32 ] Oswaal CBSE Chapterwise & Topicwise Revision Notes, BIOLOGY, Class – XI

l Cockroaches are dioecious. Male reproductive system consists of a pair of testes one lying on each lateral side
in 4th - 6th abdominal segments. The female reproductive system consists of two large ovaries situated on 2nd
- 6th abdominal segments.
l The fertilized eggs are encased in capsule called ootheca. 9 to 10 ootheca are produced by each female.
l Cockroaches are pests and destroys the food, contaminate with smelly excreta.
 Frog (Rana tigrina) :
l Frogs are cold-blooded organism having ability to change colours to hide from enemies. Body is divisible into
head and trunk, bulged eyes covered by nictitating membrane. Male frog is different from female having vocal
sacs and copulatory pad on first digit of forelimb.
l Digestive system consists of alimentary canal and digestive glands.
l Digestion starts in stomach and final digestion occurs in small intestine. Digested food is absorbed by villi and
microvilli present in the inner wall of small intestine.
l Skin acts as aquatic respiratory organs. On land skin, buccal cavity and lungs acts as respiratory organs.
l Heart is 3-chambered. Blood consist of plasma and blood cells. RBC is absent.

Know the Terms

 Histology : The study of tissue is called histology.
 Epithelial tissue : It is the simplest animal tissue that forms the continuous sheet of closely packed cells that
covers all external and internal surface of the animal body.
 Simple epithelium : Epithelium composed of only one layer of cells.
 Compound epithelium : Epithelium composed of many layers of cells.
 Endocrine glands : Glands that secrete their secretions directly into the blood.
 Exocrine glands : Glands that release their secretion through ducts (tubes) at specific sites.
 Adipose Tissue : It is a type of connective tissue that is specialized to store fat.
 Tendon : Tendon is a tough, non-fibrous, dense, white fibrous connective tissue, which joins a skeletal muscle to
a bone.
 Ligament : Ligament is a dense yellow fibrous connective tissue, which binds a bone with another bone.
 Bone : Bone is a strong, rigid and non-flexible tissue.
 Blood : Blood is a bright red coloured fluid connective tissue.
 Lymph : Lymph is a light, yellow coloured fluid connective tissue, consisting of plasma and white blood cells.
 Neuron : Neuron is the functional unit of nervous tissue.
 Synapse : The junction between two neurons (axon-to-dendrite) or between a neuron and a muscle is called
synapse.
qq

UNIT-III
Cell : Structure and Function
CHAPTER-8
CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE

TOPIC-1
Cell as Basic Unit of Life

Revision Notes
 Study of form, structure, and composition of cell is called cytology.
 Cell is the structural and functional unit of life. In unicellular organism (Amoeba, Paramecium, yeast, bacteria) ,
single cell perform all the essential functions of life.
  In multicellular organisms, different kinds of tissues perform different function and have division of labour.
 Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann (1839) proposed the cell theory.
l All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
l All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
l Shape and size of cells varies greatly according to their position and function.
l Mycoplasma is the smallest cell and largest isolated cell is the ostrich egg.
l The shape of cell may be cuboid, columnar, polygonal, thread like or irregular.
Prokaryotic Cells
 Prokaryotic cells are represented by Bacteria, Blue green algae, Mycoplasma and PPLO.
 They multiply rapidly and vary in size greatly.
 Bacterial cells may be bacillus (rod shaped), coccus (spherical), vibrio (comma-shaped) and spirillum (spiral).
 All prokaryotic cells have cell wall surrounding the cell membrane except in Mycoplasma.
 Genetic material is naked. Besides the genomic DNA (single chromosome) many bacteria have small circular
DNA outside the genomic DNA called as plasmids.
 The plasmid DNA, in some bacteria, provides some special features like resistance to antibiotic.
 Cell organelles like Mitochondria, Golgi bodies etc. are absent in prokaryotes.
 A specialized differentiated cell membrane called mesosome is the characteristic of prokaryotes.
 In bacterial cell, a chemically complex cell envelope is present, which consist of three layers. The outermost is
glycocalyx, middle one cell wall and innermost is the cell membrane.
 Glycocalyx may be as loose sheath in some bacteria called as slimy layer. In some other bacteria glycocalyx may
be thick and tough called capsule.
 Plasma membrane is semi-permeable having mesosome in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae. They help
in cell wall formation, DNA replication and distribution of daughter cells.
 Motile bacterial cell contain flagella, which is composed of filament, hook and basal body. Pili and fimbriae are the
other surface structure that help the bacteria in attaching with host and other substance.
 In prokaryotes, ribosomes are attached with cell membrane having two sub-units – 50S and 30S to form together
70S prokaryotic ribosomes.
 Ribosomes are site of protein synthesis. Ribosomes attach with mRNA to form a chain called polyribosomes.
 Reserved materials in prokaryotic cells are present in cytoplasm as cell inclusion bodies, which may contain
phosphate, granules, glycogen granules, etc.
 Gas vacuoles are found in blue green algae and purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.
Eukaryotic Cells
 Eukaryotic cells are present in protista, plants, animals and fungi. Cytoplasm is divided into compartments due
to the presence of membrane bound organelles.
 The cells contain well organized nucleus with nuclear membrane. The genetic materials are arranged in
chromosomes.
 Plants cells differ in having cell wall, plastids and large central vacuole as compared to animal cells. Animal cells
have centrioles, which are absent in plant cells.

TOPIC-2
Structure and Functions of Cell

Revision Notes
Structure of a cell :
 Cell Wall : It is the outer, protective, supportive and semi-transparent covering of plant cells and fungi. It protects
cell from mechanical damage and from the attack of pathogens and helps in cell to cell interaction. Secondary and
tertiary cell wall are formed inside the primary cell wall. The middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium pectate
which holds the different neighbouring cells together. Plasmodesmata connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring
cells.
 Cell membrane is composed of lipids that are arranged in bilayer. The lipids are arranged within the membrane
with the polar head towards the outer side and the hydrophobic tail towards the inner part. The lipid component
is mainly composed of phosphoglycerides. Later it was found that protein is also present in cell membrane. Ratio
of protein and lipids varies in different cells.
 Membrane protein may be integral or peripheral. Integral protein remains buried in membrane but peripheral
protein lies on the surface.
  Singer and Nicolson (1972) proposed fluid mosaic model. According to this model, the quasi-fluid nature of lipid
enables lateral movement of proteins within the bilayer of lipids.
 The main function of plasma membrane is the transport of molecules across it. The plasma membrane is selectively
permeable to some molecules present on either side of it.
 The movement of water from higher concentration to lower concentration by diffusion is called osmosis.
Cell Organelles :
 Endoplasmic Reticulum : Consists of vesicles, cisternae and tubular structure. RER is frequently found in cells
involved in protein synthesis. SER are important for lipid synthesis and cell detoxification.
 Golgi Apparatus (Secretory organelles of the cell) : It consists of tubules, cisternae and vesicles. Its function
is packaging of different material in the vesicle and its transport outside the cell. It is important site for the
formation of glycolipids and glycoproteins.
 Lysosmes (Suicidal bags of cell) : They are formed from Golgi and E.R. They contain hydrolytic enzyme
(hydrolases), active at acidic pH.
 Vacuoles : The vacuoles are membrane bound space in the cytoplasm. It contain water, sap and excretory products.
Tonoplast covers the vacuoles in plant cell. It regulates the concentration of cell.
 Mitochondria (Power House of cell) : Double membrane bound structure. Matrix is inside the inner membrane
and number of infolding of inner membrane is called cristae. Enzymes are found in both membrane. Energy is
generated in the form of ATP in the mitochondria. It has its own DNA and 70S ribosomes
 Plastids (Kitchen of the cell) : Based on the types of pigments, plastids can be classified into chloroplast,
chromoplast and leucoplast. Chromoplast contain coloured pigments like carotene. Leucoplast are colourless with
stored nutrients, amyloplast (starch storing), elaioplast (fat storing) and alueroplast (protein storing). Chloroplast
are green, composed of thylakoids (which form grana and stroma) where photosynthesis takes place, contain 70S
ribosome and DNA.
 Ribosomes (Protein factories of cell) : They are composed of RNA and protein and are not surrounded by any
membrane. In prokaryotic, 70S and in eukaryotic, 80S ribosomes are found.
 Cytoskeleton, cilia and flagella : These are filamentous proteinaceous structures in cytoplasm. Cytoskeletons are
involved in mechanical support, motility and shape maintenance while cilia and flagella are meant for attachment
and movement.
 Centrosome and centrioles : Two centriole forms centrosome perpendicularly. They have cartwheel organisation
made up of nine spaced fibres of tubulin composed of central hub and peripheral spokes. These are important in
cell division.
 Nucleus (Brain of the cell) : It consists of nuclear membrane and nucleoplasm. Nuclear membrane is bilayered
and is selectively permeable. In outer membrane R.E.R. is present. Movement of RNA and protein takes place
between nucleus and cytoplasm. Nucleoplasm contain nucleolus and chromatin. Nucleolus is the site for RNA
synthesis. Chromatin contains DNA, RNA, histone and non-histone protein.
 Based on the position of the centromere, the chromosomes are classified into four types : acrocentric, telocentric,
sub-metacentric and metacentric.
 Many membrane bound minute vesicles called microbodies that contain various enzymes, are present in both
plant and animal cells.

Know the Terms

 Cell : Cell is the smallest unit of matter capable of independent existence and performing the essential functions
of life.
 Totipotency : It is the ability of living cells to form the whole organism, unless and until they have become
extremely specialized.
 Undifferentiated cells : These are unspecialised cells that have the ability to divide.
 Differentiated cells : The cells that have become specialised to perform specific functions are called differentiated
cells.
 Dedifferentiated cells : The cells which revert to undifferentiated state to take over the function of division are
known as dedifferentiated cells.
 Prokaryotes : Organisms whose cells do not possess a well formed nucleus is known as prokaryotes.
 Eukaryotes : Organisms whose cells have a nucleus with a nuclear membrane is known as eukaryotes.
 Mesosome : Mesosome is specialised membranous structures defined by the invagination of the cell membrane
in bacteria.
 Polyribosome : Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form a chain called polyribosomes or
polysome.
 Diffusion : The process of movement of substance from the region of higher water concentration to the region of
lower concentration, so as to spread the substance uniformly in the given space is known as diffusion.
 Osmosis : It is defined as the diffusion of water from region of higher concentration to region of lower concentration
across the semi-permeable membrane.
 Hypotonic Solution : Hypotonic is the solution which has lower osmotic concentration than the cell.
 Hypertonic Solution : Hypertonic is the solution that has higher osmotic concentration than the cell.
 Isotonic Solution : It is the solution that has same osmotic concentration as inside the cell.
 Plasmolysis : It is the phenomenon of the loss of water from a plant cell by osmosis when kept in a hypertonic
solution.
 Active transport : It is the process of transport of molecules across the plasma membrane against the concentration
gradient.
 Endomembrane system : The endomembrane system is the grouping of some membrane organelles as their
functions are coordinated. It includes endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles.
qq
Oswaal CBSE Chapterwise & Topicwise Revision Notes, BIOLOGY, Class – XI [ 35
 Diffusion : The process of movement of substance from the region of higher water concentration to the region of
lower concentration, so as to spread the substance uniformly in the given space is known as diffusion.
 Osmosis : It is defined as the diffusion of water from region of higher concentration to region of lower concentration
across the semi-permeable membrane.
 Hypotonic Solution : Hypotonic is the solution which has lower osmotic concentration than the cell.
 Hypertonic Solution : Hypertonic is the solution that has higher osmotic concentration than the cell.
 Isotonic Solution : It is the solution that has same osmotic concentration as inside the cell.
 Plasmolysis : It is the phenomenon of the loss of water from a plant cell by osmosis when kept in a hypertonic
solution.
 Active transport : It is the process of transport of molecules across the plasma membrane against the concentration
gradient.
 Endomembrane system : The endomembrane system is the grouping of some membrane organelles as their
functions are coordinated. It includes endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles.
 qq

CHAPTER-9
BIOMOLECULES
TOPIC-1
Chemical Constituents of Living Cells : Biomolecules;
Structure and Function of Proteins, Carbohydrates,
Lipids, Nucleic Acids
Revision Notes
 Chemicals or molecules present in the living organism are known as biomolecules. Biomolecules are divided into
two types- inorganic and organic.
 Inorganic biomolecules includes minerals, gases and water and organic biomolecules includes carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins, etc.
 Different biomolecules can be classified as aldehyde, ketones and aromatic compounds as chemical form and
amino acids, nucleotides and fatty acids as biochemical forms.
 Except lipids, macromolecules are formed by polymerization of sub-units called monomers.
 Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Amino acids are linked by peptide bond formed by dehydration between
COOH group of one amino acids and NH3 group of next with the removal of H2O.
R R R R

HNH—C—CO OH+H NH—C–COOH HNH—C—CONH—C–COOH

H H H H
 A particular property of amino acids is the ionizable nature of –NH2, and –COOH groups.
Hence, in solutions of different pHs the structure of amino acids changes.
R R R

H+3 N CH COOH H+3 N C COOH– H2N CH COO–

(A) (B) (C)

B is a zwitter ionic form

 Lipids could be simply fatty acids. A fatty acid has a carboxyl group attached to a R group where R group could
be – CH3 or – C2H5 or higher number of –CH2 groups. For example : Palmitic acid has 16 carbon. Another simple
lipid is glycerol which is a trihydroxy propane. Fatty acids could be saturated or unsaturated.
 In nucleic acids, the phosphate molecules links 3’ C of sugar of one nucleoside to the 5’ C of sugar of next
nucleosides releasing two water molecules to form 3’-5’ phosphodiester bond.
 In polysaccharides, the mono-saccharides are linked by glycosidic bonds formed by dehydration between two
carbon atoms of two adjacent monosaccharides.
 H H
O O

Sugar Sugar
OH OH
Glycosidic bond
Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
 Polysaccharides are long chain of sugar containing different monosaccharaides as a building block.
 Starch is present in plants as store house of energy in plants. It forms helical secondary structure to hold the 12
molecules.
 Cellulose molecules contain glucose molecules joined together by 1-4 β linkage. It is the most abundant organic
molecules on earth.
 Glycogen is called animal starch as it is the reserve food materials for animals, bacteria and fungi. Glucose
molecules are arranged in highly branched bush like chain having two types of linkage 1-4 α in straight chain
and 1-6 linkage in branching.
Protein :
 Proteins are polypeptide chains made up of amino acids. There are 20 types of amino acids joined together by
peptide bond between amino and carboxylic group.
 There are two kinds of amino acids :
l Essential amino acids are obtained by living organism along with food.
l Non-essential amino acids can be prepared by our body from raw materials.

COOH COOH COOH

H—C—NH2 H—C—NH2 H—C—NH2

H CH3 CH2—OH
Glycine Alanine Serine
Amino acids
 The main functions of protein in living cell are :
l Transport of nutrient across the membrane.
l Fight infectious organisms.
l Produce enzyme and proteins.
 Collagen is the most abundant protein in animal world.
 Primary structure of protein is the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. The first amino acid of
sequence is called N-terminal amino acids and last amino acid of peptide chain is called C-terminal amino acids.
 Secondary structure proteins forms helix. There are three types of secondary structure : α helix, β pleated and
collagen helix.
l In α helix, the polypeptide chain is coiled spirally in right handed manner.
l In β pleated secondary proteins, two of more polypeptide chains are interconnected by hydrogen bonds.
l In collagen there are three strands or polypeptides coiled around one another by hydrogen bonds.
 In Tertiary structure long protein chain is folded upon itself like a hollow woollen ball to give three dimensional
view of protein.
 In Quaternary structure, each polypeptide develops its own tertiary structure and function as subunit of protein.
E.g., Haemoglobin. In adult human haemoglobin, 4 sub-units are involved. The two subunits are of α type and
two subunits of β types.
Nucleic Acid :
 Nucleic acids are polynucleotides. A nucleic acid has three chemically distinct components : heterocyclic
compound (nitrogenous base), polysaccharides ( ribose/ deoxy-ribose sugar) and phosphate or phosphoric acid.
 The sugar found in nucleic acid is either ribose or deoxyribose. Nucleic acid containing deoxyribose sugar is called
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and those containing ribose sugars are called RNA (Ribonucleic acid).
 All biomolecules have a tun over i.e., they are constantly being changed into some other biomolecules and also
made from other biomolecules. This breaking and making is through chemical process called metabolism.
 In living organism, all the metabolic reactions are enzyme catalyzed. Catalysts are those substances that alter the
rate of reaction. The protein with catalytic power is called enzyme.
Metabolic basis for living organism :
 The metabolic pathways that lead to more complex structure from simpler structure are called biosynthetic or
anabolic pathways and those pathways that lead to simpler structure from complex structure are called catabolic
pathways.
  Photosynthesis and protein synthesis are example of anabolic and respiration and digestion are the example of
catabolic pathways.
 ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the most important form of energy currency in living world.
 All living organisms exist in steady state characterized by concentration of each of the metabolites. The living state
is a non-equilibrium steady state to be able to perform work.

TOPIC-2
Enzymes : Types and Properties, Enzyme Action

Revision Notes
Enzymes
 Enzymes are proteinaceous substances which are capable of catalyzing chemical reactions of biological origin
without themselves undergoing any change, commonly called as biocatalysts.
 The nucleic acids that behave like enzymes are called ribozymes.
 The tertiary structure of protein has pockets or crevices into which substrate fit to catalyze the biochemical
reactions.
 The major difference between inorganic and organic catalyst is that inorganic catalyst works effectively at high
temperature and pressure but enzyme get damaged at high temperature. Thermal stability is an important
quality of enzymes isolated from thermophilic organisms as these enzymes retain their catalytic power at high
temperature is (upto 30°-90°C).
 The external energy required to start a chemical reaction is called activation energy.
Factors influencing Enzyme Activity :
 Temperature : An enzyme is active within a narrow range of temperature. Temperature at which enzyme is
most active is called optimum temperature. The enzyme activity decreases above and below this temperature.
 pH : Every enzymes has an optimum pH at which it is most active. Most of the intracellular enzymes work at
neutral pH.
 Concentration of Substrate : Increase in substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction due to occupation
of more active sites by substrate.
 Competitive Inhibitor : When the molecular structure of inhibitor resembles the substrate that inhibits the
function of enzymes is called competitive inhibitor.
 Enzymes are classified as
 Oxidoreductases/Dehydrogenases : Enzymes which catalyse oxido reduction between two substrates.
S reduced + S’ oxidised → S oxidised + S’ reduced.
 Transferases : S – G + S' → S + S' – G
 Hydrolases : It catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide, ester, glycosidic bonds etc.
 Lyases : It remove the groups from substrate.
 Isomerases : It causes inter-conversion of optical, geometrical or positional isomers.
 Ligases : It catalyzes the linking together of two compounds.
 Co-factors are the non-protein constituent of an enzyme to make the enzyme catalytically more active. The
protein portions of enzyme are called apoenzymes.
 The essential chemical components of any co-enzymes are vitamins.

Know the Terms

 Biomicromolecules : They are small sized simple chemicals that have low molecular weight (less than 1000 Da),
higher solubility and simple conformation.
 Biomacromolecules : They are large sized complex chemicals that have high molecular weight (greater than 1000
Da, except lipids), low solubility and complex conformation.
 Amino acids : Amino acids are organic compounds that are the building blocks of proteins.
 Isoelectric point : It is defined as the point at which a molecule exists as zwitter ion with no net charge.
 Essential amino acids : Amino acids which cannot be synthesized by the body and therefore, need to be supplied
through the diet is called essential amino acids.
 Non-essential amino acids : The amino acids that can be synthesized in our body to meet the biological needs are
called as non-essential amino acids.
 Lipids: Lipids are esters of fatty acids with alcohol.
 Phospholipids (Phosphatides) : They are esters of fatty acids with glycerol containing an esterified phosphoric
acid and a nitrogen base.
 Primary structure of protein : It is the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
 Living state : It is a non-equilibrium steady state to be able to perform work.
 Enzymes: They are complex macromolecules with high molecular weight.
 Ribozymes : They are nucleic acids (RNA) that behave like enzymes.
 Co-factors: They are non-protein constituents bound to the enzyme to make the enzyme catalytically active.
 Apoenzyme : The protein portion of the enzyme is called apoenzyme.
 Prosthetic group : They are non-protein organic factors which are firmly attached to the apoenzyme.
 Co-enzymes : It is a non-protein organic compounds which is loosely attached to an apoenzyme.
38 ] Oswaal CBSE Chapterwise & Topicwise Revision Notes, BIOLOGY, Class – XI

 Enzymes: They are complex macromolecules with high molecular weight.

 Ribozymes : They are nucleic acids (RNA) that behave like enzymes.
 Co-factors: They are non-protein constituents bound to the enzyme to make the enzyme catalytically active.
 Apoenzyme : The protein portion of the enzyme is called apoenzyme.
 Prosthetic group : They are non-protein organic factors which are firmly attached to the apoenzyme.
 Co-enzymes : It is a non-protein organic compounds which is loosely attached to an apoenzyme.
qq

CHAPTER-10
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

TOPIC-1
Cell Cycle, Mitosis and its Significance

Revision Notes
 The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesizes the other constituents of cells and
eventually divides into two daughter cells is called cell cycle.
 DNA synthesis occurs in one specific stage of cell division but distribution of chromosome in cells occurs in
complex series of events during cell division.
Phases of Cell cycle
 Human cell divides once in approximately 24 hours, which may vary in different organisms. In yeasts it takes
about 90 minutes to complete the cell division process.
Cell cycle is divided into two basic phases.
Interphase : It is the phase between two successive M phases.
Interphase lasts for 95% of a cell cycle. This phase is called as resting phase but during this period the cells prepare
itself for nuclear division by cell growth.
 G1 phase represents the interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA replication.
 Cell is continuously active and grows in size.
 During synthesis phase, replication or synthesis of DNA takes place and amount of DNA gets double per cell.
 During G2 phase, protein is synthesized which is used for mitosis.
 In adult animals, some cells do not divide or may divide occasionally. The cells that do not divide further and exits
the G1 phase to enter an inactive stage is called Quiescent Stage (G0) of cell cycle.
 In animals, mitotic division is present in only somatic diploid cells but in plants it is seen in both haploid and
diploid cells.
 Mitosis cell division is also known as equational division because the numbers of chromosome remain same in
parental and progeny cells.
M Phase : When the actual cell division or mitosis occurs, it starts with karyokinesis (nuclear division) or separation
of daughter of chromosome and end with cytokinesis or division of cell matrix (cytoplasm division).
 Prophase is the first phase of mitosis followed by G2 phase. It involves following events :
l Initiation of condensation of chromosomal materials.
l Movement of centrioles towards opposite poles of the cell.
l At the end of prophase, endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear membrane, golgi complex disappears.
 Metaphase starts with complete disappearance of nuclear membrane. It is the most suitable stage for the study of
morphology of chromosomes. It involves :
l Condensation of chromosomal materials into compact and distinct chromosomes made up of two sister
chromatids attached with spindle fibres. Small disc-shaped structures at the surface of centromeres known as
kinetochores serve as the sites of attachment of spindle fibres.
l Chromosomes arrange at centre of cell called metaphase plate.
 Anaphase involves the
l Splitting of each chromosome at centromere into two sister chromatids.
l Two chromatids start moving towards opposite poles.
 Telophase is the last stage of mitosis. It involves following events :
l Chromosomes reach at opposite poles and loose its identity as discrete unit.
 l Nuclear membrane reassembles around the chromosome clusters.
l Nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER reappear.
Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm of a cell after karyokinesis (division of chromosome) into two daughter
cells. In animal cells, appearance of furrows in plasma membrane gradually deepens and joins to divide cytoplasm
into two parts.
 In plants, cell wall formation starts at the centre and grows outwards to meet lateral walls. The formation of cell
wall begins with formation of cell plate.
Significance of Mitosis
l Mitosis produces diploid daughter cells with identical genetic complement.
l It helps in repair of cells specially in lining of guts and blood cells.
l Meristematic division in apical and lateral cambium results in continuous growth of plants.

TOPIC-2
Meiosis and its Significance

Revision Notes
Meiosis : It is a type of cell division that reduce the number of chromosome to half and results in the production
of haploid daughter cells. It ensure the production of haploid phase in the life cycle of sexually reproducing
organisms. It involves following events.
 Two sequential cycles of nuclear and cell division called meiosis I and meiosis II but single cycle of DNA
replication.
 It involves pairing of homologous chromosome and recombination of them.
 Four haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis II.
 Prophase I of Meiosis I is typically longer and involves five phases based on chromosomal behaviour, i.e.,
Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis.
During Leptotene, the chromosome becomes distinct and visible under microscope. Compaction of chromosome
continues throughout the leptotene phase.
During Zygotene stage, chromosomes start pairing together (synapsis). The paired chromosomes are called
homologous chromosome. Synaptonemal complex formed by a pair of homologous chromosome is called
bivalent or a tetrad.
During Panchytene stage, crossing over between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosome occurs
for exchange of genetic material. The crossing over is enzyme – mediated process which involves the enzyme
recombinase.
Diplotene is recognized by dissolution of synaptonemal complex and tendency of separation of bivalent except
at the site of crossing over. This forms an X like structure called chiasmata.
Diakinesis is marked by terminalisation of chiasmata. The nuclear membrane breaks and nucleolus disappear.
In metaphase I, the bivalent chromosome align at equatorial plate and microtubules from the opposite poles of
the spindle attach to the pair of homologous chromosomes.
In anaphase I, homologous chromosome separate but sister chromatids remain attached at centromere.
During Telophase I, nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears and cytokinesis follows. This is called as dyad of
the cells.
The stage between two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis and it is short lived that follows Prophase II.
Meiosis II
It is initiated immediately after cytokinesis before chromosome gets elongated.
In prophase II, nuclear membrane disappears and chromosome becomes compact.
At metaphase II stage, the chromosomes align at equator and microtubules attach with kinetochores of sister
chromatids.
Anaphase II start with splitting of centromere of each chromosome to move towards opposite poles. Meiosis
ends with Telophase II in which two groups of chromosomes get enclosed by nuclear membrane followed by
cytokinesis to form tetrad of cells (four daughter cells).
Significance of meiosis :
 Meiosis forms gametes that are essential for sexual reproduction.
 Crossing over introduces new recombination of traits.
 Maintains the chromosome number of sexually reproducing organism.
Know the Terms
 Cell cycle : The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesises other cell constituents, and
eventually divides into two daughter cells is known as cell cycle.
 Interphase : The interval between two successive cell divisions is termed as Interphase.
 S phase (Synthetic phase) : It is the stage during which DNA synthesis occurs.
 G0 or quiescent phase : It is the stage wherein cells remain metabolically active, but do not proliferate unless
called to do so.
 Mitosis : Mitosis is the process of cell division wherein the chromosomes replicate and get equally distributed into
two daughter cells.
 Cytokinesis : It is the process in which the cell actually divides into two.
 Synapsis : The process of attachment of the homologous chromosomes to form a complex structure called
synaptonemal complex is known as synapsis.
 Crossing over : Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between two homologous chromosomes with
the help of enzyme recombinase.
 Chiasma : The X-shaped, point of interchange and re-joining is known as chiasma.