Special
Senses
Anatomy & Physiology
Sensory Function
Sensation is the raw input from the peripheral nervous system that arrive
at the central nervous system.
Perception is the interpretation of the sensations.
Sensory receptors are cells that detect stimuli.
• Mechanoreceptors – respond to physical stimuli such as sound or
touch
• Thermoreceptors – respond to temperature
Pain
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• Photoreceptors – respond to light
• Chemoreceptors – detect chemicals
• Proprioceptors – detect position of body parts
Sensory Receptors
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Transduction
Transduction is the process by which a sensory receptor converts energy
from a stimulus into electrical signals (action potentials).
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Sensory Adaptation
Sensory adaptation is a phenomenon in which sensations become less
noticeable with prolonged exposure to the stimulus.
Sensory receptors generate fewer action potentials under constant
stimulation. The response returns only if the intensity of the stimulus changes.
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General Senses
The general senses detect touch, temperature, or pain with any part of
the skin and in the internal organs.
Sense Sense Organ Stimulus Type of Receptor
Touch Skin Pressure, vibration Mechanoreceptor
Temperature Skin Heat, cold Thermoreceptor
Pain Everywhere Damage to body Pain receptor
except
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Position of body Joints, muscles, Stretching of Proprioceptor
parts ligaments muscles and
ligaments
General Senses
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Special Senses
The special senses have specialized structures for vision, olfaction,
gustation, hearing and equilibrium.
Sense Sense Organ Stimulus Type of Receptor
Smell Nasal cavity Airborne Chemoreceptor
molecules
Taste Mouth and Dissolved Chemoreceptor
tongue molecules
Vision Eyes
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Hearing Ears Air pressure Mechanoreceptor
waves
Equilibrium Ears Motion of fluid in Mechanoreceptor
inner ear
Special Senses
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Eye Accessory Structures
1. Eyelids (Palpebrae) – elastic movable folds of skin over the eyes,
protects the eyes from debris and or trauma
2. Eyelashes – hair that grows at the edge of the eyelids for protection
and aesthetics
3. Eyebrows – hairy area of coarse skin above the eye for aesthetics and
enhancement of facial expressions
4. Lacrimal Apparatus - consists of the lacrimal gland and ducts that
drain
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and enzymes that destroy bacteria. Tears drain to the minute opening
called the lacrimal punctum.
Eye Accessory Structures
5. Conjunctiva – mucous membrane lines the eyelids and covers part
of the outer surface of the eye
• Bulbar conjunctiva – a thin transparent membrane that covers
and protects the anterior portion of the white sclera.
• Palpebral conjunctiva – coats the insides of the eyelids
• Fornix conjunctiva – forms the junction between the bulbar and
palpebral
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movements
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Eye Accessory Structures
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Extra-ocular Muscles
6. Extra-ocular Muscles – innervated by the cranial nerves controlling the
movement of the eyes. The coordinated action of these muscles allow
the eyes to move in tandem, ensuring a clear vision.
• Superior rectus – CN III Oculomotor – elevation, also contributes in
adduction and medial rotation of the eyeball. (upward)
• Inferior rectus – CN III Oculomotor – depression, also contributes to
adduction and medial rotation of the eyeball. (downward)
• Medial rectus – CN III Oculomotor – adduction (inward)
• Lateral
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• Superior
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rotates the eyeball (downward and outward)
• Inferior oblique – CN III Oculomotor – elevates, abducts and laterally
rotates the eyeball (upward and outward)
Extra-ocular Muscles
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Eye Tunics
1. Fibrous Layer (Tunica Fibrosa) – fibrous tunic, outer layer, superficial
coat of the eyeball
• Sclera – the white coating of the eye, white tough fibrous
connective tissue protecting the inner structures of the eye. It
helps maintain the shape of the eyeball.
• Cornea – a modified part of the sclera toward the front of the eye
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Eye Tunics
2. Vascular Tunic (Tunica Vasculosa) – also known as the Uvea, middle
layer of the eyeball
• Choroid – the layer internal to the sclera which is the vascular layer
of the eye
• Ciliary Body – anterior continuation of the choroid that controls the
lens’ thickness using its ciliary muscle. With the coordinated
actions of the iris’ muscles, it regulates light passing through the
lens to the retina. It secretes a fluid called aqueous humor.
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• Iriselit.
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colored part of the eye and regulates the size of the pupil
• Pupil – the hole in the middle of the iris that regulates light entering
the eye
Eye Tunics
3. Nervous Tunic (Tunica Nervosa) – layer that transmit nerve impulses
• Retina – a sheet of photoreceptors that forms the innermost layer of
the eye. The optic nerve connects each retina to the brain.
Sensory portion of the eye
• Macula – located near the center of the retina lateral to the optic
disk. The macula is slightly darker than the rest of the retina. The
macula provides the sharpest vision, allowing us to read and
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• Fovea
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heaviest concentration of cones and provides the clearest vision
and color perception.
Eye Tunics
3. Nervous Tunic (Tunica Nervosa) – layer that transmit nerve impulses
• Optic disk – a well-defined round or oval area within the retina. The
ganglion nerve fibers (axons) exit the retina through this area to
form the optic nerve.
• Physiologic cup – is a light colored depression within the temporal
side of the optic disk where blood vessels enter the retina.
• Rod cells – are photoreceptors which are concentrated around the
edges of the retina. These cells provide black and white vision in
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• Cone cells – are photoreceptors which are concentrated toward
the center of the retina. They require more light and they detect
color (photopic or day vision).
Eye Tunics
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Eye Tunics
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Eye Tunics
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Eye Refractory Structures
1. Lens - transparent, flexible tissue located directly behind the iris and
the pupil which further bends the incoming light to focus light and
images.
2. Aqueous humor - fluid found between the cornea and the lens that
helps bend light rays and focus them on the retina. This fluid cleanses
and nourishes the cornea and the lens and maintains the shape of
the eyeball.
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Vitreous humor - jellylike substance that fills most of the eyeball’s
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volume (vitreous chamber).
Eye Refractory Structures
Aqueous humor
• Posterior chamber – the posterior chamber located right in front of
the lens, filled with the aqueous humor, as it flows through the pupil
into the anterior chamber, the fluid bathes the lens capsule. Aqueous
fluid is manufactured in the posterior chamber by the ciliary body.
• Anterior chamber – The amount of aqueous humor in the anterior
chamber varies to maintain the pressure in the eye. Fluid drains from
the anterior chamber through collecting channels (trabecular
meshwork)
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Schlemm's canal – is a circular lymphatic-like vessel in the eye that
collects aqueous humor from the anterior chamber and delivers it
into the episcleral blood vessels via aqueous veins.
Eye Refractory Structures
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Visual Pathway
The optic nerve leaves the eye and then meets the optic nerve from the
other eye at the optic chiasm.
The chiasm is the anatomic point at which the nasal fibers from the
nasal retina of each eye cross to the opposite side of the brain. The
nerve fibers from the temporal retina of each eye remain uncrossed.
Fibers from the right half of each eye, which would be the left visual
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field, carry
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each eye, or the right visual field, carry impulses to the left occipital
lobe. Beyond the chiasm, these fibers are known as the optic tract.
Visual Pathway
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Visual Pathway
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Ear Divisions
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Outer Ear
The outer ear develops in the embryo at the same time as the kidneys
and urinary tract. Congenital external ear problems may mean a
problem in the urinary system.
1. Auricle – shell shaped projecting structure of the external ear that
collects and directs sound waves.
Other names: pinna, helix, antihelix, tragus, earlobe
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and narrow sound passageway that leads from
the outer to the inner ear.
Outer Ear
2. Ceruminous Gland – lines the wall of the auditory canal and secretes
a waxy yellow substance called ear wax or cerumen.
3. Mastoid Process – the bony ridge located over the temporal bone
and behind the auricle
The mastoid air cells are thought to protect the delicate structures of
the ear, regulate ear pressure and possibly protect the temporal bone
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air filled spaces are important for sound
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transmission.
Outer Ear
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Middle Ear
The middle ear is an air filled cavity which includes the tympanic
membrane. It is connected by the Eustachian tube to the nasopharynx
and is continuous with the air filled cells in the adjacent mastoid bone.
1. Ear Drum / Tympanic Membrane – a membrane that vibrates in
response to sound waves and is the partition between the external
auditory canal and the middle ear.
2.Lorem
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porttitor to the nasopharynx. It controls the pressure
within the ear, making it equal with the air pressure outside the body.
It also drains normal and abnormal secretions from the middle ear.
Middle Ear
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Middle Ear
3. Ossicles – 3 smallest bones of the body which amplify the sound
and transmit the vibratory motion of the eardrum to the fluids of
the inner ear.
• Malleus (Hammer) – the first bony ossicle where the eardrum is
attached
• Incus (Anvil) – attached to the malleus and stapes
• Stapes (Stirrups) – attached to the oval window
4. Windows
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• Oval Window – where the vibration enters
• Round Window – exit point of vibration
Middle Ear
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Inner Ear
The portion of the ear responsible for balance, equilibrium and hearing
housed in the temporal bone. It houses the organ of hearing as well as
the facial and vestibulocochlear nerves.
1. Cochlea – auditory portion of the inner ear filled with fluids which
moves in response to the vibrations coming from the middle ear via
the oval window stimulating the hair cells.
• Perilymph – found in the space between the membranous and
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bony labyrinth (tunnels & chambers)
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• Endolymph – found in the membranous labyrinth
2. Organ of Corti – sensorineural organ of the cochlea which is
composed of hearing receptors called hair cells.
Inner Ear
3. Hair Cells – specialized sensory cells that change the vibrations into
electrical signals that are sent to the brain through the cochlear nerve
4. Vestibule – (static equilibrium) sensory apparatus of the inner ear that
responds to changes in the position of the head with respect to
gravity to maintain body balance, signals that are sent to the brain
through the vestibular nerve
5. Semicircular Canal – (kinetic or dynamic equilibrium) sensory
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apparatus of the inner ear that responds to rotational movements and
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helping the body maintain postural equilibrium, signals that are sent
to the brain through the vestibular nerve
Inner Ear
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Inner Ear
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Inner Ear
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Inner Ear
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Auditory Pathway
Air conduction – sound travels over the air filled external and middle
ear through vibration of the tympanic membrane and ossicles.
Bone conduction – sound travels directly through bone to the inner
ear bypassing the tympanic membrane and ossicles.
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Auditory Pathway
Auditory Pathway
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Body Equilibrium
Body balance is maintained by:
1. Muscles/joints (Proprioception – sense of body position)
2. Eyes (Vision)
3. Ears (Vestibular)
4. Cerebellum (Cerebellar)
Any changes in these systems can cause problems with balance.
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information
about equilibrium to the brain for
coordination and interpretation in the cerebral cortex.
Body Equilibrium
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Body Equilibrium
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Vestibular Pathway
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Olfactory Structures
Nose – a structure projecting from the face for breathing and smelling.
1. Olfactory region – located at the extreme superior region of the
nasal cavity that is lined with a specialized epithelium called the
olfactory epithelium which contains approximately 10 million
olfactory receptor cells.
2. Olfactory receptor cells – olfactory receptor neurons that are
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responsible
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odor) which give rise to the sense of smell.
Olfactory Structures
3. Olfactory hairs – long cilia that protrude from olfactory receptors at
the nasal epithelium and are continuously bathed by a layer of
mucus. The olfactory receptors and hairs once stimulated by
chemicals dissolved in the mucus will transmit impulses along the
olfactory nerve.
4. Olfactory bulb – a neural structure that transmits smell information
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from
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brain through the olfactory nerve tract.
Olfactory Structures
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Olfactory Pathway
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Gustatory Structures
Tongue – a muscular organ in the mouth that manipulates food for
mastication and is used in the act of swallowing. It has importance in
the digestive system and is the primary organ of taste in the gustatory
system.
1. Papillae – are small peglike projections on the dorsal tongue
surface that houses the taste buds.
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2. Taste
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food. The receptor cells that make up a taste bud synapse on
sensory neurons, which convey the information to the brain.
Gustatory Structures
3. Gustatory cells – are the specific epithelial receptor cells in the
taste buds that respond to chemicals dissolved in the saliva.
4. Gustatory hairs – long microvilli protrusions of gustatory cells that
transmit taste impulses to the brain.
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Gustatory Structures
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Gustatory Pathway
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