. Assad et al. [16] developed an experimental study
using hydrogen injection ranging from 0 to 20% (by volume) in a single-cylinder engine, with gasoline as the primary fuel. The au-
thors observed that the peak in-cylinder pressure was raised by 19% when the maximum amount of hydrogen was added to gasoline.
Yu et al. [17] developed experimental research on adding hydrogen to hydrated ethanol at 1500 rpm using a poor mixture (lambdas
1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4) and a compression ratio of 9.6:1. The authors analyzed the development and characteristics of the combustion
process through the indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) and the cyclic variation (COVIMEP). It was verified that there was an
IMEP increase of 108.64% and a decrease in the cyclic variation of the combustion process. Notably, the use of lean mixtures is an ef-
ficient strategy to improve the performance of combustion processes and reduce emissions from these processes; however, there is no
large-scale commercialization of spark-ignited internal combustion engines that uses this strategy. Kim et al. [18] also developed an
experimental work in a turbocharged engine, 2.0 L, with a ratio of 10:1, the engine operating at 4 and 6 bar at 2000 rpm with air-fuel
stoichiometric relation. These are typical operating conditions during the real conduction of a vehicle. The hydrogen obtained by the
oxidative reforming process of gasoline was added. The heat release ratio was improved by inserting the reforming gas, indicating
that the air-fuel mixture in the cylinder burned quickly through the presence of hydrogen. The low ignition energy of H2 allowed the
mixture of air-fuel in the cylinder to ignite easily, and its high adiabatic temperature and fast flame speed also helped the mixture of
air-fuel in the cylinder to burn quickly. The fuel conversion efficiency increased by 20.2% with the addition of 20% of reformed H2 (%
v/v), while the fraction of helpful energy increased by 3.6%.

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Although gasoline is a more common fuel on the global market, current socio-environmental legislation has been encouraging the
use of renewable energy sources, which demands the study of biofuel usage as a primary fuel option alongside hydrogen [19,20]. In
this sense, ethanol stands out as a proper option that, beyond the environmental benefits, presents suitable physicochemical proper-
ties that favor its use in ICE, such as the high-octane number and great latent heat of vaporization, which allows an increase in the en-
gine compression ratio and, consequently, leads to thermal efficiency improvements [21,22]. As stated by Assad et al. [16], the
ethanol charge cooling effect might be key to controlling the NOX emissions resulting from H2 high combustion temperatures.
Zhang et al. [23] experimentally investigated the effects of hydrogen addition to the combustion and emissions characteristics of
an ethanol-fueled engine. The authors highlight that the ethanol's lower flammability tends to increase the engine cycle-to-cycle vari-
ations under a lean air-fuel mixture, which may be reversed by hydrogen injection. For a concentration of 3% by volume, the authors
found that the H2 addition proved effective since it extended the lean-burn limit and yet reduced the cyclic fluctuations. This allowed
the engine to deliver an improved thermal efficiency compared to the ethanol-only operation, and reduced HC and CO emissions, at
the expense of higher NOx levels. Wang et al. [24] assessed the performance of an idling spark-ignition engine fueled with ethanol
and hydrogen under a stoichiometric air-fuel mixture. The engine was first fueled with pure ethanol and then, different H2 fractions
were port-fuel injected. The tests showed that the hydrogen addition effectively reduced the cyclic variations and could improve the
standard thermal efficacy of the ethanol idling engine. Despite the increase in NOX formation, the thermal efficiency increased by
20% when a 6.38% hydrogen fraction (by volume) was added, which also contributed to the reduction of both flame development
and propagation periods, as well as the HC and CO emissions.
Although there is great current interest in the use of hydrogen as a clean source of energy, some challenges still limit its use as the
sole fuel in internal combustion engines. Nevertheless, mixing it as a supplementary fuel with a primary biofuel consists of a promis-
ing means to help automobile engines comply with the pollutant emission targets established by international agreements. This is par-
ticularly relevant for the Brazilian scenario, given the country's extensive experience with the production and sustainable use of
ethanol in flex-fuel vehicles [25,26]. In this sense, this work delivers an innovative experimental study aimed at evaluating the influ-
ence of adding a hydrogen-enriched synthetic gas on the combustion and fuel conversion efficiency of an ethanol-fueled single-
cylinder research engine. The synthetic mixture is rich in biohydrogen and replicates the gaseous concentration produced from the
steam catalytic reform of ethanol in a reformer to be produced by the Brazilian National Institute of Technology (INT). The synthetic
mixture intending to increase the ethanol conversion efficiency in future flex-fuel commercial engines.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Experimental setup
The experimental tests were conducted on a 0.45 L spark-ignited single-cylinder research engine, from the manufacturer AVL,
model 5405. Its characteristics are described in Table 1 and its photograph is shown in Fig. 1. A more detailed exposition of the labo-
ratory infrastructure can be found in previous work [27]. Ethanol fuel and gasoline were directly injected into the engine and a
gaseous synthetic mixture with high hydrogen content were introduced through fumigation in the intake port.
The gaseous mixture was produced by a Brazilian industrial gases company, certified in the production of gases and gas mixtures.
The volumetric percentages of each gas that compose this mixture were defined by the Brazilian National Institute of Technology
(INT), according to Table 2. This mixture characterizes the reformed gas that will be obtained after the development of a prototype for
the oxidative reforming process of ethanol in internal combustion engines.
Different volumetric percentages of the gaseous mixture (HGM) were introduced (FS) with ethanol or gasoline (DI), and its volu-
metric concentration was progressively increased from zero (only ethanol or gasoline injection) up to a value that indicated the start
of an abnormal combustion process.
The control of the injected hydrogen-containing mixture fraction was done by the flow meter model DPC17S–V0L6-BB2-4NC-440-
SS, supplied by Aalborg Instruments (Fig. 1), installed between the mixture gas outlet control valve and the fumigation system. The
data obtained in the experimental tests are particularly relevant to validate the benefits of the gaseous mixture that will be produced
by the ethanol reformer, allowing the detailed analysis of its potential benefits when added to ethanol combustion. During the tests,
the acquired and calculated operating parameters were.
• Engine speed.
• Spark timing, ignition delay.
• Start of combustion (SOC), combustion duration (mass fraction burned intervals: SOC-MFB10, MFB10-50, MFB50-90, MFB50).

Table 1
Engine technical specifications.
Bore [mm] 82
Stroke [mm] 86
Connecting rod length [mm] 144
Compression ratio 14.2:1
Displacement [cm³] 454
Number of valves 4
Intake valve diameter [mm] 34
Exhaust valve diameter [mm] 28
Primary fuel injection system Direct injection (DI)
Secondary fuel injection system Fumigation System (FS)

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Fig. 1. Single-cylinder research engine and gaseous flowmeter.

Table 2
Volumetric concentration of synthetic Hydrogen Gaseous Mixture (HGM).

Component Concentration [%v/v]

H2 51.1
CO 1.0
CH4 24.5
CO2 23.4

• Specific fuel consumption.

The tests were executed at 3 bar (IMEP) and 2500 rpm (speed). The justification for selecting this operational point was to under-
stand the effects of the gaseous mixture addition to ethanol combustion, seeking to improve it, in a relevant point for the FTP-75 dri-
ving cycle. Moreover, all the tests were conducted with a stoichiometric air-fuel mixture to simulate the real operating condition of
the automotive catalyst and the on-board reformer with the mixture content to be produced by the device. Table 3 summarizes the un-
certainties in the measuring data based on the equipment specifications.

2.2. Engine calibration procedure

The first stage of the engine adjustment process was performed using only ethanol or gasoline as fuel. This condition was consid-
ered as a reference for further comparison with the results obtained with the HGM injection or pure hydrogen at different volumetric
concentrations. The injection timing was adjusted during the tests to minimize Mass Fuel Consumption and the Coefficient of Varia-
tion of the Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (COV-IMEP).
For this purpose, starting from −360° CA (fuel injection at intake TDC) a refinement was made to find the optimum value. As for
the spark timing, its value was adjusted so that half of the air/fuel mixture was burned (MFB50) as close as possible to 8° CA after
compression TDC, as recommended in the literature, to allow engine operation at maximum torque (MBT) [28]. A sweep around this
point was also performed, seeking the best compromise between engine performance and combustion stability.
Depending on the engine load and speed, indications of abnormal combustion were observed from the oscillation of the in-
cylinder pressure curve derivative (analyzed in real-time on the AVL Indicom screen). Hence, the spark timing was adjusted to a more
conservative value to avoid knock occurrence. Additionally, a high-frequency filter was employed in the in-cylinder pressure curve,

Table 3
Maximum expanded uncertainties associated with experimental data.

Parameter Accuracy
3 −6
Displaced volume [m ] 1.2762 × 10
Indicated Mean Effective Pressure [bar] 0.0811
Indicated Power [kW] 0.0319
Indicated Torque [Nm] 0.1219
Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption [g/kWh] 3.0808

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whose signal was normalized and then integrated (KP_INT). A window of 20 cycles was used to evaluate the lowest integral value,
considered the reference cycle without knock occurrence.
The current cycle was then compared with the regular combustion benchmark obtained in the previous step and if its intensity ra-
tio was greater than the reference value, the cycle would be characterized as abnormal (KP_EV). The knocking frequency was ob-
tained for a window of 100 cycles (KP_FRQ), so if <5% knocking cycles were evaluated, the operating condition would be considered
acceptable as a lower knocking index if there was still torque improvement compared to the regular combustion situation. During the
calibration process, knock frequency and COV-IMEP values higher than 5% were not accepted.
At 2500 rpm and 3 bar IMEP, there was a substitution of up to 10% ethanol and 15.6% gasoline with the hydrogen-rich gaseous
mixture. Particularly for the use of gasoline, the increase in the substitution percentage of liquid fuel with the gaseous mixture was
continuously and cautiously accomplished, until the onset of an abnormal combustion circumstance.

3. Results and discussion

This section presents the experimental test results aimed at replacing ethanol or gasoline with Hidrogen Gaseous Mixture (HGM)
synthetic gas.
As can be seen in Figs. 2 and 3, regardless of the liquid primary fuel replaced, increasing the HGM concentration in the combustion
chamber resulted in a continuous reduction of Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption (ISFC). In Spark Ignition engines (SI), pure hydro-
gen has excellent characteristics such as low activation energy, higher flame speed and carbon free combustion. The use of hydrogen
mixture and liquid fuel in SI combustion chamber promotes a reduction in ISFC. Nonetheless, if a high-purity gas was used, the stor-
age and transportation difficulties limit its application in vehicles, which justifies the use in gaseous mixtures. An alternative for pure
hydrogen in vehicles is the use of reforming process, in which is possible to continuously produce Hydrogen Gaseous Mixture (HGM),
that increases the total energy available, once the Lower Heating Value (LHV) for pure hydrogen is 119.9 MJ/kg, (compared to
24.79 MJ/kg for ethanol and for gasoline, it is 43.9 MJ/kg), and also it improves the Heat Release Rate, due to the higher flame
speed.
Compared to the pure hydrogen, HGM is a mixture of H2, CO2, CO and CH4 in different concentrations, that reduces the SFC in
safety and controlled conditions. Pure hydrogen associated to lean Air/Fuel combustion conditions in ICE can improve the Combus-
tion Efficiency and reduce SFC, but it is reached in hazardous conditions, increasing the risk of damage in engine components. Com-
mercial SI engines operate in stoichiometric Air/Fuel conditions and the addition of HGM to primary fuels (liquid) can also improve
Combustion Efficiency and reduce SFC in safety operation conditions, by controlled flame speed combustion process. In HGM + Pri-

Fig. 2. Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption (ISFC) variation by the addiction of HGM for ethanol primary fuel.

Fig. 3. Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption (ISFC) variation by the addiction of HGM for gasoline primary fuel.

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mary Fuel (ethanol or gasoline) operation condition, Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption (ISFC) was reduced in 5.6% for ethanol and
3.6% for gasoline. The Fuel Conversion Efficiency increase 20% for ethanol and 13% for gasoline at the same operation condition.
Ethanol was a more adequate fuel than gasoline under the high CR utilized (CR = 14.1:1) and presented the largest ISFC reduc-
tion (5.6%) due to its improved physicochemical properties, such as higher latent heat of vaporization and research octane number
(RON). The lowest ISFC reduction (3.6%) as gasoline primary fuel was a consequence of a more conservative engine parameters ad-
justment, demanding adjustments of HGM percentage, which in turn prevented the achievement of greater fuel conversion efficiency.
The combustion analysis (in stoichiometric air/fuel ratio) was described using Mass Burned Fraction (MBF) data from spark igni-
tion timing up to 90% of combustion. This is a conventional comparative representation that allows to analyze the combustion
process and engine performance.
The experimental engine calibration procedure involved the adjustment of the spark timing ignition to obtain the maximum brake
torque (MBT) whenever possible, provided that an abnormal combustion circumstance was not found. In these case, is necessary to
reduce spark timing ignition, to reach optimal combustion phasing, since the MFB50 could not be placed around 8° CA. It is important
to mention that the literature recommends centralization of the combustion process (MFB50) around 8° CA to enable a higher amount
of energy to be converted into useful work and, thus, provide a greater fuel conversion efficiency.
Due to the hydrogen low activation energy, HGM added to primary fuel reduced the ignition delay, measured by the angular dif-
ference between spark timing and Start of Combustion (SOC), and reduced combustion duration, measured by the angular difference
from SOC up to the 90% of mass burned fraction (MBF90). Figs. 4 and 5 present combustion process variation by add HGM in ethanol
and gasoline as a primary fuel, respectively.
The HGM added to ethanol primary fuel system presented smaller ignition delay and combustion duration, especially when HGM
mass percentage is superior or equal to 4.6 %m/m (Fig. 4). Combustion duration can be associated to heat release ratio. A reduction in
combustion duration represents an improvement in fuel conversion efficiency and, consequently, a reduction in ISFC, as shown in Fig.
2. In this specific case, the spark timing ignition was constant for all HGM mass percentage. This fact can be checked through the con-

Fig. 4. Evolution of the combustion process: HGM + ethanol primary fuel.

Fig. 5. Evolution of the combustion process: HGM + gasoline primary fuel.

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stant profiles of ethanol combustion intervals, with a slight acceleration pattern, as the synthetic mixture was added to the combus-
tion chamber.
When gasoline was used as the primary fuel (Fig. 5), there was a constant need to perform spark timing adjustments as more of the
synthetic gas mixture was added. The need to reduce the spark timing hindered optimal combustion phasing, resulting in a delayed
start of combustion and a consequent delay in the MFB50, which was beyond 10° CA. Thus, the gasoline-fueled engine's more conserv-
ative calibration process prevented it from achieving the MBT.
The combustion of gaseous mixtures from synthesis seems to have reached a significant technological advance. As storing high-
purity hydrogen onboard and feeding the internal engines is challenging due to its restrictions to inflammability and low spark en-
ergy, the hydrogen-enriched reforming gas mixtures have been used as a viable and safe solution. Theoretically, the main reforming
fuels can come from a wide variety of energy sources. For many years, gasoline was considered the main fuel for onboard reforming
once its usage did not demand modifications in fuel's production infrastructure, distribution, or supply. However, temperatures above
800 °C are frequently needed for reforming and generation of gas mixtures, a fact that makes implementing the onboard reforming
process difficult.
Low-carbon alcohols, including ethanol (a biofuel), have significant benefits over fossil fuels, making them appropriate as the pri-
mary fuels for internal combustion engines. At relatively low temperatures (250–300 °C), these alcohols can be used as primary fuels
and reformed by employing low-cost catalyzers. Ethanol is particularly advantageous regarding production and availability once it
can be produced from fossil and renewable sources, besides issuing less pollutants than gasoline and other fossil fuels.
Other authors developed experimental works concerning adding mixtures of hydrogen-enriched reforming gas to primary fuels.
Nevertheless, experimental conditions that combine rotations befitting with everyday driving cycles, stoichiometric mixtures (used in
most commercial engines), and biofuels as primary fuels (such as ethanol) are not expected to be found.
For example, Chaimanatsakun et al. [29] developed an experimental study using gas mixtures (H2 e CO). The authors used three
gasoline and ethanol blends as primary fuels, with a rotation of 1000 rpm, a pressure of 4 bar, stoichiometric conditions, and a com-
pression ratio of 12:1. The authors analyzed the specific energy consumption and the process of combustion evolution through the in-
dicated mean effective pressure and mass fraction burned (MFB). The results showed that the combustion duration is reduced, and a
higher amount of heat is transformed in work once the process benefits from the high speed of the laminar flame provided by high H2
concentration in the mixture. It is highlighted here that the authors do not use pure ethanol (E100) as the primary fuel and that the
gas mixture has only H2 and CO2, differing from the mixtures obtained through the onboard catalytic reforming process, which con-
template other gases, such as methane and CO2, for example.

4. Conclusions
This article presented the experimental results of stoichiometric combustion processes regarding the substitution of ethanol and
gasoline with a synthetic reforming gaseous mixture rich in hydrogen, also containing CO, CH4 and CO2. This mixture has a physio-
chemical analysis certification, ensuring data traceability and reliability. As far as it is known, no previous article has compared the
results of replacing traditional liquid fuels (ethanol and gasoline) with a gaseous mixture rich in hydrogen content, under a stoichio-
metric combustion. To this end, experimental tests were conducted in a single-cylinder research engine with direct injection for liquid
fuels and fumigation for the reforming gas mixture.
The main conclusions are.
1. The engine operated in stoichiometric condition, contrary to most works in the literature that deal with lambda variation
seeking to obtain lean or ultra-lean mixtures with the use of hydrogen. The practice of a stoichiometric air-fuel mixture is
particularly relevant for a future vehicular application since the catalyst would be maintained at its ideal temperature range, to
favor the reduction of pollutant emissions.
2. The addition of the hydrogen-rich gaseous mixture decreased fuel consumption for both ethanol and gasoline, reaching
maximum reductions of 5.6% and 3.6%, respectively. The improved physiochemical properties of the biofuel proved to be better
suited to the addition of hydrogen, and the engine's calibration could always be directed toward obtaining the maximum brake
torque. On the other hand, gasoline demanded spark timing adjustments that impaired optimal combustion phasing.
3. The decrease in the indicated specific fuel consumption obtained after the experimental tests in the single-cylinder research
engine in the bench dynamometer tends to be observed in vehicles equipped with an onboard ethanol thermal reforming system,
allowing hydrogen injection with liquid fuels.
Finally, the authors believe that this work is in accordance with the most recent discussions established in the global scenario
about energy directives, among which hydrogen has gained attention as an energy source and vector. Particularly, the use of biofuels
such as ethanol, with hydrogen obtained from its onboard thermal reforming process, constitutes a viable and sustainable way to sup-
port the usage of hydrogen in automotive engines.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Lucimar Venancio Amaral: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis,
Conceptualization. Augusto César Teixeira Malaquias: Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation.
Marco A. Fraga: Investigation, Conceptualization, Methodology. Ricardo Belchior Torres: Validation, Investigation, Conceptual-
ization. Rita C.O. Sebastião: Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Fabrício J.P. Pu-
jatti: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

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L.V. Amaral et al. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 57 (2024) 104316

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability
Data will be made available on request.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the aid and financial support provided by Fundação de Desenvolvimento da Pesquisa –
Fundep Rota 2030/Linha V (Proc. Nº 27192*08), Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), FAPEMIG
(Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa de Minas Gerais), PPGMEC-UFMG (Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Mecanica da
UFMG) and CTM-UFMG (Centro de Tecnologia da Mobilidade da UFMG).

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