Mine Fires

# Introduction: These are a serious hazard in mine and not only endanger the lives of workers, but also cause
considerable economic losses for a mine. For a fire to break out, following three conditions must be fulfilled:

1. Combustible material must be available in a sufficient quantity

2. Sufficient supply of oxygen must be available
3. A source of ignition of adequate energy must be available + with proper intensity
4. A contact between the Ignition Source and the Combustible Material for a sufficient time period.

# Types of Mine Fires: There are two types of mine-fires:

1. Incipient Fires: These are also known as “Seam Fire”. These are the fires which originate at
a. Abandoned mine workings
b. In goaves of seems being worked
c. In falls of roof coal
d. In fractured coal pillars
e. In the vicinity of geological disturbance etc

These Mine fires account for up to 75 to 90% of all the underground fires. These are very hard to detect in
the early stages.

2. Open fires: These are the fires that originate in open mine working such a shafts, roadways and coal faces
etc, due to a variety of causes. These are characterized by visible active combustion or flames. They develop
much faster than the former and spread quickly in the direction of ventilation.

# General causes of mine-fires: There are various reasons that are grouped into following major causes:

1. Open fires: These are mainly caused in naked lamp mines in which, naked or open lights are used. The
careless handling of lamps and carrying matches or other flame making devices. The open flame may cause
an explosion in the gases, and may also cause a fire.
2. Spontaneous Combustion: The term means the self-heating of coal or of any other easily oxidisable
substance due to auto-oxidation at ordinary atmospheric temperature. Amongst the various theories
explaining the phenomenon, the Coal Oxygen Complex Theory is generally accepted. However, the common
view of Mining Engineers, is that the main cause of it are the absorption and oxidation property of the coal
substance itself, at low temperatures.
The Simple mechanism of it is that whenever the coal comes into contact with Oxygen, then the
normal temperature O2 performs a chemical reaction with coal, that produces CO & CO2. This reaction is
Exothermic, which means there is an evolution of heat during the reaction.
C + O2 = CO2 (Heat)

2C + O2 = 2CO2 (Heat)

The evolved heat gets removed by the ventilating air, but if the air is stagnant, or the ventilation is not
proper, then the heat doesn’t gets removed completely, and the coal starts getting heated at a rate of 10
degree Celsius per hour. At this rate, the speed of oxidation of coal gets doubled, and a stage comes when
the coals start burning. This leads to be a cause of around 2/3rd of the fire accidents in the coal mines, that
continued to burn for several decades and centuries.
3. Electricity: Even though the electrification in the mines has proved advantageous for the mines, it has also
become the cause of a number of fires in the mines. The major reasons include Short-Circuiting & Sparking
due to improper methods of installation used in repair and maintenance of electrical equipment. The short-
circuits and sparks may ignite any combustible material present. The motor or other electrical equipment
may also get heated, and eventually burn, in the case of Over or Under-Voltage.
4. Friction: The fire due to friction occur majorly:
a. In roadways and Inclines with rope haulages and belt conveyors
 b. In staple shafts supported by Timber
c. Faces cut by Coal Cutting Machines, Continuous Miners or Shearers.

The belt conveyor fire forms the largest percentage of these. The major precaution against this cause, is a
proper and regular supervision of the places, where there is an excessive friction.

5. Blasting: Blown Out Shots in coal, especially when coal dust is present in shot-holes, may cause mine fires
through ejected glowing particles, igniting coal dust or loose coal near the face. Blasting can also ignite an
unknown Methane Blower, which, in turn, may set an entire coal face on fire. Proper stemming may also
contribute to the cause. However, blasting as a whole, is definitely a minor cause of fire.
6. Explosion: The explosion flames, explosion gases and coal dust taking part in an explosion, may set on fire:
a. wooden doors
b. Paper
c. Non-fire-proof brattice line
d. unburnt coal dust and loose coal
e. ultimately the entire coal face

The harmful gases, along with coal dust, forms an explosive mixture, when mixed with a suitable
quantity of air. The danger of fires due to explosion is higher in colder months. It can be prevented by
ensuring proper and adequate ventilation in all the sections of the mines.

7. Closed Workings: In some places, the discontinued or abandoned workings are illegally used by some people
for various unsocial activities. Some harmful human activities, may cause the gases found in these workings
to explode, which may harm the adjacent workings too.
8. Boilers Ash: The coal ash from the boilers, is completely useless, and is stored at surface. If it is not
extinguished properly, at the right time, it can affect a very large area.
9. Miscellaneous: There are virtually many other reasons, that may cause a mine fire. The major ones amongst
them, are as follows:
a. Welding, cutting and soldering operation with an arc or an open flame
b. Methane Blower may cause fire
c. Static or Frictional electricity may also cause fire indirectly
d. Friction caused due to:
i. Belts against pulleys
ii. Passing of dust laden air through ducting
e. Poorly maintained diesel equipment
f. Poorly maintained compressor
g. surface fire may communicate with underground fire.

# Causes of Surface Fires: are as follows:

1. Electrical: These include:

a. Short Circuit
b. Sparks from welding etc.
c. Electrical equipment malfunctioning.
2. Ambers of coal or of other fire: This fundamentally involves the due negligence and irresponsibility on the
account of the workers and supervisors.
3. Carelessly thrown cigarettes or other burning matter
4. Ignition of any fluid containing:
a. Kerosene oil
b. Lubricant
c. Grease
d. Oil-soaked cotton waste or paper
e. Other combustible materials
5. Hot surfaces: of motors, compressors, IC engines etc., when in contact with combustible materials, may
cause fire.
 6. Spontaneous Heating: in coal blocks
Blown it
# Causes of Underground Fires: are as follows: Defective explosive
Defective FSL
1. Blown-out or Blown-through shots Use of naked lights
2. Defective Explosives or other blasting equipment Use of diesel machinery
3. Welding in underground mines Welding
Short circuit
4. Accumulation of CH4 Accu of CH4
5. Oxidation and Spontaneous Heating of coal Spontaneous heating
6. Use of defective flame safety lamp Incubation period
7. Short circuiting or other electrical causes
8. Not extracting coal within its incubation period
9. Use of diesel machinery
10. Use of naked light or flames.

# General Precautions: are as follows:

1. no inflammable material shall be stored in a mine except in a fire proof receptacle

2. greasy and oily waste in underground working shall be regularly removed to the surface
3. greasy and oily waste in surface working shall be regularly disposed off
4. no naked light or lamp shall be placed or thrown near timber, wooden structure or any other combustible
material
5. The owner, agent or manager shall take measures to prevent, detect and combat the start and spread of fire
6. Owner, agent or manager shall ensure that the working is stopped and workers are evacuated, in the case of
a fire
# Surface Precautions: are as follows:
1. All structures within 10 m. from all entrances shall be flameproof
2. Shale or other carbonaceous material shall not be heaped & dried and dead leaves etc. shall be removed
frequently.
3. Any heated material/ashes shall not be deposited on any outcrop of a coal seam
4. No fire shall be allowed to burn inside or within 15m. from all entrances
5. Large coal stack shall be avoided. It shall not exceed 200 tons at any time
6. Coal stack shall be on a firm ground free form any vegetation.
7. Coal stacks shall be cleaned on the “first come first removed” basis, so only fresh coal is available in it.
8. Surface of coal stack shall be coated with mud to cut oxygen supply
9. Temperature in the coal stack shall be regularly monitored.
10. Water is the best fire-fighting medium for surface fires.
11. Fire-fighting equipment shall be readily available in suitable quantities
12. Electrical appliances and cables shall be of proper quality.

# Underground Precautions: There are different provisions of regulation 116A, 117, 118, 119, 121, 122 of CMR 1957
shall be compiled with:

1. No person shall be employed:

a. when fire exist in lower seams
b. when there's an active fire within 60 m of any mine opening.
c. when fire is in an upper seam and the parting is less than 10 m.
d. when one of the two seams with common ventilation is on fire.
2. on appearance of fire or spontaneous:
a. extra man power shall be withdrawn
b. area shall be fenced off
c. dealing of fire shall be done under competent supervision
d. work shall not be resumed until declared same by the manager
e. proper supply shall be ensured of:
i. self-rescuer
 ii. at least two smoke helmets
iii. flame safety lamp
iv. carbon mono-oxide detection equipment
3. at entrance arrangements to check matchbox, lighters, cigarettes, etc. and if found, it shall be taken into
custody
4. fire shall not be allowed to burn inside or within 15 m. of mine opening
5. welding shall be avoided; in case if it is necessary, permissions shall be taken from:
a. manager for degree 1 gassy seam
b. regional inspector for degree 2 and degree 3 gassy seams
6. avoid naked lights and use only approved flame safety lamps
7. properly installed cables and electrical machinery shall be used to avoid sparking
8. use only p5 explosives for blasting
9. regular inspection of isolations stoppings.
10. maintaining minimum pressure difference across isolation is stopping
11. restrict the storage of inflammable material like oil, grease, wood etc.
12. to be edited more from (Dj Deshmukh part 2 page 80 or so)
remove all wood cuttings, greasy and oily waste out of mine
Brake blocks of machinery shall be regularly adjusted to avoid
overheating
Same with conveyor belts
Machinery should be properly installed and operated

Accidental Fire
The fire accidents, caused in a mine, that are harmful in Nature, causing a heavy loss of
property as well as lives of the workers, is called an accidental fire. The major causes behind
such fires, are as follows:
1. Spontaneous Heating.’
2. Coal Dust E3xplosion
3. Methane Gas Explosion.
4. Fire Damp Explosion
 Spontaneous Heating
The term means the self-heating of coal or of any other easily oxidisable substance, due to auto-oxidation at
ordinary atmospheric conditions. It is the major reason behind a large number of mine-fires. The various theories
explaining the spontaneous heating are:

1. Pyrite theory (Plot)

2. Bacterium theory (Potter)
3. Phenol theory (Fischer)
4. Coal Oxygen Complex theory (Rheed and Wheeler)
5. Electrochemical theory (Kamneva & Alenksandrov)

(On being inn contact with air, the carbon in the coal comes in contact with oxygen and an exothermic reaction
takes place. The heat liberated is carried with air if the ventilation is good, but if its poor, the heat increases and
gives rise to fire in the coal.)

However, the general view commonly held by the mining engineers, is that the main causes of spontaneous heating
are the absorption and oxidation properties of coal substance itself, at low temperatures.

# Mechanism of Spontaneous Heating: is as follows:

1. When coal is exposed to air, oxygen is absorbed on its exposed surface and oxidation takes place, resulting
the formation of CO2, water vapour and evolution of heat.
2. The oxidation takes place even at normal temperature, but it is slow and the heat evolved is carried away by
the air, unless if it is stagnant.
3. However, if the rate of dissipation of heat is low as compared to its evolution by oxidation, the build-up of
heat is gradual and temperature rises slowly.
4. At the raised temperature, the process of oxidation is slightly accelerated and the other fractions of coal
become susceptible to oxidation
5. A stage is reached when the heat build-up reaches the Ignition Temperature of the coal, that causes it to
catch fire (burns slowly with the smoke but no flame)
6. The fire may be small in the beginning, but it soon breaks into flames, if the supply of O2 is sufficient.

# Stages of Spontaneous Combustion: There are three distinct stages of spontaneous combustion which are as
follows:

1. Incubation Period
2. Indication Period
3. Open Fire

Incubation period is the period between the onset of first oxidation and the particular time at which one can detect
it by the senses. From a practical point of view, the term denotes the period between the first roof fall after
beginning of coal extraction in a district or panel, and the appearance of the first signs of heating. This period varies
widely, depending upon factors like:

1. Seam Thickness
2. Nature of immediate roof
3. Method of working
4. Method of roof control
 5. Regularity and Continuity of working
6. Liability of coal to undergo spontaneous heating

This period holds a special importance in determining the size of the panel, so that the coal may be extracted within
the incubation period. This period ranges between 3-18 months, higher ranks of coal having longer periods. There is
no certain way, of measuring it. It is estimated by experience, or by looking into the same of other adjacent or
nearby seams. The Period of spontaneous heating, in different seams are as follows:

1. Dhanbad Seam (Raniganj): 15-20 weeks

2. Chury Colliery (South Karanpura Coalfields): 15 weeks
3. Makum Coalfields (Assam): 10 – 12 weeks
4. Nevyeli Lignite: 8-10 Weeks
5. Bisrampur Seam: 8-10 weeks

Some coals are so sensitive to spontaneous heating, that if the coal in the wagon, is not stocked, loaded or banked
within 2-3 weeks, it may catch fire. In addition, the exposed coal of benches, in the Mechanised Quarries, is also
liable to catch fire.

The beginning of Indication Period id marked by the end of the Incubation Period. It is marked by “sweating” & haze
in the air, caused by warmed up air coming into contact with cooler coal, rock, and metallic surfaces. This period is
often of very small duration, lasting sometimes only a few hours only.

The indication period comes to an end, with the appearance of “fire-stink”, when an open fire with visible active
combustion breaks out. The fire-stink can be easily recognisable by the characteristic petrolic smell. Seams seldom
burn with a bright flame, but glow, developing bluish-white clouds of smoke.

# Crossing and Ignition Points: These are the two special points, that are the points or values of temperature and are
helpful in understanding the mechanism and calculating the time of spontaneous heating of the coal. To study the
relative tendency of coals to heat spontaneously, a coal sample (4g) is heated in a reaction tube in a furnace or bath
at constant or rising temperature with oxygen or air passing through it at a predetermined rate, till the coal
temperature crosses the furnace or bath temperature.

The temperature at which the temperature of coal and the furnace coincides, is called Crossing Point Temperature. It
is also called the Relative Ignition Temperature. It can also be done in the absence of oxygen. The Crossing point of
Jharia Coal is between 189 to 231 degree Celsius.

On the other hand, the Ignition Point, refers to the minimum value of temperature of a gas, that is required to start
and cause combustion, regardless of an igniting element. It is the minimum temperature, at which, the coal ignites
without any external heat source, on account of the exothermic reaction with oxygen. It is determined by
observation. It is also called the Auto-Ignition Temperature and depends on various factors like:

1. Composition of gas and air mixture

2. Shape and size of space where ignition occurs
3. Heating duration
4. Ignition source and temperature
5. Catalytic effect of material involved
6. Pressure and temperature of atmosphere
7. Amount of O2 present.
8. Amounts of other gases present.
9. Nature of Turbulence

Generally, the ignition Temperature of Methane mixed with air is around 650-750 degree Celsius, but that of the
Pure Methane is 550 degrees Celsius.

# Oxidation Rate: It is the consumption of oxygen given in mg per kg coal per minute (mg O2/kg*min.) or in mg per g
coal per hour (mg O2/g*h).
# Adiabatic Self Heating Time: It is the time interval between the starting temperature oof the experiment and
ignition of the coal.

# Lag on Ignition: The difference of time, between the application of flame, and the ignition of gas, is called the Lag
of Ignition. It is an important characteristic of Methane Explosion. This happens because, the methane absorbs
certain quantity of heat, before starting to disassociate and burn.

It has the following Characteristics:

1. The lag depends upon the amount of methane; if less, ignition time would be more
2. The lag falls on increase in temperature, i.e., it is around 10s at 923K but falls to around 1s at 1273K
3. The lag also falls with increase in pressure, but it happens to a very lesser extent.
4. Presence of H2 & other combustible gases reduce lag considerably (30% HH2 in Methane completely
eliminates the lag on ignition)

# Factors Governing Spontaneous Heating: are as follows:

1. Moisture Content: High moisture coal is more susceptible to spontaneous heating. The coal with the
Moisture Content between 7 to 15% are prone to Spontaneous Heating. The moisture doesn't assist directly,
but as the moisture vaporises, the coal disintegrates and presents more surface for contact with air and
oxidation.
2. Volatile matter: Coals with high content of volatile matter, are more susceptible to spontaneous heating
3. Carbon Content: Coals having high carbon content are less liable to spontaneous heating. Lignite and
Bituminous are more liable to spontaneous heating but fire is practically unknown in Anthracite coal.
4. Oxygen Content: The coal with less percentage of O2 in the volatile matter is less prone to heating. With O2
percentage of 2% of less, the coal is not liable to spontaneous heating
5. Banded Constituents of Coal: The bright bands of coal, i.e., clarain and vitrain are more susceptible to
spontaneous heating in comparison to the dull ones, like durian and fusain. Both the Durian & Fusain
actually resists the Spontaneous Heating.
6. Friability: Coal which is easily crushed and broken into smaller size, is more liable to spontaneous heating.
The Disergarh seam of Raniganj Coalfields and Seam XIV & XV of Jharia Coalfields, are an excellent example
of this.
7. Presence of Iron Pyrites: Coal containing the iron pyrites, in the disseminated form, are much liable to
spontaneous heating. Example some coal seams in Pench Valley Coalfields.
8. Nature of Adjoining Strata: The thermal conductivity of coal measure shales is only one third that of the
sandstones. If a coal heap is covered by loose shales, the heat of oxidation of coal is not dissipated as fast as
in the case of coverage by sandstones. In this way, the former heap is more liable to spontaneous heating.
9. Depth of seam: With an increase in the depth, the strata temperature and crushing effect of super
incumbent rocks of coal seam also increases. Both the factors accelerate the process of spontaneous
heating.
10. Thickness of seam: It is difficult to remove all the coal in the thick seams, during Depillaring by Caving. The
remaining coal is left underground in the form of stooks, which increases the liability of spontaneous
heating.
11. Geological Disturbances: Near a fault plane, the coal and other strata are usually crushed and not hard
enough. Such crushed and weak, friable coal has to be left in-situ for support near a fault zone, to prevent a
rock slide along the fault plane.

# Places of Spontaneous Heating: Are as follows:

1. In U/G Mines: in:

a. Goaves
b. In the pillar splitting or in roof fall in old workings
c. Pillars near a fault plane (having more fractures)
d. Pillars crushed by weight of roof
e. Goaf at a smaller depth (that gets air from the surface continuously)
2. In O/C mines: in
 a. Coal Bench (in which, face has been stopped due to Bench Break, caused by Bad Blasting)
b. Broken Coal near the root of stopped face
c. Coal rib left by Drag-line
d. Overburden dump, which is mixed with shale and reject.
3. At Surface: in
a. Coal stock

# Prevention of Spontaneous Heating: It is related to regulation 137 of CMR 2017:

1. Seam shall be worked in panels, having independent ventilation, in such a way, that it is possible to isolate
one from other.
2. While determining the size of panel, due consideration shall be given to enable complete extraction within
the incubation period of the coal
3. No coal or shale or other carbonaceous material shall be left belowground
4. If removal of fallen coal is not practicable, area shall be effectively sealed off
5. No extraction work shall be commenced, until fire-dams and stoppings are provided in all entrances to the
panel.
6. Shale or other carbonaceous material shall not be used in construction of fire dams and stoppings
7. Materials for dealing with fire, shall be kept in a sufficient quantity and suitable places on surface
8. Suitable arrangement shall be made for spraying water or other fire-resistant materials at regular intervals
9. Flammable hydraulic fluid shall not be used belowground
10. Arrangement shall be made to minimise the possibility of hydraulic fluid or oil coming in contact with hot
surfaces or cables etc.
11. Combustible oil shall not be used for filling electrical equipment
12. Combustible materials such as oily and greasy waste, timber etc. shall be cleaned up and not allowed to
accumulate.
13. In bord and pillar working, the extraction rate shall be as fast as practicable.
14. Worked out area shall be effectively sealed off, as soon as possible, or ventilated.
15. For roof control of seams liable to spontaneous heating, solid stowing is the best method.
16. Oxidizing waste material shall not be discarded into the goaves of workings.
17. Ventilation regulators shall be correctly placed and of fire proof material.
18. Every underground working shall be inspected by supervisory officials, at least once in every working shift.
19. On idle days, all district and sections, that are liable to heating, shall be examined at least once by
competent persons.
 Classification of Mine Fires
The Indian Standards Institute (I.S.I.) classifies a fir in the following types:
1. Class A: This category consists of Inflammable materials like Wood, Coal, Rubber, Conveyor Belt &
other carbonaceous materials.
2. Class B: This category consists of Inflammable liquids like Lubricants, Oil, Diesel, Petrol, and other
inflammable oils and grease etc.
3. Class C: This category consists of gaseous fuels like L.P.G., Butane etc.
4. Class D: This category consists of Metallic fires, such as melted iron etc.
5. Class E: This category consists of electrical equipment, such as electric motor, generator, cable,
transformer, circuit breakers, electronic equipment etc.
The class A fire can be extinguished with water. If it is in its initial stage and is not spread widely, it can also
be controlled using Stone Dust, Sand etc. but of the fire has spread widely, it cannot be controlled with
Sand.
The class B fire can be extinguished using special Fire-Extinguishing equipment, that covers the fire, and
cuts the supply of oxygen to it. The Foam Extinguisher is the most suitable for this type of fire. If water is
used for extinguishing this type of fire, the oil gets mixed with water and spreads even more. Hence, water
is not used for this type of fire.
The class E fire requires such medium for its extinguishing, that are non-conductive in nature. Water, in the
natural state, is a conductor of electricity, hence is not used for extinguishing this type of fire. Even the
Foam Extinguishers are prohibited for it. During its initial stage, it can be controlled by sand, but if it has
spread widely, CO2 Extinguishers are used. It is recommended, because it does not harm any surfaces of
working equipment etc.

# Portable Extinguishers: With the purpose of extinguishing mine fire, generally buckets filled with sand
and water are kept at conveniently accessible places. According to the Mine Rules 1955, such
arrangements shall be made at the following places:
1. At every entrance of the mine.
2. The starting of every shaft or incline
 3. Every engine-house
4. Any other places, where there is a storage of grease, oil or other combustible materials
5. At the entrances of every district or section of every seam
# Types: The portable extinguishers are of following types:
1. Soda Acid Fire Extinguishers: This type of extinguisher depends for its action on the cooling effect of
a jet of liquid. The extinguisher consists of a conical or cylindrical sheet steel container (Fig. 1.12)
charged with basic sodium bicarbonate solution, a siphon or discharge tube, a nozzle, a
hermetically-sealed acid phial or bottle, a perforated acid bottle metal cage, and a plunger knob
assembly. The nozzle is closed with a protection disc which ruptures at a pressure of 2 bar(g) and
has the object of preventing the stopping of the nozzle besides protecting the solution against the
action of the surrounding atmosphere. The rupture disc, furthermore, builds up a pressure inside
the extinguisher when the latter is operated, which is sufficient to force the extinguishing liquid out
of the nozzle in a powerful jet after breaking the disc.
The extinguisher is operated by breaking the acid phial
with the plunger t knob, permitting the acid and soda solutions to mix, and directing the nozzle at
the same time towards the fire with the extinguisher held almost horizontally. The chemical
reaction produces carbon dioxide in such a quantity that a pressure of about 6.5 bar(g) is developed
which forces the whole of the contents of the extinguisher to discharge on to the fire.
A 10-litre capacity soda-acid extinguisher has a horizontal covering range of
up to 14 m and a discharge time of 90 seconds. Soda-acid fire extinguishers are suitable for fires of
solid combustible materials. This type of fire extinguisher is only permitted for Class A fires and not
used for Class B fires. According to the Mines Rules, these are not allowed to be used for Class E
fires. (*Contains H2SO4)
2. Water CO2 Extinguisher: This type consists of a Steel Cylinder that has a coating of copper on its
interior. The cylinder is filled with water. A small sealed copper tube, carries CO2 at a high pressure
within the cylinder. A plunger is installed at the top of the copper tube, that is exposed on the
upper end of the cylinder.
In order to use the extinguisher, the plunger is stroked against a hard surface,
due to which, the copper tube breaks, and the high pressure of the gas pushes the water out of the
cylinder, up to a distance of 12m.
This type of extinguisher is only used for Class A fire, and is not used
for Class B fires and is restricted for use in Class C fires.
3. Foam Extinguisher: This type of extinguisher produces, when operated, a thick foamy fluid either
by reaction between two chemical solutions (chemical-foam type) or by powerfully stirring an
aqueous solution of a foam-forming compound by means of compressed air (mechanical or air-
foam type). When directed against a fire, the foam spreads over the entire fire, covering or
blanketing it, and thus cutting off the oxygen supply. The wet foam layer also produces a cooling
effect which assists in extinguishing the fire. Foam is an extremely bad conductor of heat. It is to
this fact that it owes its value. The topmost layer of foam has a temperature which is little above
that of the surrounding atmosphere. All foams are capable of flowing and self-levelling over
horizontal liquid or solid surfaces and adhering to vertical surfaces. These are kept in inverted
position while in use.
Foam extinguishers are especially used for fighting fires involving combustible and
flammable liquids (i.e., Class A & Class B). They are not recommended for use in fighting electrical
fires (i.e., Class E) where the foam could come into contact with energized equipment.
These are of two Types:
1. Chemical Foam Type
 2. Mechanical/Air Foam Type
4. CO2 Extinguisher: This type of extinguisher consists of a cylindrical container, filled with 1.5 kgs. Of
CO2 at High pressure, but the CO2 is in both liquid and gaseous state for some quantities, like in
Ordinary L.P.G. cylinders. The container has a circular valve, that is rotated to open while using the
Equipment. These are kept in a straight position while in use. Any person is not allowed to enter in
the area, after its use.
It is the easiest kind of Portable Extinguisher. It is also suitable for
Class E fires also. The advantage of using CO2 for extinguishing fire, is that the temperature of the
gas is extremely low, that causes a cooling effect on the burning matter. All CO2 Extinguishers
consists of Funnel shaped discharge horns, that discharges the CO2 in a condensed but cool white
cloudy form. These types are useful where the air velocity is not adequate., mostly at places in a
mine, where ventilation is not provided.
5. Dry Powder Extinguisher: This type can be used for classes of fires, including the Class E fires. It
consists of a cylindrical apparatus, filled with fire extinguishing powder, and high-pressure CO2
(kept within a small separate apparatus within the cylinder).
The dry powder usually consists of Mono-Ammonium Phosphate or any other chemical substance,
that is water-repellent in nature. The powder doesn’t have a cooling effect on the fire, but forms a
sticky covering of Metamorphic Acid, and prevents the fire from stopping further. The powder is
water-repellent, non-corrosive, non-toxic and non-conductive to electricity. They also do not get
defected on being stored. They can also be refilled at the spot itself.
For use, the plunger rod is stroked against a hard ground, due to which, the high-pressure CO2 gas
starts flowing in the chamber of Dry Powder, and pushes it out of the cylinder, through the
discharge tube. This powder makes a covering over the combustible material and stops the oxygen
supply to the fire.

6. C.T.C. Extinguisher: C.T.C. stands for Carbon Tetra Chloride. It is liquid at room temperature. It has a
great cooling tendency/effect. It is an insulator of electricity, and hence, is useful for extinguishing
the class E fires. When the C.T.C. vaporises and becomes smoke, it is extremely poisonous, and
hence, is not used in U/G mines. It is now become obsolete due to the advent of modern and
sophisticated extinguishers.
7. B.C.F. Extinguishers: In the recent years, the C.T.C. extinguishers have been replaced by these. The
B.C.F. stands for Bromo-Chloro-Di-Fluro-Methane. At the normal atmospheric temperature, BCF is
clean and colourless. It has no harmful effect on the human skin, if exposed. It has a very low
boiling point, and hence, it quickly gets vaporised and feels cold on being touched with skin.
BCF is very stable, chemically. In the absence of water, the BCF can be kept in
ordinary metallic apparatus. It is an insulator of electricity, and hence, can be used for extinguishing
Class E fires also.

The various types of fires require different types of fire extinguishers, which can be summarised as follows:
1. Class A: Soda Acid Extinguisher
2. Class B: Foam Extinguisher
3. Class C: Soda Dry Chemical Powder Extinguisher
4. Class D: Soda Special Dry Chemical Extinguisher
5. Class E: CO2 & B.C.F. Extinguisher
 Stopping
Emergency/Temporary Stopping: Temporary stoppings are constructed after heating or
fire has been detected. Such Stoppings are required, where Preparatory or Isolation stoppings had not
been constructed. They maybe simply constructed of brattice line, if they are erected quickly, and air
leakage is not important. But if considerable pressure has to be withstood, a more substantial one is used.
The edges are sealed with sealant, to make them as air-tight as possible.
# Purpose: are as follows:
1. To seal-off an area immediately and prevent access of air to fire, which is down with cause of time.
2. To prevent heat, smoke & fumes from reaching the places, where permanent stopping have to be
constructed.
# Selection of Site:
1. It is to be build at places, where the roof and floor as well as side walls are free from cracks
2. If the crack-free places are not available, then the cracks should be sealed.
3. The selection of site depends upon:
a. Distance from fire
b. Minimum no. of stoppings
c. Good Ground Conditions
d. Space for reinforcement
e. Transport Facilities
f. Easy to ventilate
g. Accessibility for inspection etc.
h. Facility of balancing air pressure
i. Free from cracks & minimum cross-sectional area.
# Types: are as follows:
1. Wooden Stopping
2. Rockwool Stopping
3. Sandbag Stopping
4. Concrete & Fly-ash Stopping
# Construction of Temporary Stopping: One of the following construction methods are adopted for its
construction:
 1. The wooden planks are fixed onto the Timber Props with nails, to make the stopping.
2. The CGI sheets are fastened to the timber props or rail props, and in order to protect them from
falling, piles of sand or stone dust filled bags are kept behind them.
3. If the broken stones from the roof are available, then a pack-wall of it is made, and is plastered with
cement or mud.
4. If a sufficient number of bricks have been arranged previously, then a wall of it is made, and
plastered with mud
5. A stopping consisting of a close-knit wire mesh stretched across the roadway and sprayed with
Latex Sealant.
6. A pre-fabricated stopping of tongued & grooved shaped wooden boards, is fixed with timber prop.
7. Due to its simple construction, the stopping made with sand filled bags, is the most popular
amongst all. In this, the empty bags of cement are filled half with sand, and then arranged as a wall.
These acts as a Compact Pack-wall. This pack-wall is then plastered with mud or cement.
8. Gypsum Stopping: These are used at places, where there is a hazard of fire-gas or fire-damp
explosion, during or after sealing off operations. It consists of two tight shuttering between which,
is injected dry gypsum powder by compressed air driven guinting machine. Water is then added up
to form a slurry, which soon sets & forms a hard mass.
# Thickness of Gypsum Stopping: The thickness of a gypsum stopping, as recommended by the
Central Mine Rescue Station, Essen, F.R.G., is given as:
1. 2m. for roadway height up to 3m.
2. 2.5m. for roadway height up to 3.5m
3. Roadway Height: for roadways of heights greater than 3.5m.
For every m3 of stopping; about 1.3tn. of gypsum and 0.8 - 0.9m3 of water is required.

Permanent Stoppings: These are constructed around half to one hour after the completion of
the temporary stopping. These shall be well “hitched” in the roofs, walls or floor, to prevent the “jumping”
of hot gases or air, through the fissures.
# Types: are as follows:
1. Brick Stopping:
a. most commonly used;
b. should be 0.5-3m. thick.
c. May be constructed as single or double stoppings (for unsettled or broken ground)
d. The entire face of it is plastered with a strong cement mortar
2. Concrete & Fly-Ash Block Stopping:
a. Just like brick one, but consists precast concrete or fly-ash blocks laid in cement mortar
b. Easier to erect
c. The blocks are lightweight and made of aggregates
3. Monolithic Concrete Stoppings:
a. Very durable
b. Reinforced with old steel rails to increase strength.
c. However, Inconvenience in handling & transporting necessary materials
4. Pack-Wall Stoppings: specially erected where excessive rock pressure, several types:
a. Rock—Filled Pack-Wall Stoppings
b. Rock & Loam Pack-wall Stoppings
c. Post & Loam Pack-Wall Stoppings
5. Special Stoppings: Wire mesh sprayed with gypsum slurry or permitted Mine sealant; used in
foreign countries.
 6. Wooden or Concrete Block Wedge Stoppings:
a. are used at places, where there is a risk of Firedamp explosion, during construction of
stoppings
b. consists of a number of wedge-shaped blocks of hardwood/concrete placed skin to skin in
the conical opening left in the brickwork built into roofs, sides and floor.
c. Wedges are serially numbered
d. During explosion, the wedges tighten themselves & stop explosion from propagation.

Management: Following things shall be kept in mind of the management, while supervising the
construction of the fire stoppings:
1. There shall be a proper quantity of Cement, Bricks, CGI Sheets, sand, sleepers, Stone dust, empty
cement bags etc.
2. A secondary haulage is required is required for bringing heavy items like bricks, CGI Sheets, etc. to
the place of construction.
3. The properly trained and experienced staff shall be employed in the shift in which the construction
is carried on.
4. The following equipment shall be readily available at the place of construction:
a. Flame Safety Lamp for the detection of CH4
b. Birds for detection of CO Gas
c. Sufficient Stone Dust and other fire sealing materials like Bricks, Cement, Sand, Earth &
Tools of Masons, Carpenters, miners and other workers.
5. First Aid Boxes and stretchers
6. Extra Electric Cap Lamp as some may get discharged after the use for 5-6 hours.
7. Smoke Helmets and other apparatus as required by the rescue party
8. Mine Plan and the tracing of the fire area on a large scale.

Dimensions: shall be as follows:

1. Thickness:
a. 1m. near the roof, and an increase of 15 cm. for every 3m. of height.
b. Roadway bottom section would be 1.30m. thick; next 3m. section shall be 1.15m. thick; and
the rest 1m. near the roof
c. It is plastered & white washed for easy detection of cracks
2. Depth:
a. In coal - 1m.
b. In Sandstone roof/floor - 15 cm.
c. In shale stone roof/floor - 30 cm.

Fire Stopping for Degree I & II Gassy Seam: following points are kept in mind:
1. Generally, thickness of fire stopping in such cases is kept the same as that of the normal seams, i.e.,
1m.
2. But since the height of galleries is 4m., an off-set of 15 cm. has been provided for the lower 2m.
portion.
3. Foundation Cutting would be:
a. 1m – Coal
b. 30cm. – Shale
c. 155cm. – Sandstone
Fittings: are as follows:
1. A sampling pipe,
a. 25 or 50 mm in diameter, to be as near the centre of the stopping as is convenient.
b. sometimes fitted with a sampling line for collecting air samples from the sealed area passing
through both temporary and permanent stoppings.
c. should be fitted with a sluice valve or cap.
d. On stoppings erected in rise or dip workings, three sampling pipes are advisable at the floor,
centre, and top
e. It shall be extended at-least 3m. inbye of the stopping.
f. Some of the sampling pipe would be placed within 30cm. of the roof
2. A pipe with a valve for bleeding off excess pressure of fire-gases and firedamp in a controlled
manner. It should be at least 150 mm in diameter;
3. A pipe with a valve and a manometer to take water gauge readings;
4. A pipe for purposes of flooding or flushing the fire area with clay or sand or sealant material at a
later date if required;
5. N2 Charging Pipe: A pipe for application of inert nitrogen or nitrogen foam; and
6. A suitable gulley trap (water seal) to permit passage of mine water which may accumulate behind
the stopping without leakage of air where the affected area is wet (Fig. 1.38). Water seals are
usually self-sealing and work automatically.
7. Platform: Since it is a high gallery, a platform is to be provided for inspection and maintenance.
8. Ladder: Ladder is provided for inspection and maintenance.
9. Thermometer: Thermometers are fitted to know the temperature of the inside of the stopping.
10. Signature Plate: The inspector of stopping fills up this plate & puts his sign; itis then kept intact after
inspection of stopping
11. Number Plate: All Stoppings are numbered serially for identification.

Inspection of Stopping: In this regard, the provisions of regulation 118A of CMR1957 are
followed. Isolation stoppings to be inspected by an overman, at-least once in every 7 days. But inspection
may have to be done at shorter intervals, in case of a thick seam.
When fire inside is in critical state or the stoppings are near a shaft and vital for safety of the
mine, stoppings may be required to inspect daily. Following items are required to be inspected:
1. General condition of the stopping
2. Cracks in the surrounding strata
3. Any cracks in and around the stopping that may have been developed
4. Condition of the roadway support
5. Presence of
a. CO
b. Blackdamp (CO2 + N2)
c. Methane (CH4)
6. Valve of sampling pipe operable and properly closed
7. No blockage of water seal pipe
8. Temperature of the sealed off area
9. Temperature of the water flowing out of the water seal when one is constructed
10. Unhindered accessibility to the stopping.
11. After inspection, the signature plate shall be signed.
Sampling Pipe: The atmosphere behind the stopping is stable, and the Gases cannot dissipate it.
The heavier gases like CO2 etc. gets accumulated around the floor & the lighter gases like CH4 etc. gets
accumulated near the roof. In order to take the samples of air, a sample Pipe is placed in between the
Stopping, that is used to show the condition, existing behind the stopping.
The sampling pipe is placed at a height, between ½ or ¾ of the height of the entire stopping.
It shall be placed at exactly the midway, of the entire width of the stopping. It is inserted to a depth of 3m.
into the stopping. In order to prevent its tilting, it is supported by the either the brickwork, or the poles of
Timber.
If there is a leakage of air, there is a formation of black lines, which indicates that there is a
leakage, from which, the smoke and soot (कालिख; which is black in colour) is getting accumulated. All the
roofs, pillars and floor etc., up to a distance of 1m. from the stopping, are painted white, in order to quickly
and easily detect any cracks in the stopping. The leakage, sometimes, also gets detected due to a typical
smell of smoke. Big Cracks can also be detected/indicated, by a loud whistling sound from the crack (often
big cracks).
 Re-opening A Sealed Off Area
When it is made clear, that the fire has been completely extinguished, the process of Re-opening of the
sealed off areas is carried on. It is done very carefully, in order to prevent any damage to the property. A
correct decision regarding reopening of a sealed off area, depends mainly on the correct interpretation of
the analysis result of the samples drawn from behind the stoppings.
# Factors Governing the Decision of Reopening the Sealed Off Areas: following
1. Extent & Intensity of Fire at the time of sealing
2. Nature of burning material and the enclosed area
3. Air tightness of the stopping and the enclosed area.
4. Composition of the atmosphere behind the stopping
5. The Sealed off area is re-opened, only when, the value of Graham’s ratio, is lower than the certain
values, recommended by CIMFR. The Graham’s ratio is defined as the ratio, in between the amount
of CO production and the amount of O2 consumed. It can also be expressed, in the form of %age.,

𝐶𝑂 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝐺𝑟𝑎ℎ𝑎𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = × 100
𝑂2 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑

The Graham’s ratio is generally used as an indicator of Spontaneous Heating or guide to detecting
heating. If Spontaneous Heating occurs, there is a steady rise in the ratio with increase in the
temperature.
These values are:
a. 0.1 - 0.5% - Normal
b. 1% - Indicates existence of Heating
c. 2% - Serious Heating; Indicates heating in advanced stage, approaching active fire.
d. 3% - Indicates Active Fire
6. The O2 content in the sealed off area is very low, i.e., 1% or less.
7. The temperature has come down to the normal strata temperature. For this purpose, the
temperature behind the stopping shall be regularly recorded.
8. The sample of gases, taken from behind the stopping, must be taken at regular intervals and
analysed properly.
9. Coward’s Diagram should be drawn behind the sealed off area.
# Precautions: following precautions shall be taken, while reopening the sealed off areas:
1. Rescue & Recovery teams should be assembled and kept ready.
 2. All the workers should be withdrawn at the time of re-opening.
3. Electric power of the area/section/panel/district, shall be cut-off.
# Stages: The procedure of Re-opening a sealed off area, is a 4-stage process:
1. Notice & Scheme of Re-opening: When samples of air drawn form sealed -off fire area, at regular
intervals, over a long period of time, indicates that the fire is extinct:
a. Re-opening Notice shall be sent to the Regional Inspector of Mines, before 14 days the date
of re-opening.
b. A scheme of re-opening shall be prepared with the advice of the regional Inspector.
2. Preparatory arrangements: are as follows:
a. Transporting adequate quantities of bricks, cement, sand, empty gunny bags, CGI Sheets,
and roof-support materials, near an intake and a return stopping to be breached.
b. Making air-locks, outbye these two stopping.
c. Arranging Adequate quantities of air up to the air locks
d. Stone-dusting the entire area, up to 4 pillars outbye the stopping, heavily.
e. Making arrangements for drawing out the air samples and speedy analysis of the same.
f. Deciding workers, supervisors and execution to be engaged for the re-opening work and
deciding their work allocation
g. Arranging rescue teams and equipment, testing and sampling instruments.
3. Emergency Organisations:
a. Work shall be planned to be done on an idle day. Emergency organisation shall be set in
motion, including control room on surface and fresh air base u/g with telephonic
communication.
b. Only minimum no. of persons is required for reopening
c. Constant availability of electricity shall be ensured
d. Accommodation shall be made available for rescue team/equipment
e. Return Airways and area up to 45m. from the fan evasee shall be fenced.
f. Co-ordination shall be made the rescue station.
4. Re-Open:
a. A limited area of intake & return stopping shall be broken by ordinary workers under rescue
cover.
b. A small quantity of air shall be allowed to circulate through the sealed-off area
c. Proper arrangement shall be made for the safety of workers against noxious/inflammable
gases
d. Simultaneously air coming out of the return stopping shall be tested by a gas detector at an
interval of 30 minutes.
e. Air samples are drawn by an executive especially posted for the purpose.
f. Sample shall be sent for analysis.
g. When air sample indicate safe conditions than intake & return stopping shall be broken fully
to arrange fill ventilation of the sealed area.
h. The area shall be inspected by an overman/mining sirdar accompanied by the rescue team.
i. Once the area become safe in all respects, it shall be inspected by the manager before
ordering normal work in the mines.
# Methods: There are four methods of re-opening:
1. The direct Circulation Method:
a. The plug from return stopping is removed or a hole is made in the stopping while the other
workmen remove the plug from the intake stopping.
 b. Then, a regulated amount of air is allowed through the fire area.
c. Rescue man takes a sample from return airway, until it is considered safe to enter & inspect
the district.
d. In this method, air without prior inspection of the area by rescue team, is not generally
desirable.
2. The Prior Inspection Method:
a. In this method, the fire area is inspected first, by the rescue team, before being ventilated.
b. The method, may not be suitable, if the heat and humidity in the area is high or the stopping
are at a large distance from face or travelling conditions for the rescue team are difficult.
c. This method, would be the most favourable, to re-open a relatively small district.
d. The doors of air-lock are kept shut, during breaching of the stopping during inspection and
air samples are analysed until area considered safe.
3. The Stage Method:
a. Recovery of a sealed off area may have to be undertaken in stages, where the area is very
large and includes more than one section.
b. The re-opening process is continued, by working through air-locks at each temporary
stoppings and gradually extending the fresh air into the affected area.
4. The Partial Recovery Method:
a. This is the most difficult of all methods.
b. It is adopted, only when it is necessary to open a part of the district, which cannot be
opened fully due to possible existence of fire-inside.
c. In this method, a part of the sealed off area is re-opened. The rest being sealed off by
stopping built by the rescue brigade.
# Selection of Method: depends upon the following factors:
1. Type & Extent of Fire: The sealed off area, wither due to a fire, or Spontaneous Heating, should not
be re-opened by the direct method except in non-gassy mines.
If fire is known to be small in extent, The Partial Recovery Method is safe
2. Size of Sealed off Area: A small isolated panel may be re-opened by the direct method, but in case
of a large area, Stage Method is preferred.
3. Gas: In a Gassy Mine, if the sealed off area is very small, then it is generally preferred to use the
Stage Method.
4. Temperature, Humidity, Inclination of the Roadways: If the roadways are steep or temperatures &
Humidity are high, then the Stage Method or the Direct Circulation Method are to be used.
5. Accessibility of Roadways: Where the roadways have become inaccessible, re-opening is done by
the Stage Method.
6. Water: Water is the most important factor, considered during the selection of the method. If the
water is filled inside the sealed-off area, then its pumping or dewatering are firstly preferred.
7. Conditions of Doors between Intake & Return Airways: Doors between intake & return of the
stopping are inspected before the adoption of recovery by the Rescue Brigade.
8. Time: Time is the most important factor considered during the selection of the method of re-
opening. It refers to the time consumed for cooling-off.
 Sampling from Sealed Off Area
# Method of Air Sampling: There are four different methods of doing so:
1. By Displacement of water:
a. A clean Glass Bottle of 100-200 ml. capacity with a ground glass stopper is filled with water
at the surface.
b. Keeping the bottle at arms-length from the body at sampling site, samples of mine air are
taken in the water.
c. A stopper is fitted and secured in position by a rubber band
d. The place, date, time and name of the sample, are noted on the bottle
e. This method is not suitable when CO2 or nitrous gases are to be determined because these
gases are dissolved in water.

2. By Evacuated Glass Bulb or Bottle:

a. Evacuated Glass Bottle has a narrow neck, which is sealed at the top, and can be broken
easily.
b. The bottles are broken at sampling site & broken end is sealed by a tight-fitting rubber cap.
c. The place, date, time and name of the sample are noted down on the bottles.
d. The capacity of the bottles or bulbs is 250-350 ml.

3. Air Aspiration Method:

a. In this method, a cork is fitted with 2 tubes, on the glass bottle.
b. One tube is longer, and is used for drawing out air from the bottle
c. Another tube, is short in length, and is used for entry of mine air at sampling site.
d. Once a volume of air, about 6 times the volume of sampling bottle, passes through it, the
mouth of both the tubes are closed.
4. Suction Pump Method:
 a. In this method, the sampling is done from behind the stopping.
b. In some fire stoppings, air sampling pipes are fitted. The pipe has a narrow copper tube
having 6mm. dia.
c. One end of glass sampling tube, with stop cock at each end, is connected by rubber tubing
to the copper tube.
d. A suction pump is fitted at the other end.
e. Suction pump is operated for some time, to flush out the sampling pipe, and the gas mixture
to fill up the sample container.
f. Then, both the valves of the sample container are closed and it is removed.
g. The name, place, date & time of the sample are noted on the bottle or the container.
h. Samples should be drawn between 12 noon to 2 p.m., because the atmospheric pressure is
the lowest at this time of the day
Probable Questions:
1. Causes & prevention of mine fires (Underground & Surface Separate).
2. Classification of mine fires and fire extinguishers (Types used)
3. Define Spontaneous Heating and the factors & Symptoms & Prevention of Spontaneous Heating.
4. Define Incubation Period.
5. Define Graham’s Ratio.
6. Define Crossing and Ignition Point.
7. Sealing of Mine Fires/Stopping. (Construction + Fittings)
8. Sampling of Sealed off areas.
9. Method of Reopening of Sealed off areas.

Introduction: Firedamp implies a gas or a mixture of gases, which in combination with air can cause an
explosion. Usually, it is found coal mines & tunnels passing through carbonaceous shale. It mainly consists
of Methane, which is a by-product of the coalification process. It exists in coal seam, both in absorbed &
compressed state. It also exists in the adjacent strata, in the compressed state. When the seam is mined,
the equilibrium in the coal seam & the surrounding strata, is disturbed & the gas is liberated from both the
seam & adjacent strata, thereby posing a serious hazard unless sufficient quantity of air is circulated
through the mine to dilute its concentration. The amount of methane within the coal, increases with the
rank of the coal, depth of the cover over the seam, and the reservoir pressure.
Composition of Firedamp: The term Firedamp usually refers to the gases exuded from the strata,
containing mainly methane (80-96%) with other minor contaminants such as Nitrogen, carbon di-oxide,
Ethane, Ethylene and occasionally Carbon mono-oxide & sulfuretted hydrogen. Normally 10% of nitrogen,
5% of higher hydrocarbons & 3-5% of carbon di-oxide may be found in firedamp, though as much as 20% of
nitrogen & 50% carbon di-oxide have been recorded, Firedamp emitted from coal-beds is often saturated
with water-vapours.
Methane burns in air when ignited with a pale blue flame, but, when it is mixed with air, it can explode on
ignition. The combustion and explosion take place according to the equation
𝐶𝐻4 + 2(𝑂2 + 4𝑁2 ) = 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 = 8𝑁2

One volume of methane requires two volumes of oxygen or 10 volumes of atmospheric air for its complete
combustion. Theoretically, therefore, the optimum or stoichiometric mixture is formed at 9.5 per cent
methane. Methane, however, forms flammable mixtures with air over a range of approximately 5 to 15 per
cent. If the methane content of a methane-air mixture is greater than 9.5 per cent. the oxygen present will
not be sufficient for its complete combustion and if it is less than 9.5 per cent, oxygen or atmospheric air
will be in excess. A pure firedamp explosion does not extend over a wide area unless there has been
emission or accumulation of large quantities of methane.
Modes of Emission: It is common observation that the volume of gas emitted into the mine atmosphere
far exceeds the methane content of the coal mined, the latter accounting for only 20-30% of the total gas
emission. The rest of the gas obviously comes from the exposed ribs of coal & adjacent strata. The rate of
gas emission varies widely from mine to mine & even in the different districts of the same mine from very
low values to even 250-300m3t-1 of coal mined. The following are the major modes of emission:
1. Slow Emission: Firedamp are emitted from the pores & invisible cracks that are present in the coal
seam or adjacent strata throughout their exposed surface. This is a continuous & prolonged
emission.
2. Blowers: The gases are emitted in the form of gas blowers through visible cracks or openings of the
coal seam or rocks. This is generally for a shorter period of time, but sometimes can continue for
some years. E.g., Moonidih Colliery experienced 2 years of continuous emission of gas in 1971,
which accounted to a total of 4 million m3 of gas.
3. Sudden Outburst: Sudden Outburst of firedamp, is generally accompanied by the ejection of large
quantities of coal or rock.
4. Following a roof fall, the gases that are present in the overlying strata may suddenly enter in the
gallery.
5. When there is a sudden fall of barometric pressure, the methane that has been accumulated in the
goaf areas, may get erupted into the galleries.
Degree of Gassiness: Indian Coal mines are classified into three groups of gassiness based on the rate of
methane emission:
1. Degree-I: The seam, in any underground section of whose, the quantity of methane in the general
body of air, does not exceed 0.1% or the emission of gas does not exceed 1m3, per tonne of coal
produced, is called a Gassy Seam of First Degree.
2. Degree-II: The seam, in any underground section of whose, the quantity of methane in the general
body of air, exceeds 0.1% or the emission of gas exceed 1m3 but does not exceed 10m3, per tonne
of coal produced, is called a Gassy Seam of Second Degree.
3. Degree-I: The seam, in any underground section of whose, the emission of gas exceeds 10m 3, per
tonne of coal produced, is called a Gassy Seam of Third Degree.
 Though all coal mines fall into one or the other of the above
three groups, there are very few highly gassy mines worked in this country yet. Table 1.3 lists a few highly
gassy mines with their rates of methane emission:

Methane Layering: Methane Layering refers to the formation of layers or slabs of gas, near the roof of the
mine. This basically happens due to the fact, that the Methane is lighter in weight than the general air in
the mine. Stable methane layers can develop at the roof of horizontal airways depending chiefly on the
rate of gas emissions, particularly at the roof the velocity of air and the size of the airway, though other
factors affecting methane layering are the roughness of the airway surface, presence of bends,
obstructions etc., nearby and the nature and location of the sources of methane emission.
In large airways with relatively low average air
velocity, there occurs at the roof a laminar boundary sublayer of sufficient thickness where the velocity is
very low. Any methane emitted into this boundary sublayer cannot get diluted by turbulent diffusion and
hence forms into a layer sometimes up to one meter in thickness, which moves in the direction of the air-
current but at a slower velocity. The percentage of methane in the layer gradually decreases from the top
downwards with almost pure methane occurring against the roof. The stability of methane layers as well as
their length is indicated by a dimensionless Layering Number
𝑣
𝐿=
𝑄 1
(4.32 𝑊 )3

Where, v= average velocity of air, ms-1

Q = quantity of methane emitted into the airways, m3s-1
W= Width of airway, m
And the constant 4.32 is the product of g, the acceleration due to gravity and the ratio of the density of air
and methane to the density of air.
The concentration of methane in such layer decrease, with an increase in the
distance from the roof. One such example has been shown in the following table:

S. Place At Roof Level 75mm. below 150mm. below 225mm. below

No. the Roof the Roof the Roof
1 The face of a Dip Gallery 10% - - 1.5%
2 The face of a Dip Gallery 10% - - 1.5%
3 The face of a Dip Gallery 10% 8% 0.5% -
4 A Level Gallery 3-10% - - 0.5%
5 A Level Gallery 10% 8% 3% 2.5%

The readings above are typical of conditions occurring in a gassy mine where the ventilation current is not
turbulent. (Circular 7 of 1964)
# Dangers of Layering: are as follows:

1. The gas also travels to places where it is not expected, hence the testing may be
required to bee done carefully.
2. The layer is thin, hence the testing is required to be done carefully. The normal safety
lamps are not used for this.
3. The amount of gas in the layer is zero at its bottom & is the maximum near to the
roof. In between this, there is a part that is within the Limits of Inflammability. If it
gets mixed with the air, it may explode.
4. The gas accumulated near the roof, gets mixed with air and becomes explosive, due
to a roof fall.
# Methods of Detection: The methane layering can be detected by one of the following methods:
1. By Top Feed Safety Lamp
2. The sample can be taken by a probe, and then can be tested with a special type of Safety Lamp.
3. Detection by a Methano-meter with Probe
# Method of Removal of Layer: is as follows:
 1. Vertical or Inclined Hurdle Sheets (Baffles) can be placed across the airway a little below the roof,
that helps in diverting the main air-current to the roof and breaking up the layer. However, they
offer a substantial resistance to the air-flow in the roadway.
2. Where compressed air supply is available, venturi blowers can be used for breaking up methane
layers.
3. Methane Drainage or any other measure taken to reduce the rate of methane emission form the
strata, helps inn minimising the occurrence of methane layering.
# Characteristic of Firedamp Explosion: are as follows:
1. A firedamp explosion is limited in extent and usually found in the face area & return airway because
it is accumulated in these places only.
2. The explosion is usually found in one ventilating district. If it is found in two districts
simultaneously, then the coal dust explosion traverses almost the whole mine & the main intake
Roadways are most affected.
3. Firedamp Explosion is less violent than a coal dust explosion.
4. The firedamp explosion is always accompanied by two shocks, that are:
a. Forward Shock: These are also known as Primary Waves. These waves are formed after the
formation of product of firedamp, after the normal explosions. These travel up to a large
distance and are at a high pressure, at the point of explosion. Due to the Flame of Explosion.
The entire Oxygen in the air is consumed during the primary waves.
b. Reverse Shock/Backlash: These are also known as Second Waves. These are at a very low
pressure, at the point of explosion. In these, the gases are cold and mixed with water
vapours. They require a very less force than the Primary Waves.
5. Flame Temperature: The flame temperature is the maximum during the explosion. The flame
temperature depends on the concentration of firedamp, homogeneity amongst the mixture, flow of
firedamp, heat losses etc. The flame temperature is less at the limits of flammability and is the
maximum in between these limits. The flame temperature for the methane-air mixture is a
maximum of 2200K.
6. Explosion Pressure: Another important factor for the methane gas is the pressure that is generated
in the material that is being exploded. The explosion pressure is directly proportional to the
volume. For the Methane-Air mixture, the maximum explosion pressure is generated at 7.2 bars.
7. Flame Length: The flame length is increased due to the Concentration of the gases. It depends upon
the following factors:
a. The distance travelled by the flame in 1 second
b. The concentration of methane POI Location
c. Whether the gas mixture is at rest or motion Concentration
Motion rest
d. Location of point of ignition. Speed
e. Area & Length of Gas Zone Obstruction
f. Obstructions in the path of flame Length area of gas zone
g. Flame Velocity: The flame Velocity of Propagation is very less in a Firedamp Explosion. The
greater is the Flame Velocity, the greater is the explosion. It depends upon the following
factors:
i. Methane content of mine air
ii. Condition of the gas mixture whether at rest or in motion
iii. Point of Ignition
iv. Length of Gas Zone
v. Presence of Obstacles in the Path
 h. Direct Blast: The explosion rate increases with the direct blast. It depends upon the fact that
whether the explosion gas is in the pure form or in the impure form.

Flammability: The flammable limits of methane-air mixtures are the limits of concentration of methane in
air between which, a flame can be propagated throughout the mixtures. The boundary-line mixtures with
minimum & maximum concentration of methane in air, which if ignited, will just propagate flame are
known as the upper & lower flammable or explosive limits. The flammability limits of methane have been
extensively studied.
When the methane is present within certain limits, it forms an explosive mixture
with air. If a proper source of ignition is obtained by the mixture, an explosion may happen. An explosive
mixture is the one, which allows the flame to self-propagate, when ignited. All low mixtures of methane,
burn with a bluish flame in air, and hence, are called Inflammable Mixtures. The explosion is the most
violent, when the firedamp is around 9% in the mixture. However, in laboratory experiments, it has been
proved that the mixtures with methane, as lower as 2% & as high as 75% can be made explosive, due to
the sudden application of pressure. Moreover, if the percentage of Blackdamp is greater than 35%, there
can be no explosion in a mixture, with any percentage of methane.
The lower & upper flammable limits (LFL & UFL) are 5.4% (33g/m3) & 14.8% (100g/m3) respectively.
Explosions at the flammable limits are rather weak & slow-burning, while at the stoichiometric
concentration, they are most violently explosive. A mixture containing less than 5% methane, although not
flammable under normal conditions, may explode when at a high temperature or when compressed
adiabatically due to blasting or a coal-dust explosion. Also, a mixture containing greater than 14.8% of
methane, cannot be explosive, if the supply of oxygen is not sufficient.
However, in a condition, where the concentration of methane is within the limits and the quantity of
oxygen available, is sufficient, the explosion will be the most violent. For example, when the concentration
of methane is 9.5% and the ratio of oxygen & methane is 2:1.
The limits of flammability are not fundamental characteristics of the gas by it depend on experimental
conditions. They are influenced by the presence of other combustible or inert gases, temperature,
pressure, intensity of turbulence, diameter of the experimental tube, direction of flame propagation,
oxygen concentration, intensity of ignition source, and presence of coal dust.
The lower flammable limit of methane is found to be independent of oxygen
concentration above 20 per cent. It decreases linearly from 5 per cent to zero as the airborne coal dust
concentration increases from zero to its lower limit of flammability. The presence of other combustible
gases like ethane, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, etc., which have, like methane, lower and upper flammable
limits also reduce the lower limit which can be determined by using the Le Chatelier relation:
100
𝑥= ,
𝐿
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3
𝐿= + + +⋯
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3
Where, p1, p2, p3 … are the percentages of the component gases in the mixture (p1+p2+p3+… =100%) and l1,
l2, l3 … their percentage lower limits. The presence of inert gases has a damping effect on the flammability
of methane-air mixtures. Carbon di-oxide is more effective than nitrogen.
# Factors affecting the Limits of Flammability: are as follows:
 1. Percentage of Inflammable Gases: The limits of flammability increases, when the percentage of
Inflammable Gases is large. The limits of Flammability are small, when the percentage of gases is
small.
2. Percentage of Other Gases: When the percentage of other gases is large, the flame increases, and is
decreased when the percentage of other gases is small.
3. Source of Ignition
4. Flame Temperature
5. Ventilation Status or Air Velocity: The flame forms pretty quickly, when the ventilation is poor. If
the ventilation is good, the formation of flame is difficult.
6. Presence of Moisture
7. Density of Firedamp: If the density of the firedamp is greater, and the source of ignition is present,
the flame limits are increased. But if the density is less, the limits are decreased.
8.
Coward’s Diagram:

Causes of Firedamp Explosion: The various causes of firedamp explosion in a mine, maybe grouped under
the following categories:
1. General Causes: This is mainly Due to the negligence of miners, that may cause, an explosion in the
firedamp, due to smoking, fire-making or an open flame.
2. Mining Cause: In practical situations, these causes consists of two conditions:
a. Damaged Safety Lamps: Damaged Safety Lamps may also cause an explosion. Hence, a good
condition and properly assembled lamp may be used.
b. Blasting: If blasting is done in the presence of firedamp, a dangerous explosion may happen.
Therefore, before blasting, proper care should be taken. Only permitted explosives shall be
used and methane shall be s=checked within 20m. radius from face, before drilling, charging
& blasting.
3. Mine Fires: In the presence of Firedamp & Air mixture, the mine gases may easily get ignited and
explode, on coming contact with a Flame. This can be particularly dangerous in case of a gassy
mine.
4. Mechanical Causes: These majorly consist of conditions that are caused due to Friction. The mixture
of Firedamp & Air may also get ignited due to a spark, that has been created due to friction
between any surfaces. Several firedamp explosions in mines in recent years have been attributed to
frictional sparking generated during cutting & drilling operations in seams. It is categorised as :
a. Friction Between Metal to Metal: These are caused due to slight hammering for any reason,
such as, repairing of track, opening of rusted bolts etc.
b. Friction Between Rock to Rock: These are caused due to geological Disturbance. Many a
times, strata slide may also cause sparking & friction.
c. Friction Between Metal & Rock: These are caused due to installing of roof bolts, drilling for
blasting etc.
5. Electric Sparks: Flammable firedamp air mixture may also cause an explosion, on coming into
contact with an Electric Spark. These sparks may get produced from Switch Gear, Damaged Cables,
Signalling Apparatus or Faulty Equipment etc.
However, a small quantity of gas may remain
unaffected by the spark, but if the quantity of the flammable gases is large, it may explode.
6. Other Special Causes: If the electrical supply voltage Is high, excessive heating may be generated,
which, if in contact with Firedamp-Air Mixture, may cause an explosion. The sparks produced from
 the belt conveyor & Idlers, may also contribute to the same. The explosion may also be caused in
case of a Dry & Hot Environment conditions.

# Prevention Of Firedamp Explosion: A Firedamp Explosion can be prevented by taking the following safety
measure:
1. Measures Against Accumulation of dangerous Firedamp Mixtures in mine workings from the
Beginning Itself: are as follows:
a. The mine shall be mechanically Ventilated by Exhaust Ventilation Method. Every Main Fan
shall be installed & Positioned at such a place, that they are not damaged even after an
explosion. It shall be fitted with a automatic Alarm or Signal, so that the person on Duty is
indicated in the event of slow down or stoppage of the fan.
b. The Equivalent Orifice of the mine shall be as large as possible. (>2m 2)
c. In the Ventilation of a mine working, there shall not be a diffusion greater than 3m.
d. The mine ventilating pressure inn the development headings, shall be as high as practicable.
If an Auxiliary Fan is being used, it shall be positioned at a distance of 5m. from the face, to
avoid recirculation of Air.
e. The ventilation doors shall be installed at a proper location. It shall be kept closed after the
men, material or train has been passed through it. They shall be Self-Closing and shall be
properly maintained.
f. The mine Ventilation System shall be planned in such a way that it is simple, effective and
reliable for all the workings.
g. The extraction of the seam shall be done according to the regulations, from the top to
downward direction and the methane shall be decreased up to the Lower Seam.
h. The method of Extractions shall be selected in such a way, that ventilation of the face is safe
& easy and the diluted air at an adequate velocity is obtained at the face & the waster
edges. IN case of a very gassy seam worked with longwall method, the velocity of the air
shall be greater than 4m/s.
i. In case of a very gassy seam worked with Bord & Pillar or Longwall Retreating with Caving
method, an excessive amount of Firedamp is accumulated in the goaf area. In order to
control it, central drainage is provided inn the goaves. Moreover, surface ventilation
boreholes can be used as Drainage.
j. To deal with the Roof Cavities, either it is filled with an approved sealant, or the
accumulation of the gas in it is prevented by improving the ventilation.
2. Measures against the Ignition of the Flammable Firedamp Mixtures: are as follows:
a. All the person shall be prohibited to carry any smoking articles (Pipes, Cigars, Tobacco other
than Chewing Tobacco, Cigarettes etc.), matches, or any other spark or flame making
material to the working places. All the persons shall be searched during their entrance to
the mine, with the help of a Contraband.
b.
i. Only certified/authorised flame proof or Intrinsically Safe Apparatus shall be used in
the mines. These shall be properly installed, operated & maintained.
ii. If in any mine or part thereof, any electrical equipment is installed but is not being
used, the power supply of the part of mine shall be cut-off.
iii. In order to prevent any ignition due to the static charges in the ventilation ducting,
they shall be effectively earthed. Only anti-static polythene sheeting, hoses & belts
shall be used.
 iv. Reliable Methane Monitor shall be used, in order to automatically cut-off the supply
of all the electrical equipment, whenever the methane concentration approaches
the maximum percentage.
v. All the Electrical Face Cutting Machines, Continuous Miners, Longwall Face
Equipment & Loading machines shall be installed with a methane monitor, to warn
the high concentration of methane in the working place.
vi. If the Main fan is stopped due to any reason, the electrical supply to the Return
airway shall be automatically cut-off. Also, the supply shall not be restarted again,
until normal ventilation and safe working conditions have been re-established.
c. The heat generated due to the friction in conveyors, bearings or brakes, shall be avoided,
which is possible by proper installation & maintenance.
d. In order to eliminate Incendive Sparking, apparatus made of Light Alloys shall not be used.
e. In order to control spontaneous heating, proper planning shall be done prior to the
development works. Good ventilation system & proper inspections shall be provided.
f. The tasks like welding, flame-cutting, grinding, soldering etc. shall be done with extreme
care & proper method.
g. All Mobile-Diesel powered Equipment shall be inspected & maintained in conditions that
have been approved by the manufacturer & authorities.
h. Picks of the Coal Cutters & Shearers should be sharp.
i. Only fire-resistant fluid shall be used in all equipment.
# Coward’s Diagram: The effect of the percentage of oxygen in air, on the limits of explosibility of methane-
air mixture, is effectively known by the Coward’s Diagram. It is also known as Explosibility Curve of
Methane. This was initially developed by scientist H.F. Coward in 1928. This diagram helps in finding the
flammability of methane-air mixture as the composition of it changes.
As shown in the diagram, it is clear that with the
deficiency of O2, the limits of explosibility narrows down and there is no explosion possible below an 02
content of about 12%, whatever may be the methane concentration. There is a proper oxygen balance
with the methane content of 9.8% by volume in the air. Because of this reason, at this concentration of
methane, the mixture is the most explosive. The lower flammable limit of methane gas is almost constant
whereas, the upper limit reduces with decrease in the oxygen percentage in the air.
Similarly, the presence of excess
inert gases like CO2 or N2 or water vapour narrows down the limits of explosibility. On the other hand, the
limits of explosibility expands, if methane is associated with other combustible gases, such as Ethane,
Hydrogen etc. depending on their relative concentration and individual limits of explosibility.
Some of the salient points to be observed from the explosibility curve of methane, are as follows:
1. In region A, the mixture is not flammable. However, it may become flammable, if further methane
is added to it. This is possible, when that particular portion of the mine is sealed off.
2. In region B, the mixture is explosive with a minimum nose value at 12.2% oxygen (The nose limit
represents the most dangerous mixture as this mixture requires the largest amount of excess
nitrogen to render it non-flammable. The ratio of the percentage of excess nitrogen to the
percentage of a combustible gas at the nose limit is called the “Inert Factor”.
3. Region C & D illustrates mixtures that may exist in sealed areas at all.
4. A mixture in region C will become explosive if the mixture is diluted by the incoming air.
5. Inn region D, the mixture cannot become explosive.
# Lag On Ignition: Lag on Ignition is an important property of the methane gas. The methane gas starts
burning only after absorbing 92.53 KJ/mol heat. Thus “Lag on Ignition” is defined as the difference of time,
between the application of flame, and the ignition of gas mixture, is called the Lag of Ignition. It is an
important characteristic of Methane Explosion. This happens because, the methane absorbs certain
quantity of heat, before starting to disassociate and burn.
It has the following Characteristics:
1. The lag depends upon the amount of methane; if less, ignition time would be more
2. The lag falls on increase in temperature, i.e., it is around 10s at 923K but falls to around 1s at 1273K
3. The lag also falls with increase in pressure, but it happens to a very lesser extent.
Presence of H2 & other combustible gases reduce lag considerably (30% H2 in Methane completely
eliminates the lag on ignition)
Lag on Ignition of CH4 is:
at 650℃, the delay is around 10 sec.
at 1000℃, the delay is around 1 sec.
at 1200℃, the delay is around 1/15th of a second.
This property of methane is used for designing of permitted explosives which
are prescribed for use in underground coal mines. These permitted explosives produce a flame of a very
short duration. In this time period, methane doesn’t get enough heat required of r its ignition. Thus the
permitted explosives can be used safely in underground coal mines. One important point is that the
presence of hydrogen or other gases reduces the lag.

Probable Questions:
1. Define Degree of Gassiness
2. Define Coward’s Diagram.
3. Composition of Firedamp.
4. Mechanism of Firedamp Explosion.
5. Lower & Upper limit of Explosibility of Firedamp.
6. Explosive Limits of Other Flammable Gases.
7. Causes & Prevention of Firedamp Explosion.
8. Characteristics of Firedamp Explosions.
9. Define Lag on Ignition.
10. Study of some important gas explosions in Indian Coal Mines.
11.
Coal Dust Explosion: A coal dust or any industrial dust explosion is a sudden combustion process of great
intensity characterized by mechanical destructive effects through pressure and heat. For an ignition to take
place, the combustible dust must be present in the form of a thick cloud having a definite mixing ratio with
oxygen, and a source of ignition of sufficient intensity in the form of flame must be present to initiate a
combustion wave.
# Mechanism of coal-dust explosions: The exact ignition mechanisms of flammable dust-air mixtures are
not clear. The view commonly held at present is that surface oxidation of coal-dust particles, partial de-
volatilization of solid coal particles, ignition of the volatiles-air mixture in the space between particles, and
combustion of solid particles are conjointly responsible for the development of a coal-dust explosion.
Experience has shown that a coal-dust explosion often develops in stages. The first stage of ignition is often
a puff which is a sudden combustion of a part or the whole of the airborne dust marked by a very high
temperature but without any dynamic effects. If the whole of the dust is consumed, the combustion of the
dust-air mixture ends with the puff. On the other hand, if a part of the dust is consumed, the puff may
eventually lead to an intense main explosion. During the transition from the puff to the explosion, there
takes place an increase in pressure in the burning layers due to the transfer of the heat of combustion to
the surrounding unburnt layers, mainly by radiation. When the pressure exceeds a certain value, a full-
fledged explosion is developed in which the combustion takes place at such a rapid rate (velocity of
propagation) that the whole of the heat liberated is transferred without loss to the surrounding unburnt
layers. A pressure wave is developed which passes through the unburnt layers ahead of the explosion
flame. Once the pressure wave is formed, the propagation of the explosion does not depend any more
upon the presence of a flammable dust-air mixture. The pressure wave will itself stir up the deposited dust,
creating necessary fuel in the form of a pioneering cloud for the following flame. Thus, the dispersion of
dust and flame propagation processes are intercoupled. In general, in the run-up zone which is about 40 to
60 m or more, the flame velocity increases from 0 to about 100 m/s, the static pressure amounts to about
0.5 bar, and the dynamic pressure increases from 0 to about 10 kN/m². In a fully-developed explosion, the
static pressure lies in the range 1-3 bar and the dynamic pressure between 10 and 50 kN/m².
When the rate of propagation of an explosion assumes the greatest values,
the ignition of a dust-air mixture takes place at the instant of arrival of the pressure wave at it and the
explosion assumes the character of a detonation with a flame velocity of 1000 m/s or more, static pressure
between 5 and 10 bar and dynamic pressure of about 100 kN/m² [35]. In practice, however, dust
explosions do not develop into detonations, being governed by the amount of fine dust and the
characteristics of the dust-air mixtures.

# Flammability or explosive limits: The flammability or explosiveness of a dust is defined as its ability, when
in the form of a cloud, to spread or propagate ignition to all points where dust-air mixtures of
corresponding concentration are present. Like methane-air mixtures, a heterogeneous coal dust-air
mixture has lower and upper limits of flammability or explosive limits, but the range of flammability is very
wide, much wider than in the case of firedamp mixtures.
The lower or lean flammability limit is not an absolute quantity. It
depends on the particle size and the chemical composition of the dust, nature and intensity of the igniting
source, time of contact with the source, turbulence of the dust cloud, uniformity of dust dispersion, purity
of the sample, and the composition of the atmosphere, especially the methane and oxygen contents.
USBM researches on Pittsburgh and Pocohontas Seams coal dusts showed that the lower limit is
independent of the particle size for all sizes below some threshold or characteristic value above which the
limit increases significantly with increase in particle size until a critical size is reached above which the dust
cloud is non- explosive at any concentration or entirely non-ignitable at any reasonable temperature (Fig.
2.20). Bituminous coals have a lower limit of flammability which is variously reported to vary widely
between 30 and 300 g/Nm3. The upper limit of flammability or upper explosive limit is indefinite and has
not been determined because of experimental difficulties of maintaining dust clouds of high
concentrations. The upper limit is of little practical utility as it is unlikely ever to be reached under mining
conditions. As with methane-air mixtures, explosions of limit dust-air mixtures are weak.
Curves obtained by plotting explosion pressures and rates of pressure rise
against concentration show that the explosion pressure and rates of pressure rise are at a minimum at the
lower limit of concentration and then gradually increase until an optimum concentration is reached, after
which they slowly decrease with further increase in concentration. The most violent explosions are
produced when the concentration is about 10 times the lower limit (400 to 500 g/Nm 3) although for
complete combustion only 113 g/Nm3 (pure carbon) would be sufficient. With dust concentrations greater
than the optimum, absorption of heat by the unburnt dust is apparently the reason for less than maximum
explosion pressures.

# Factors affecting Explosibility of Coal-Dust: The flammability or explosibility of coal dust-air mixtures has
been the subject of many investigations carried out in laboratories, surface experimental galleries and
experimental coal mines in many coal mining countries of the world. The work in experimental coal mines
centred around the origin, propagation & control of coal-dust explosions. The following physical &
chemical factors exercise an important influence on the flammability of coal dust-air mixtures and
propagation & control of coaldust explosions in mines:
1. Particle Size: Thermal Ignitability studies on coal of different volatile content have shown that coal
dust particles up to 750 to 1000 μm take part in explosion, depending upon the rank of coal, nature
and intensity of the ignitions source, and oxygen concentration and that fine particles control the
ignition, violence and speed of flame propagation. Dangerous are the particles which lie between
10 and 100 μm size. The loss of flammability of dust below the 10 µm size is explained as due to
chemical decomposition of dust at that degree of fineness, a tendency to agglomerate, and rapid
oxidation on initial exposure to air, thereby becoming less easily ignitable. At larger particle sizes,
the rate of devolatilization decreases rapidly due to the relatively short pre-heating time available.
This tends to limit the overall rate of flame propagation through the mixture and the mass
concentration of dust required to produce a limit concentration of combustible volatiles increases
markedly. Decrease in particle size also increases the capacitance of dust clouds with possible
development of electrostatic discharges of sufficient intensity under suitable conditions, which may
ignite a dust cloud.

2. Dustiness of mine workings: It is customary to express the quantity of deposited dust in g/m³ of
mine excavation and the concentration of airborne dust in g/Nm' of air, though, without knowledge
of the particle size distribution, these expressions are meaningless. The determination of the lowest
limit of the deposited dust in a mine working at which an explosion can occur is very difficult as the
whole of the dust need not necessarily be suspended in air for an ignition to take place. From
experiments conducted in experimental mines, it had been found that a mine working is
dangerously dusty if it contains 100 to 120 g/m³ and that the most violent explosions occur at 300
to 400 g/m³. The minimum density of a dust cloud, which will propagate an explosion, depends on
the nature of the source of ignition, fineness of the dust, rank of the coal, and other parameters.
The dust cloud must be dense immediately surrounding the ignition source so that one cannot see
through it. As the dust concentration in mine air currents is not sufficient to propagate an
 explosion, the explosion must stir up the deposited dust along its path to create a cloud for its
propagation.

3. Volatile matter content: The flammability of a coal dust depends greatly on its combustible volatile
matter; it increases with increasing volatile content. The volatile matter is usually calculated on a
dry, ash-free basis using the formula.
%𝑉𝑀(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠) × 100
%𝑉𝑀 =
100 − %𝑎𝑠ℎ − %𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
The percentage of volatile matter on dry, ash-free basis is sometimes
called the volatile-combustible ratio or simply the volatile ratio of coal.

4. Percentage of ash: An increase in ash content or presence of inert foreign material reduces the
ignitability or flammability of coal dust because of heat absorption. Stone-dusting in coal mines is a
practical application of the use of inert dust to prevent an explosion from taking place.

5. Percentage of moisture: Moisture in dust particles raises the ignition temperature of the dust. It
exerts a cooling effect because heat is absorbed during its heating and vaporization, thereby
reducing the energy available for ignition of the dust cloud. It also tends to wet and agglomerate
the fine particles of dust, reducing their dispersability. Coal dust loses its dispersability with a
moisture content of 25 to 30 per cent. The effect of moisture on flammability is unimportant below
about 10 per cent.

6. Oxygen concentration: Variations in oxygen concentration affect the ease of ignition of dust clouds
and the explosion pressures. With decreasing oxygen concentration, the ignition energy required
increases, ignition temperature increases, and maximum explosion pressure decreases.

7. Nature and intensity of ignition source: The nature and intensity of the ignition source
(temperature, size of spark or flame, etc.) exert a great influence on the flammability of the mine
dust under mining conditions as they determine the dust-raising capacity and turbulence induced
within the cloud. Explosions initiated by strong sources develop faster and cause more damage
than explosions initiated by weak sources. The igniting sources more often than not are the flame
of an exploding firedamp, flame accompanying the detonation of an explosive, or an electric spark
caused by a damaged electric cable.

8. Percentage of firedamp in mine air: The presence of firedamp in air in percentages less than its own
lower limit reduces the lower explosive, limit of coal dust by replacing the coal on a weight thermal
basis. One per cent CH4 (by volume) in 1m3 of air is equivalent to about 12 g of coal dust. The
flammability of coal dust increases almost directly in proportion to the percentage of firedamp (Fig.
2.24).
 9. Turbulence: As the combustion of dust takes place at the surface of the dust particles, the rate of
reaction, therefore, depends on how intimately the dust and oxygen are mixed. Turbulent mixing of
dust and air will result in more violent explosions than those caused by ignition in relatively
quiescent mixtures.

10. Surrounding conditions: The size, shape, constrictions, obstructions, branching, length, and nature
and condition of the surfaces of mine workings exert an important influence on the development of
coal-dust explosions as they increase or decrease the progress of a flame by holding or releasing
the pressure.

# Explosion characteristics of coal dust Explosion: are as follows:

1. Flame or explosion temperature: The maximum flame temperatures occur at stoichiometric
concentrations. The theoretical calculated flame temperature for stoichiometric mixtures is about
2500°K (at constant volume). In practice, the temperatures obtained lie between 800° and 1000°C.

2. Maximum explosion pressure Maximum explosion pressures up to 7 bar have been obtained
experimentally for dusts of different coals. They depend on the rank of the coal, particle size,
concentration, and turbulence. The destructiveness of a dust explosion depends primarily upon the
rate of pressure rise. The rates of pressure rise are, however, less than with gas explosions. In
practice, a dust cloud is rarely ignited under optimum concentration conditions for development of
maximum explosion pressures. ignition with a small correction for the pressure rise caused by the
ignition

3. Rate of propagation of explosion flame or flame velocity: Velocities of propagation of explosion

flame up to 2000 m/s or more (usually 200 to 300 m/s) are encountered in mines. In a roadway of
constant cross-section which is more or less uniformly dusty, the velocity of flame propagation and
explosion pressure increase with the distance from the seat of the explosion. The velocity is greatly
affected by sudden variations in cross-section of the mine workings through which the explosion
passes, the amount of dispersed stone dust, and the pressure release into adjacent areas. The
average burning velocity of a coal dust-air mixture is given by the ratio
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐹𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 1
= ×
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑜 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
The expansion ratio is the density of the unburnt mixture divided by the density of the burnt gas
combustion products. The finer dusts are characterized by maximum burning velocities in the range
of 30 to 35 cm/s, while the very coarse dusts are characterized by maximum velocities as low as 10
cm/s.

4. Ignition sensitivity: It is a function of the ignition temperature and minimum ignition energy [41].
𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
(𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝.× 𝑀𝑖𝑛. 𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 × 𝑀𝑖𝑛. 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) × 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑢𝑠𝑡
=
(𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝.× 𝑀𝑖𝑛. 𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 × 𝑀𝑖𝑛. 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) × 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑢𝑠𝑡
 5. Ignition Severity: It is a function of the maximum explosion pressure and the maximum rate of
pressure rise.
𝐼𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦
(𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒) × 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑢𝑠𝑡
=
(𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒) × 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑢𝑠𝑡

6. Explosibility Index= Ignition Sensitivity x Explosion Severity. Depending on the explosibility index,
the coal-dust explosions may be classified as follows:

S. Type of Explosion Explosibility Index

No.
1 Weak <0.1
2 Moderate 0.1-1.0
3 Strong 1.0-10
4 Severe >10

7. Explosion gases: As the oxygen of the mine air is nearly always not enough for complete
combustion of all the dust present in mine workings through which the explosion flame passes,
carbon monoxide is always found in the explosion gases in concentrations up to as high as 14 per
cent. The toll of lives taken by a coal- dust explosion is not merely due to the effects of the
explosion flame or force but mainly due to the breathing of the poisonous carbon monoxide gas.

8. Formation of coke crust and soot deposits: In a coal-dust explosion, its pressure wave and flame
radiate intense heat which can melt metals and convert organic matter into coke and ash. Owing to
insufficient oxygen, only a part of the coal dust is completely burnt into ash whilst the remaining
dust gets coked and deposited as characteristic crust or globules on roadway supports and, on the
sides, and roof of the roadways through which the explosion passes. The presence of visible traces
of coke crust after an explosion depends on the caking properties of the coal. Bituminous coals
yield larger coke crusts than non-coking coals which yield granular crusts. Experience with large
explosions in mines have often shown that the coke crust is invariably formed on the reverse or
sheltered side of the roadway supports or projections (Fig. 2.25) and that it is found on the
'windward' side of the supports or projections near the seat of the explosion. In small explosions
with lower velocities, on the other hand, the coke crust is formed on all sides of the supports. Soot
deposits are generally thicker in the explosion area. Soot may be deposited as a continuous layer on
horizontal surfaces or form a lacy network or stringers at the roof and on vertical surfaces.
# Causes of Coal Dust Explosion: When coal dust, in the form of a dense cloud, comes in contact with a
source of heat of sufficient size & temperature for a sufficient time, then it can explode and the explosion
can travel in the mine over a long distance. The causes of it are as follows:
1. Firedamp Explosion: A firedamp explosion is the commonest source of initiation of a coal-dust
explosion. Besides posing the danger of such direct ignition, a firedamp explosion may raise the
deposited dust from the mine floor, sides, or roof into mine air very quickly before its flame has
ceased and then propagate as a coal- dust explosion. A very small gas explosion initiated by
accidental ignition of a small quantity of flammable firedamp mixture (approximately 0.4 m²
volume may thus bring about a much bigger coal-dust explosion. This danger is particularly great in
long headings than on long coal faces due to the low air velocities and a lack of adequate pressure
relief except in one direction towards the entrance of the heading. An explosion in pure coal dust
may not develop when layered gas is ignited or when the gas is ignited at the outbye end. It is
significant that most firedamp explosions do not develop into coal-dust explosions due to their
failure to raise a sufficiently dense dust cloud.
2. Naked Flames: A naked flame is the easiest means of igniting a dust cloud as the source of heat is of
considerable size and a larger part of the dust cloud can be heated.
3. Friction: Hot surfaces as a result of mechanical friction, such as overheated bearings, may ignite
surrounding explosive dusty atmospheres.
4. Electric Sparks: Electric sparks from short-circuiting and arcing at electrical equipment or overhead
trolley wires may ignite an explosive dust-air mixture. Sparks of higher voltage and amperage are
necessary than in the case of flammable firedamp mixtures. Static electric sparks can also ignite
explosive dust-air mixtures. Fine particles of dust may readily become electrified by friction with air
or ducting through which they pass. As the electric charge on a body resides on the surface, a dust
cloud has a very large capacity. Under suitable conditions, a discharge or sudden recombination of
separated positive and negative charges can occur which can then act as a source of ignition. With
increasing humidity, however, the electric potential falls.
5. Runaway of Tubs: A runaway of tubs in a haulage roadway, raises the dust in the air, and may cause
a Explosion of Coal Dust.
6. Blown Out Shot: Most of the explosions are started as firedamp explosion, but they change into
coal dust explosion. Explosion of coal dust produces a large quantity of CO. It is very violent &
spreads far & wide in the mine.
# Prevention of Coal Dust Explosion: It is well known that it is much easier to prevent aa coal dust
explosion being initiated than to supress one. The measures for prevention & suppression of coal-dust
explosions can be divided into the following main groups:
1. Measures which prevent or reduce formation and dissemination of coal dust underground: The
elimination of coal dust in mines would be the logical means of eliminating coal-dust explosion
hazard, but unfortunately, this is virtually, impossible. Much can, however, be done to reduce the
formation, distribution & accumulation of coal dust in mine workings. The following important
measures shall be adopted:
a. On longwall faces, water infusion of the coal face to reduce respirable dust at low or high
water pressures where the seam and adjacent strata allow The different methods of
infusion of coal in situ before it is mined as practised in European mines are shown in Fig.
2.31. Infusion is generally practised on faces in seams which are plough-able. As it is difficult
to infuse fast-moving mechanized faces with non-cyclical mining, the method of long (deep)-
hole low-pressure infusion by means of holes drilled into the seam parallel to the face in
advance of the coal face from the advanced gate roads will be the most satisfactory
method. Long-hole high-pressure infusion may also be applied as a larger area of coal can be
 infused. The effectiveness of coal face infusion depends on the amount of water injected
and its uniform distribution in coal. The amount of water required lies between 8 and 10
litres per solid cubic metre of coal. Insertion of a solid calcium chloride cartridge into the
infusion hole prior to infusion has been shown to decrease the total dust make considerably
(up to 50 per cent). Water mixed with surfactants improves dust suppression as compared
to plain water. The disadvantages of wetting of coal seams before its extraction are
consumption of considerable amounts of water and energy and the possibility of wetting a
whole section of the seam.
b. Wet winning of coal using wet pneumatic picks where used.
c. With machine-cutting by means of coal cutter, using sharp picks of a suitable type, selecting
optimal cutting and travelling speeds of the machine, using gummer and wet-cutting; with
continuous miners by using scrubbers on them.
d. When blasting in coal, use of stemming cartridges or ampoules of calcium chloride powder
containing 82 to 85 per cent CaCl2 and 15 to 18 per cent water of crystallization reduces
considerably the dust produced by shot-firing due to the formation of a large number of
droplets as a result of distribution of hygroscopic salt particles in the fume cloud containing
a considerable amount of water vapour, which bind the dust.
e. With power loading using the conventional shearer loaders, by not using too many cutting
bits which should be sharp and of a suitable type and bit lacing, selecting a suitable drum
design with vane angle greater than 12", operating at optimal rotational speed of the drum
by using a two-speed gearbox, and at optimal travelling speed of the machine, with proper
direction of drum rotation, preferably roof to floor, cut sequence; introducing water to the
bit clearance line through the hollow drum-shaft by having sprays in the shell or barrel
(barrel release) or mounted on the vanes (vane release); flushing the cutting edges of the
bits with sprays located either in or close to the bit boxes (behind-the-bit flushing, Fig. 2.32);
and using external water sprays on the body of the shearer on the face side to deliver water
to strategic areas.
f. Thoroughly wetting the coal pile before it is manually or mechanically loaded. Using such
types of conveyors with which the dust production is minimum
g. With belt conveyors:
i. covering them along their length with a hood
ii. complete shrouding or boxing of the conveyor for a certain distance, before the
entry and after the exit when passing through air-locks with some form of seal
(suspended conveyor belting) to allow passage of materials
iii. having properly designed and installed chutes at transfer and loading points. It is
most advantageous to hood or enclose the transfer points; and
iv. water spraying transfer and loading points.
h. Using large-capacity mine cars.
i. Water spraying full and empty trains during their transit.
j. With rope haulages, raising the haulage ropes by correct siting of the rollers to prevent
contact with the floor containing dust.
k. Preventing spillage and degradation of coal during transport on haulage roads by:
i. using undamaged, well-maintained dust-tight cars;
ii. avoiding overloading of cars so that there is no spillage in transit;
iii. using retarders and creepers to avoid violent collisions;
iv. maintaining the haulage track in good condition; and
v. on coal conveyor roadways, reducing spillage by selecting proper belt width and
speed for operating the conveyor at 75% of its full rated capacity, by good alignment
 and transverse levelling providing adequate bunker capacity at loading points,
centralizing the flow of coal, and keeping the number of belt joints to the minimum
and also sealing them.
j. Restricting velocities of air currents in mine airways to less than 3 m/s if possible.
k. Adopting homotropal ventilation where the ventilating air travels in the same direction as
the coal to reduce dust pick-up. (xiv) Preventing dust accumulation in mine workings by:
i. dry suction at loading and unloading points at which large quantities of dust are
produced which cannot be suppressed in the ordinary way, and removing dust by
means of collectors which may be of the fabric, dry cyclone, or wet impingement
type;
ii. incorporating a dust collector in the auxiliary ventilation system in development
drivages and headings;
iii. cleaning systematically and regularly main haulage roads and main return airways of
deposited dust (three to four times a year) using transportable roadway suction
apparatus;
iv. cleaning regularly and systematically at and near transfer and loading points;
v. installing skip-hoisting in upcast shafts; and
vi. locating dry coal preparation plants far away from downcast shafts (not less than 80
m).
l. Selecting a method of coal winning with which dust production is the least. Winning by coal
ploughs produces much less dust than by shearer loaders.
m. Controlled caving of roof coal in very thick seams mined by the sub-level caving method
using close-fitting shields.
n. Consolidating the floor dust to prevent it from being raised.

2. Measures against ignition of dust accumulations: These measures comprise:

a. Measures against ignition of flammable firedamp mixtures;
b. Neutralization or consolidation of dust at working coal faces within a radius of 10 to 20 m
before shot-firing by means of water or inert dust; and
c. Neutralization of dust in roadways by means of water, inert stone dust, and hygroscopic
salts.

3. Measures against explosion propagation: Dustless zones in mine workings might at first seem to be
a logical means of arresting a coal-dust explosion. But experience has shown that strong explosions
can easily propagate through several hundred metres of nearly dust-free zones due to burning dust
being transported in the moving air column. The protective measures which have been found in
practice to have varying degrees of effectiveness in arresting explosion propagation in the coal
mines so that an explosion is confined to the part of the workings in which it might occur are:
a. Generalized wetting of coal dust
b. Generalized stone-dusting (rock-dusting)
c. Stone-dust (rock-dust) barriers
d. Explosion stoppings
e. Salt zones
f. Water barriers
g. Triggered barriers
# Steps Against Dust in Regulations: Are as follows:
1. CMR 143: says
a. The chain of the coal cutting machine shall be attached to the group of picks completely.
b. During the cutting, the chain of mechanical coal cutter shall be sprayed with water jets.
c. In the case of power operated drill machines, dust exhaust shall be used or wet drilling shall
be employed.
d. All the working faces, side walls and roof shall be sprayed with water in short intervals.
e. If the working faces are not naturally wet, they shall be sprayed with stone dust, so that the
dust samples of that place, consists of 75% incombustible matter.
f. The stone dust used for stone dusting shall not consists of more than 5% silica in free state.
g. The specifications of the stone dust shall be examined once inn every three months.
h. Where proper stone dusting is unachievable, DGMS may make a provision of making the
Respiratory Equipment necessary for all workers, working in that place.
2. CMR 143A: says
a. A Dust Amp/Plan shall be made at a scale of 1:2400 or greater, which shall show naturally
wet areas, and the location of water pipes for dust control.
b. The map prepared under rule one, in case of a u/g mine, shall be placed on a notice board.
c. The Dust In-charge shall keep a record of daily dust analysis, and he shall ensure that water
spraying in all areas is being done in a proper way.
3. CMR 143B: says
a. Every return airway as lies within two hundred meters of the last working face and every
haulage, tramming or conveyor roadway which is not naturally wet throughout, shall be
divided into zones not longer than one hundred and fifty meters each
b. Every zone formed shall be divided into three equal sections, each not exceeding 50 meters
in length. Every zone formed shall be given a distinct number and every section formed, the
code letters a, b or c in a systematic manner.
c. The zones and sections, with their numbers and code-letters, shall be clearly marked on a
plan prepared on a scale having a representative factor of not less than 2000:1 hereinafter
called the “sampling plan”, clearly showing the areas of the mine that are naturally wet
throughout.
d. Every zone and section shall also be distinctly demarcated in the workings below ground by
means of suitable notice boards or by other suitable means.
e. Representative samples of dust shall be collected once in every thirty days from every zone,
and for this purpose samples may be collected from different sections such as a, b or c in
rotation such that, during every such period of thirty days, all samples are collected from
the section a or section b or section c.
f. Where a zone is treated with incombustible dust, the samples shall be collected by a
method of strip sampling, the strips being as near as possible of equal width of not less than
10 centi-meters, and at uniform intervals not exceeding five meters.
g. Where a zone is treated with water, the samples shall be collected by a method of “spot
sampling” such that a spot-collection of dust is made for every meter of the length sampled,
as nearly as possible at regularly spaced intervals along a zigzag path.
Generalized stone-dusting: The British engineer W. Garforth first observed in the year 1891 that an
explosion did not propagate to a part of a mine which was well stone-dusted. With this began stone-
dusting in Britain which officially adopted it in 1920. It was after the greatest explosion of all times that
occurred in the year 1907 in the Courieres mine in France that French scientists and engineers, notably
M.J. Taffanel and a German engineer, Beyling, engaged themselves, with stone-dusting. Stone-dusting
officially adopted in France in 1911 and in Germany in 1926. Today, generalize stone-dusting is done in
mines of almost all coal-mining countries of the world. Generalized stone-dusting consists in applying stone
dust on the sides, roof and floor of all mine workings except those within 10 m or less of all working faces
so that it overlays the deposited coal dust and thus prevents the latter from taking part in an explosion. If a
mine or any part of it is naturally "too wet” (condition wherein water exudes if a ball of dust is squeezed in
the hands) or to high in incombustible content to propagate an explosion, stone-dusting is no required in
that mine or part thereof. The value of stone dust application is due to the following facts:
1. When coal dust is mixed with enough inert or incombustible dust, it will not explode or assist in
propagation of an explosion. An addition of about 40 per cent stone dust causes a 50 to 90 per cent
reduction in flame velocity.
2. When incombustible dust is raised into an explosion flame in a sufficiently dense cloud, it gets
heated up taking away heat from the flame. Greater the amount of stone dust in the flame, greater
is the cooling effect. In the case of coal-dust explosions, the incombustible dust also serves to shield
or blanket the coal-dust particles from the heat of radiation so that they do not take part in
combustion anymore and also hinder diffusion of oxygen and gases into and from the burning coal
particles.
# Quantity of Coal Dust: As coal dust is constantly produced as a result of mining operations and gets
deposited by ventilating currents in mine workings, one application of stone dust will not suffice to keep
the mine workings immune from explosions. Stone-dusting must be applied at regular intervals of time
after it has been first applied as this gives some assurance that adequate mixing of coal dust and stone
dust is taking place. On the basis of tests carried out in surface experimental galleries, different countries
have prescribed different minimum percentages of incombustible content in the combined coal dust, stone
dust and other dusts on the floor, roof, and sides of mine roadways at all times. Moisture contained in the
mine dust is considered as a part of the incombustible content of the dust. The minimum incombustible
content by mass required of mine dust is 70 per cent in India, 80 per cent in Germany, and 65 per cent in
the USA. It depends on the character of coal, especially its volatile content on ash-free dry basis, the
fineness of the dust produced, and the percentage of methane present in the mine atmosphere. For a
given coal, the quantity of stone dust to be applied in mine workings can be calculated from the relation
0.01𝑎 + 𝑥 𝑏 𝑏−𝑎
= 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 =
1+𝑥 100 100 − 𝑏
Where, x is the quantity of stone dust required (kg stone dust/kg mine dust);
a is the percentage of incombustible matter already present in the mine dust;
b is the prescribed minimum percentage of incombustible content.
About 3 to 7 kg stone dust per tonne of coal output
may be required. In base metal mines, the use of stone dust is not recommended due to the large amounts
which would be required and the difficulties due to caking.
 Dispersable
Fine
# Qualities of Stone Dust: The major qualities of Stone Dust are as follows: Large quantity
Cheap
1. Easily dispersible to form a cloud in the air when distributed Human health
2. Easily available in large quantities Free silica
Colour
3. Not injurious to human health S.G.
4. Stone dust should be very fine, generally 100 mesh. Caking
5. It should be non-caking
6. It should not contain >5% free silica
7. It should be light in colour. It is preferably white in colour.
8. It should be of low specific gravity
9. It should be cheap.
# Types of Stone Dust:
1. Shale Dust
2. Limestone Dust
3. Gypsum Dust
4. Boiler Ash
5. Finely Ground
Shale, Limestone & Gypsum Dust are most commonly used and are
safe for human health. Sometimes Boiler Ash is also used, but it contains Silica Materials. Moreover, it is
difficult to obtain in large quantities. Water Proof Dust shall be used inn Wet & Damp places. In U/G
Roadways, the stone dust shall be sprayed in regular intervals, in order to ensure that the upper layer is of
stone dust. The spraying of stone dust and water on coal dust can not be done together. The purpose of
booth is different, where water is used to set the coal dust down, and the stone dust is used to create a
non-explosible cloud of Coal Dust.
In a mine, the samples of the mixture of Stone Dust & Coal
Dust is taken regularly and analysed for calculating the quantity of Stone Dust in it. According to DGMS
Circulars, the ability of air to dry up and to prevent the moisture content of coal dust from reducing at the
same time, is found at the following velocities:

S. Place Max. Velocity

No.
1 Main Hoisting Shaft & Haulage Roads (other than Conveyor roads) 8m/sec.
2 Other Roadways 6m/sec.
3 Conveyor Roads, Loading Points and Transfer Points 4m/sec.
4 Working Faces in developing/depillaring/stoping 4m/sec.
Stone-Dust Barriers: Stone-Dust Barriers as a means of suppression of coal-dust explosions were first
proposed by MJ Taffanel and are today extensively used inn Indian and many overseas mines. A stone-dust
barrier is a device which uses the dynamic pressure of an explosion to release and disperse a mass if stone
dust in the form of a thick cloud into the path of an oncoming explosion flame, thereby smothering the
flame. These occupies a length of 25 to 40 m. of the roadway. These are installed in strategic areas of the
mine such as roadways leading from shafts or their pit-bottoms, in all level and inclined roadways including
gate roads and development headings, and near roadway junctions. Two designs of Shelves are commonly
used in mines:
1. The German (Improved Dortmund Type) Shelf: It consists of several loose planks, maximum 60cm
long and 10 to 15 cm wide, which are abutted along their length with the ends supported by cross
pieces, which rest upon two long traverse bars with their ends resting loosely on rigid shelf
supports.
2. Polish Shelf: A barrier consists of several shelves placed side by side. Each shelf consists of several
short planks, placed side by side on a frame and loaded with stone dust. The frame is supported on
brackets fixed on props erected on either side of the roadway. The planks are 10 to 15 cm wide and
35 to 50 cm long, laid alongside one another in the direction of the roadway.
In India, the stone-dust
barriers were officially adopted in 1963. The Polish Type is commonly used. These are required in:
1. All seams of degree II & III and,
2. Development working of degree I seams
There are two types of Stone barriers, which are as follows:
1. Primary Barriers: These are also known as First barrier or Light Barrier. These are the barriers, in
which, all the planks are lightly loaded. In this case, 30kg/m of length of roadway and 110kg/m2 of
cross-sectional area, is to be loaded. These are used, at a point, which is located nearest possible,
to the Point of Ignition. These are used in Longwall Gate Roads. The distance of location of such
barriers are measured from the face. These are used only inn Longwall Method.
2. Secondary Barriers: These are also called Second barrier or Heavy Type Barriers. It is a composition
of Light & Heavy Load, in which, 1/3rd of total shelves is lightly loaded and the rest are heavily
loaded. For Heavily loaded shelves, the amount of stone dust is considered 60kg/m length of
roadway per shelf and in total 390kg/m2 of the cross-section area of the roadway. These are used
in both Bord & Pillar and Longwall methods. These are erected at a further point, form the Point of
Ignition.
The common dimensions of these have been compared in the following table.

S. Parameter Shelves
No. Light Heavy
1 Width of Shelves Max. 35 cm. 50 cm.
2 Width of Planks 10-15 cm. 10-15 cm.
3 Length of Planks Max. 35 cm. Max. 50 cm.
4 Height of Supporting Bars At least 15 cm. At least 15 cm.
5 Distance between Supporting Bars (centre Max 20 cm. Max. 20 cm.
to centre)
6 Mass of shelves/m Length of shelf Max. 15 kg/cm Max. 15 kg/m.
7 Dust Loading/m Length of shelf At least 30 kg/m. At least 60 kg/m.
Max. 35 kg/m. Max. 70 kg/m.
 3. Barriers for Special Purposes: They are erected for special purposes such as for protection of men
engaged in sealing off fire areas in mines. They are quick-acting and can be quickly erected. They
carry 100kg stone dust per square metre of roadway cross-section.

# Specifications & Construction: The following rules govern the erection of stone-dust barriers of both
types:
1. A stone-dust barrier must carry not less than 400 kg stone dust per square metre of average cross-
section of the roadway in which it is installed.
2. At least a quarter of the total dust loading of any one barrier must be distributed on light shelves
which must flank the heavy shelves of the barrier at either end. The heavy shelves must carry at
least a quarter of the total dust loading.
3. The distance between the adjacent shelves of a barrier must be as given under:
German Shelves min. 1.50m.
max. 5.00m.
Polish Shelves
a) Light Shelves min. 1.00m.
max. 2.00m.
b) Between heavy shelves
or between a light min. 1.25m.
and a heavy shelf max. 2.50m.
4. The bottom of the shelves should be at a height greater than half the roadway height but not
exceed 2.60 m. The clearance between the ends of the shelves and the sides of the roadway should
be at least 5 cm.
5. The brackets supporting the entire shelf must be rigidly fixed to the ground or roadway support.
The shelf should never be suspended from chains or wire ropes which tend to swing.
6. The shelf supports at the brackets must be horizontal and have a smooth bearing surface; they
should not project beyond the shelf supports by more than 3 cm.
7. The supporting bars must be rectangular in section.
8. The gaps between the planks must be covered with thin scantlings or strips having a maximum
width equal to the width of the planks.
9. The clear space (vertical distance) between the top of the dust loading and the inner edge of the
roof bar or crown segment of the steel arched support, as the case may be, must be at least 15 cm.
10. The dust loading must be approximately symmetrical with respect to the centre of the roadway and
must occupy at least two-thirds of the maximum width of the roadway.
11. The dust loading on the shelves must not be covered.
12. In the vicinity of a barrier, ventilation ducting, overhung belt conveyors, pipes, and other
obstructions which seriously affect the effectiveness of a barrier must not be present.
13. The barriers should not be installed at roadway junctions, at curves, or in widened portions. They
can, however, be installed near roadway junctions.
14. The distance between barriers should not exceed 200m. in gate roadways of longwall faces and
400m. in main roadways.
# Conditions under which, Barrier may fail to serve its Purpose: Stone Dust Barriers have been designed to
prevent the coal dust explosions. However, the following situations may cause the failure of a Stone Dust
Barrier:
1. It may fail to arrest an explosion in which, only firedamp has taken place.
2. These may also fail if there is a layer of accumulation of firedamp in the roof of the roadways over
the barrier or a short distance inbye of it, since such roof layer can provide a bypass for the same.
3. Distance between the point of ignition & point of stone dust barrier is very important. If it is not
optimum, the stone dust barrier may fail.
4. Any deposit of coal dust over the stone dust on the trays may cause failure to arrest the
propagation of explosion.
5. Wet Stone Dust which has a tendency to form a cake will not be helpful to serve the purpose.
6. If the stone dust is not of adequate quantity or size.
# Care & Maintenance of Stone Dust Barrier: Following measures are adopted for the same:
1. The barrier should be examined weekly
2. The dust should be tested for dispersability.
3. Any damage to the trays should be repaired
4. New barriers should be erected under supervision of a competent person
5. Barrier should be removed at necessary intervals.
6. Regular reports of inspections and actions taken shall be prepared.

# Water barriers: Since the early 1960s, interest has revived in the use of passive water barriers, also called
water-trough barriers, as an alternative to stone-dust barriers for suppression of coal-dust explosions in
mines. Water has the following advantages over stone dust
1. Its heat capacity is about five times that of dust;
2. its efficacy is not affected by underground climatic conditions; and
3. it is available in all mine roadways.
A water barrier consists of a number of water-filled troughs or containers of
suitable material supported on horizontal shelves in the vicinity of the mine roof as in the case of a stone-
dust barrier. The containers shatter or burst under the action of the pressure wave or shock wave ahead of
the propagating flame of an explosion releasing and dispersing water in all directions in the path of the
explosion flame. In some countries, water barriers have become the principal means of protection against
coal-dust explosions.
Water barriers offer advantages over stone-dust barriers in cheapness and
ease of installation and maintenance. Extensive tests on the performance of water barriers carried out in
the Tremonia Experimental Mine, Germany, showed that in quenching explosion flames, water barriers are
roughly equivalent to stone-dust barriers and that 200 litres of water per square metre of roadway cross-
section would be necessary for the same effect as 400 kg stone dust per square metre on Dortmund
shelves [56]. Besides the magnitude of the dynamic pressure, the shattering of the water troughs is
influenced by the trough material used, trough shape, method of installation, and trough lids or covering.
Wool and sheet steel are not suitable materials. Troughs made of certain varieties of hard PVC or foamed
polystyrol (Styropor) have been found to be most suitable materials as they are easily shattered at low
wind pressures, giving good water distribution. The troughs must be designed so that they maintain their
shape with little sacrifice of their fragility. Only troughs with approval certificates should be used. The
method of installation of the troughs in a roadway cross-section exercises a great influence on the
shattering of the troughs. Troughs placed with their longer axis at right-angles to the roadway axis offer
greater frontal area to the dynamic pressure than when they are placed parallel to the axis of the roadway.
The following rules govern the erection of water barriers:
1. The water barriers must at all times contain a total quantity of at least 200 litres of water per
square metre roadway cross-section or at least 5 litres per m3, roadway volume and must be at
least 20m. long.
2. The distance between two shelves must be at least 1.2 m.
3. The space between lips of adjacent troughs carried by a shelf must not be greater than 1.20 m and
the total space between troughs in a row of troughs must not exceed 1.50 m. A row of troughs is
identified as a number of troughs supported across the roadways from side to side.
4. The distance between the outer troughs of a row and roadways side or rib must not exceed 1m.
Where this distance exceeds 1 m, an additional trough containing at least 30 litres of water must be
installed at the rib.
5. The trough, must cover, at the site of installation, at least 50 per cent maximum roadway width for
roadway cross-sections up to 14m², and 65 per cent maximum roadway width for roadway cross-
sections exceeding up to 14m and 65 per cent maximum roadway width for railway cross-sections
exceeding 14 m².
6. The bottom of the troughs must be at a height of at least half the height of roadway but not exceed
2.60 m.
7. When the top lip or edge of the troughs is higher than 1.70 m above the roadway floor, the trough
walls must be designed so that the water level can be recognized against marked graduations or a
float provided in each trough.
8. With Type 2 barriers, the vertical space between the top edge of the trough and the inner edge of
the roof support must be at least 10 cm.
9. The troughs must carry at least 70 litres of water.
10. At all places where barriers are installed, water from a water pipe must be available. Water hoses
must be provided.
11. Water barriers must be located at least 100 m away from stone-dust barriers.
12. The distance between barriers must not be greater than 200 m in gate roadways and 400 m in main
roadways.

Probable Questions:
1. Causes & Prevention of Coal Dust Explosion.
2. Explosion Characteristics
3. Factors affecting development of coal dust explosion.
4. Application of Stone Dust.
5. Comparison of Coal Dust & Firedamp Explosions.
6. Stone Dust Barrier (Types & Subtypes).
7. Location & Maintenance of Stone Dust Barrier.
8. Situation under which Barrier may fail.
9. Define Triggered Barrier.
Ever since mining began, most of the mines throughout the world had always to contend with water
problems which often assumed serious proportions. One distinguishes between two types of water influx
in mines: the normal influx and the sudden inrush, irruption or inundation. The normal influx can be
attributed to several sources such as steam bed seepage, general surface seepage, and barrier pillar
seepage. For a given mine, it varies within a certain range depending on the amount and intensity of
rainfall, intersection of faults and fissures by mine workings and the condition of strata as affected by thee
progress of extraction. The amount of water pumped out of mines may be up to 20 or more times the ROM
output.
An inrush or irruption of water is a sudden inflow of large quantities of water into
mine workings causing their inundation. It may take place form the surface, overlying strata or
waterlogged workings in the same mine or neighbouring mines. Inundation of mine workings are
dangerous as they are sometimes unpredictable inn their occurrence and often result in loss of life and
property. In hot deep mines, an inrush of water may create such adverse humidity conditions that it may
become almost impossible to erect a dam. The danger of inundations is especially great in potash and slat
mines as well as in metal mines with overlying salt, limestone or dolomite beds which develop sink holes.
The fatalities from inundation are only next to those from mine explosions. In India, between 1912 and
1976, there were 12 mine disasters due to inundations, the worst disaster being that in Chasnalla (1975)
when 375 miners were killed.

# Causes of inundations in Mines: are as follows:

1. Inundations by surface waters: Inundations by surface waters may occur after sudden and
abnormally heavy rains when the surface mine outlets such as shafts, inclines, and adits may get
flooded or subsidence fractures reaching the surface get submerged. They are very dangerous as
large quantities of water break into the mine within a short time preventing escape of workmen.
Surface drainage must be designed to cope with storm rainfall run-off conditions.
2. Inundations from overlying strata: Inundations from the overlying strata can occur under one or
more of the following conditions:
1. When impervious strata are pierced by mine workings;
2. When fissures or fracture planes develop in impervious strata due to subsidence
communicating with water-bearing strata above,
3. Where faults, fissures or fracture planes in communication with a water-bearing bed are
intersected by mine workings,
4. Where the deposit occurs under a water-bearing bed lying uncomformably on the eroded
surface of the deposit;
5. When a mine working is too near, to the surface and accidental holing has taken place into a
pond, stream bed, or outcrop workings; and
6. Where boreholes drilled for prospecting have not been sealed-off
7. Mining coal from beneath the seabed as at Ellington mine, UK Coal.
3. Inundations from water logged workings: Inundations from water logged workings occur when they
are accidentally holed or when barrier pillars fail due to inadequate design. They are not easily
predictable and the danger from them is especially great in semi-steep and steep formations.
# Measures Against Inundations: These measures can be divided into: surface measures and underground
measures. The surface measures aim at preventing dangerous accumulations of water on the mine surface.
The underground measures offer protection against inundations. Both surface and underground measures
may be adopted to control inundations with varying degrees of effectiveness depending largely upon
geological and hydrological conditions.
1. Surface measures: The selection of one or more remedial measures is governed by the cost-benefit
ratio and the method of financing. They can be further divided into:
a. measures against flooding of mine main entries or outlets: These consist of the following:
i. Locating shaft sites away from faults especially formed by major tensional stresses;
ii. Laying mouths of shafts, inclines, and adits above the high-water mark and lining
them for the first 20 m with watertight lining;
iii. Filling up with debris and other sealing materials all abandoned shafts and boreholes
which have ceased to serve any purpose with the existing mine;
iv. Cutting diversion drains or ditches or erecting embankments or concrete walls on
the surface to intercept and conduct the surface run-off water away, and,
v. Constructing dams and reservoirs in the upper reaches of rivers to prevent their
flooding.
b. Measures against seepage of surface waters: Depending on the nature of the bed(s), surface
water (streams, ponds, tanks, lakes) lose considerable quantities of water which may enter
mine workings or form water pools in the strata. The infiltration of surface waters can be
controlled by one or more of the following measures:
i. Straightening, cleaning, widening, and grading stream channels to provide free flow
of water especially in areas with vertical fractures, subsidence, or high-permeability
rocks,
ii. Silting or lining stream beds with concrete or rubble masonry.
iii. Grouting the river bed with cement to stabilise and seal it;
iv. In the case of near-surface mines, laying ponds and tanks dry if they form a cause of
water influx in mines;
v. Diverting streams/rivers, if technically and economically feasible, with safety to new
and safe channels;
vi. Back-filling surface excavations or subsided areas with impervious materials to an
established hydraulic gradient that will ensure natural drainage,
vii. Diverting run-off to prevent its infiltration into fissures on subsided areas;
viii. Conducting run-off across pervious or subsided areas of the mining property by
means of flumes;
ix. Grouting overlying strata to reduce permeability and the flow; a seismic reflection
survey on the surface will reveal the location of subsurface anomalous structures
such as fractures, joints or faults for the drilling and grouting programme.
x. Leaving outcrop barrier pillars of adequate size, a method of extraction by which the
strata subside uniformly
xi. Selecting without fracturing. For extraction under important waterways, hydraulic
stowing is the best method of roof control; and
xii. Afforestation along river banks.
c. Underground measures: These protect life and property against inundations. They consist of
the following measures:
i. General lowering of the water table to below the level of the workings by borehole
pumps was extensively applied for a long time for opencast mines but it suffers from
 the disadvantage that a stage might be reached when further de-watering would
severely interfere with water resources, wells, etc.
ii. Avoiding blasting and drilling operations near suspected water-logged workings.
iii. Leaving safety water pillars or barriers. A safety water pillar is that portion of the bed
that is left unmined:
1. below an overlying water formation along boundary line or lines of adjoining
properties,
2. between parts of a mine;
3. below surface streams, tanks and lakes;
4. around shafts; or
5. along major faults.
Its principal function is to act as a dam to prevent
water accumulations from suddenly breaking into mine workings. Lack of
maintenance of dependable pillars by depending on old surveys and incorrect old
plans had resulted in several mine disasters in the past.
iv. Supporting roadways not coming under the influence of mining operations with
water-tight lining.
v. Cementation of fractured strata in the roof containing water in fissures.
vi. Driving drainage tunnels or adits to de-water the property. This method had been
practised in certain metalliferous mines in the early days of mining.
vii. When driving through hard ground traversed by water-bearing fissures adopting a
technique of diamond drilling cover ahead of the advancing face in which long holes
(100 m) are drilled ahead of the face from bays (40 apart) excavated on alternate
sides of the roadway (Fig. 8. 1);
viii. Providing adequate sump and pumping capacities at predetermined points for
dealing with inrushes of water even where safety pillars an provided.
ix. Erecting water dams or hydraulic seals to seal abandoned sections of the mine
x. Erecting bulkhead doors in mine workings with immediate danger of inundation
xi. Providing additional lodgement capacity in worked-out area(s) to which sudden
inrushes of water may be directed in an emergency.
# Precautions when approaching waterlogged workings: During drivage of dewatering mine workings and
tapping of water, a number of precautionary measures must be adopted. These include the following:
1. For the safety of men engaged in dewatering operations, an escapeway, preferably a level one,
must be provided. The escapeway must be properly supported, be free from obstructions, and be
electrically lighted. If an escapeway is steeper than 3°, it must be provided with a water drain, a
raised travelling way, and a rope railing
2. The dewatering mine workings must be well-ventilated to remove any noxious gases such as carbon
dioxide and hydrogen sulphide that may occur. If through ventilation is not possible, provision for
auxiliary ventilation must be made. Forcing ventilation system must be preferred.
3. Open lights should not be used. Only electric safety lamps should be used.
4. Only experienced miners should be employed who should be equipped with self-rescuers.
5. For rescue of men overcome with gases, a rescue team equipped with respiratory protective
apparatus should be stationed near the place of work. The final boring and tapping of water should
be done by the rescue men only.
6. During tapping, workers from adjacent mine workings should be withdrawn.
7. Necessary materials for erection of a dam should be stored at a suitable place and the dam site
prepared. A bulkhead door must be built if high-pressure water is expected.
8. All dewatering operations must be done according to a definite plan prepared by the mine
management.
9. All operations must be done under the supervision of an experienced supervisory official. The
actual tapping operation must take place in the immediate presence of the official. In difficult
cases, the presence of the mine manager is recommended.
Regulations 126 to 129 of Coal Mines Regulation, 1957(Appendix 1)
(give precautions against danger of inundation for surface waters and underground water bodies.

# Bulkhead doors or emergency dams A bulkhead door is a watertight dam containing a strong steel door
which is quickly closed in the event of a sudden water inrush or when there is an immediate danger of
inundation. They are often used in development workings which are driven under constant fear of heavy
inflows of water or for protection of underground districts against sudden inrushes of water.
A bulkhead door consists of a solid abutment, a door frame,
and a door (single or two-wing type). The abutment is of concrete formed in the same way as with normal
dams. The door frame is of cast iron or cast steel having a conical seating on the abutment (Fig. 8.14) [94],
in order that the pressure acting on the door is transferred to the abutment. It is usually made, depending
on the size and weight. in several segments which can be bolted to one another watertight by means of
packing. The door which must always close quickly and reliably in the direction of water pressure is made
of cast steel or thick boiler plate 30 to 60 mm in thickness. It may be flat, cambered or hemispherical
depending on the water pressure. A rubber, leather, or felt gasket between it and the frame provides an
effective hydraulic seal. The door may be hung up next to the roof or carried on substantial side hinges.
Rusting and corrosion of bolts and other vital parts must be prevented.
Rail track(s) should be of folding type, or, if they are fixed, tools for their
removal should be available on site. Only first-class cement capable of withstanding attack by corrosive
waters should be used. As in ordinary dams, water and air-release pipes must be left in the door frame or
surrounding concrete. Adequate pressure grouting of the immediate strata surrounding the bulkhead will
ensure its long-term performance. Bulkhead doors must be carefully maintained so that they close easily
and reliably. Tools necessary for closing and locking the door as well as spare parts must be stored in a
special room near the door. The door must be lighted by fixed lights. In deep mines, bulkhead doors can be
arranged to be closed and locked with remote control.

# Dewatering of waterlogged workings: The necessity of dewatering waterlogged workings arises:

1. When a safety barrier between an active and an inactive mine is considered unsafe as a protection
against a hydrostatic head that is more than a definite value;
2. When it becomes necessary to drain water from an abandoned mine or mines into an adjacent
active mine to operate with safety;
3. When it is desired to extract reserves left in an abandoned mine filled with water from an adjacent
active mine by draining water out of the abandoned mine into the active mine and utilizing the
surface shafts of the abandoned mine for ventilation and man-riding; and
4. When an active mine or part thereof is inundated and the mine is to be quickly brought into
production.
Besides ensuring complete safety, de-watering obviates the necessity
of leaving barriers or providing dams for the protection of new mine workings. When considering
dewatering of old workings or goaves, one should determine whether the workings to be dewatered are
likely to be fed after their de-watering by surface and ground waters. All old plans and records should be
carefully checked to determine the possible number and size of water feeders. Where the workings are
directly fed from the surface and the inflow is considerable, de- watering may be inadvisable unless the
country's economy demands it. This is because an expensive pumping plant may be required and the
pumping cost over a long period may make mining unprofitable, workings are directly fed form the surface
and the inflow is considerable, dewatering may be inadvisable unless the country’s economy demands it.
This is because an expensive pumping plant may be required and the pumping cost over a long period may
make mining unprofitable.

# Methods of Dewatering: The method of dewatering to be adopted depends on whether an entire mine
(active or inactive) is flooded, layout of the mine (in-the-seam or horizon mining), location and extant of
waterlogged workings, time available for operation, available power supplies, and physical condition of the
shaft(s) and mine. Dewatering of a flooded mine in which water has risen into the shaft(s) may be done by
suspended electrical vertical centrifugal/turbine pumps, air-lift pumps, or electrical submersible pumps
installed in the shaft.
Where a standard vertical pump is used as dewatering pump, it is lowered as
the water recedes, the discharge being connected to the pump column by a flexible rubber hose. In
another approach, when the dewatering pump lowers the water to a predetermined level, a permanent
pump with a sump is installed on that level so that the dewatering pump is used to lower the water to the
next predetermined level. In the air-lift pump (Fig. 8.19), compressed air produced by an efficient
compressor is used for pumping out water. The compressed air is fed through a pipe to the bottom end of
a larger pipe immersed in water where it forms a mixture with water having a density less than that of
water so that it rises upwards through the larger pipe constituting the rising main. The actual head of an
airlift pump is given by
𝜂 × 𝑡 × (𝜌𝑤 − 𝜌𝑚 )
𝐻= (𝑚)
𝜌𝑚
Where, η = efficiency which depends on the ratio H:t
t = immersion depth (m) P. - density of water to be pumped (kg/m³)
ρw = density of compressed air-water mixture (kg/m³)
ρm = density of compressed air-water mixture (kg/m3)
Generally, the immersion depth is made 1.5 to 2 times the lift head. Where
electricity is available, submersible pumps offer the easiest means of dewatering mine shafts. The
submersible pump is of the multi-stage centrifugal type with a motor coupled to it and the drive is from
below. The motor is of completely wet type.
A flooded mine can also be dewatered from an adjacent mine by driving a
narrow roadway from the adjacent mine to a point below the lowest level flooded and boring up to tap off
the water (Fig. 8.21). Dewatering of a known or suspected waterlogged area in a mine may be done by one
of the following two methods:
1. Dewatering by means of narrow mine roadways: This method is feasible only when it is possible to
approach a waterlogged area sufficiently near to it and when the water pressure is less. The safe
distance up to which the workings may be driven depends on the water pressure and the nature of
ground. It can be determined by using the formula:
𝑝×𝑏
𝑠=
4𝜏
Where, b = the length of the longest side of the roadway section (m)
p = is the water pressure at the floor level of the approaching working (tf/m² or m WG)
s = is the shortest distance between the approaching mine working and the water-logged
area. It must be at least equal to the longest side of the roadway section when the
direction of force is acting against the face, and equal to the roadway height when the
direction of force is acting against the roadway side.
τ = is the shear strength of the ground (tf/m²)
When approaching a waterlogged area from its bottom side, the
determined value of s should be increased by 50 per cent. A further 25 m should be added to it if
the exact location of the area is not known. The drivage of the dewatering workings must take place
with simultaneous boring to avoid being too near to the water. The holes must be bored in all
directions in which water accumulation is expected, with at least one hole (better two holes) bored
straight ahead of face. Their minimum length is calculated from the relation:
Lmin = s + l
where s is the shortest safe distance between the approaching working and the waterlogged area
calculated 'as indicated above,
I is the expected length of pull.
The holes should be at least 4 m long in hard rock and
10 m long in coal. A record of the number, direction, and depth of holes should be maintained. The
drivage of the workings must be stopped at the first appearance of water coming out of the
borehole, fine cracks and cleavage planes becoming moist, and 'sweating' of the place. The pillar
between the faces of the workings and waterlogged area will then be bored with a single borehole
 for tapping water. Figure 8.22 shows a method of approaching and de-watering water-logged
Workings in a coal seam.
2. Dewatering by means of long boreholes This method of dewatering is adopted when the water
pressure is great and boring and tapping must be done from great distances by using special safety
boring apparatus. One may have to drive narrow roadway(s) in order to have a table location with
respect to the water pool. For the success of the method, exact knowledge of location of the
waterlogged area is necessary.

# Safety boring machines: For tapping off old waterlogged workings by means of long boreholes or for
putting advance boreholes when driving exploratory headings in anticipation of danger from
accumulations of water or gas, rotary core boring machines equipped with a special safety boring outfit or
apparatus is used. Among the well-known equipment are the Craelius, Longyear, and Burnside boring
machine with which holes can be bored at any desired angle safely and easily under heavy pressures of
water. The Burnside safety boring apparatus of British manufacture (Fig. 8.23) consists of a boring tube, a
mild steel sleeve tube, fixed and loose cross-heads with rubber seal, expansion bolts, a debris cock, a cross-
piece with rubber clamps, a full-way control cock, and a stuffing box and gland. The boring rods have a
diameter of 38 mm (heavy type) or 33.3 mum (light type) and are made in the lengths of 1.52 m (5 ft) and 3
m (10 ft). The boring bits are tungsten-tipped wet drilling bits of 56 m (2.19 inches), 73 mm (2.88 inches)
and 95 mm (3.75 inches) diameter. The tungsten carbide-tipped reamers have diameters of 111 mm (4.39
inches), 121 mm (4.75 inches), 146 mm (5.75 inches), and 222 mm (8.75 inches). This machine has been in
successful operation in the UK and India.

# Water Dams: These are also called Hydraulic Seals. These are permanent artificial barriers or seals built in
mine workings including shafts, slopes, drifts and adits under any one of the following circumstances:
1) To guard against irruptions of water from adjacent water bearing strata;
2) To guard against irruptions of water from adjacent old workings;
3) When approaching waterlogged workings and draining off the water by means of boreholes;
4) To limit the amount of pumping by allowing water in worked-out areas to accumulate behind the
dams;
5) To reduce or eliminate acid water being discharged in mines with the acid mine drainage problem;
6) To seal off operating mines that will close in the future;
7) To isolate acid-producing zones in a mine where they can be identified from active mine workings
where natural barriers cannot be provided; and
8) In most cases, to withstand the maximum hydrostatic pressure that may develop

# Selection of Site: When selecting a suitable site for a dam, the purpose of the dam and the hydrological
conditions must be taken into consideration. The following points must be borne in mind:
1) The ground must be strong, sound and solid; shaly sandstones are most suitable while sandstones,
conglomerates, and clayey shale are unsuitable. In most coal mines, supplemental roof supports should
be installed at the site.
2) If a dam is to be erected in a pervious or fissured ground, the ground should first be injected with liquid
cement (cementation) or polyurethane
3) The head of water to be withstood by the dam should be as small as possible
4) The site should be easily accessible.
5) The site should be self-draining, if possible, to facilitate inspection and erection.
6) The site should be carefully prepared by cutting into the sides, roof, and floor so that the dam has a
firm grip with the surrounding ground and the risk of its displacement and shearing of the strata at
abutments are obviate A continuous miner/road-heading machine may be used if the ground permits
and the number of dams to be erected is more. This will also eliminate t slow and tedious hand-cutting.
Blasting should be avoided as much possible.
7) Potential success of the dam.
8) Effect on ventilation.

# Types of dams: The factors governing the design of a dam are:

1) Size of roadway: The size of the roadway in which a dam is to be constructed is a determining factor in
dam design. For the same head of water, a dam built in a larger roadway cross-section will be required
to withstand greater total pressure than when it is erected in a smaller roadway cross-section (total
pressure = water pressure area of dam).
2) Nature of the adjacent strata: Dams built in weak ground (low compressive and shear strengths) must
be of greater dimensions than those built for the same head of water in strong ground in order that the
ground does not fail in shear.
3) Estimated water pressure: The estimated head of water in a dam is an important factor in determining
its size. The permissible compressive strength of the materials used in the construction of a dam
influences the size of the dam.
4) Materials used in construction: The dams should be constructed from a material such as concrete that
will resist deterioration by water.
5) Form of dam: The form of the dam selected is a determining factor in dam design.
According to design or shape, underground dams can be
classified into stra (or flat), cylindrical (or arched), and spherical dams. The selection of a type of dam is
governed by the physical characteristics of the site and its preparation time, safety, availability of finances,
and practical considerations. Depending on the materials used in their construction, the dams may also be
classified into clay, timber, brick, brick-and-concrete, and concrete dams. Brick- and-concrete, and
concrete dams are most commonly constructed in mines because of their reliability and the small space
required for dams of great strength.

1) Flat Dams: These are also called Straight Dams. For small water pressures, a brick, or concrete dam, 1
to 2 m thick, hitched into the sides, roof, and floor of the roadway, will be adequate (Fig. With larger
pressures, two or more single bricks or a solid plug of mass concrete built into the roadway which has
been only dressed will serve the purpose (Figs. 8.7 and 8.8). The bricks used must be hard burnt with a
compressive strength of 15 to 18 MN/m² (150 to 180 kgf/cm³). For concrete dams, blast furnace slag
cement or Portland cement may be used. The proportion of cement must be 20 per cent and that of
the aggregate 65 per cent of the concrete mass. The ratio of the sand to aggregate must be 2:3.
The total length of a plug dam based on the shear
strength of the construction material used or of the ground whichever is less is calculated from the
formula:
𝑝×𝑏×ℎ
𝑙=
2(𝑏 + ℎ)𝜏𝑠
 Where, l is the length of the plug (m)
p is the maximum water pressure (N/m²)
b is the width of the roadway (m)
h is the height of the roadway (m)
τ is the safe shearing stress of the material used or the ground whichever is less (N/m²)
The minimum Length in the middle of the plug with hollowed out
ends is given as l/4. Concrete Plug Dams are successfully used in South African gold mines.
2) Arch Dams: These are also called Cylindrical Dams. These dams distribute the thrust acting on it by arch
action to the abutments in the ground containing it. It may be designed as one or more arch rings each
of which is considered to be subjected to a constant radial hydro-static pressure. The radial thickness of
an arch ring may be approximately determined by using the cylinder formula and by considering the
dam to be as segment of a thin cylinder subjected to an external water pressure.
𝑝 × 𝑟𝑒 𝑝 × 𝑟𝑖
𝑙= = (𝑚)
𝜎𝑠 𝜎𝑠 − 𝑝
Where, p is the maximum water pressure (N/m2)
re is the external radius of the arch ring (m)
ri is the internal radius of the arch ring (m)
σs is the safe compressive stress of the material used (N/m2)
When the safe compressive stress of the
material used in construction is exceeded by the water pressure, a series of independent arch rings
(usually two to four) will be necessary, each ring being designed for a water pressure of p/n, where n is
the number of rings. Concrete is the best material for dam construction. The main disadvantage of the
use of bricks lies in the difficulty of establishing watertight contact with the surrounding ground. The
grade of the cement and strength of the bricks to be used must be properly selected. Aldis derived the
following formula for determining the thickness of an arch dam:

1
𝑡 = 𝑟𝑖 − 1 (𝑚)
2ℎ
√1 −
[ 𝜎𝑠 ]
Where, ri is the internal radius of the dam (m)
h is the maximum head of water (m WG, N/m2)
σs is the safe compressive strength of the material used (tf/m2, N/m2)
The factor 2h/σs must be less than unity if the
expression under the root is not to be imaginary. It is greater than unity when the building material is
not strong enough.
3) Spherical Dams: These consists of two or more spherical rings with abutments in the surrounding
ground. They are difficult to build although their thickness is less than that of the arch dams for the
same head of water. Aldis derived the following relationship for determining the thickness of a
spherical dam:
3 1.5ℎ
𝑡 = 𝑟𝑒 [1 − √1 − ]
𝜎𝑠
Where, re is the external radius of the dam
# Construction Of a Dam: Before commencing work on a proper dam, a stank of brick in cement, concrete
or clay rammed between two board walls is built across the roadway on the inbye side of the dam site to a
height of 0.6 to 1m. and a pipe 75 to 200 mm or more in diameter depending on the rate of water flow,
passed through it. This is necessary in order to keep the actual site of the dam as dry as possible. Next, the
sides, roof and floor of the roadway at the dam site are cut to form suitable abutments for the type of dam
chosen and the dam is then erected. In order that the pipe is firmly embedded in the dam, it is provided
with several flanges. A pipe 20 to 25 mm in diameter is also brought through the dam near the roof to
vent air from the back of the dam as the water fills the roadway as well as to measure the water pressure.
Owing to the difficulty of making the dam watertight at the abutments, pipes 30 to 50 mm in diameter, are
also left in the dam for cement injections.
Figure 8.11 gives the construction of a simple flat concrete dam. Figure 8.12 gives
the construction of a flat concrete dam suitable for water pressures of 12 to 15 bar (g). Steel anchors are
inserted into the four sides of the roadway which are also injected with cement. Figure 8.13 shows the
construction of brick-and-concrete dam used in British mines. It consists of two 0.9-m thick brick-walls in
cement mortar, about 3.6 m apart, with the space between filled with broken rock. Pipes of varying length
are laid through the front wall as it is built up to inject cement into the loose rock to render it watertight.

Probable Questions:
1.
Mine Rescue & Recovery Work
# Introduction: The subject of mine rescue deals with all measures and devices used for working inn
irrespirable and toxic atmosphere occurring in mines for the purpose of fire-fighting and sealing off mine
fires and rescue and/or recovery operations speedily and safely. The saving of lives or men overcome by
toxic gases or oxygen-deficient atmospheres forms the immediate and the most important objective of
mine rescue. It includes escape apparatus, Self-rescuers, Gas masks and Compressed Oxygen/Liquid
Oxygen Breathing Apparatus.
When a human breathes, the oxygen present in the atmosphere, reaches to
his lungs, through the wind pipe or trachea. The blood in the body, requires its supply, which is fulfilled by
breathing. Moreover, the Lungs also want an intermittent supply of it, which is also fulfilled. If the supply
of oxygen to the flowing blood is stopped for a minute or two it may result in the death of the person. With
quiet respiration, a man inspires or expires about 500ml. of air. The normal atmospheric air, that contains
around 21% O2 & 79% N2 is breathed by a person. Out of the 21% O2, 3-5% gets utilised in respiration
process, and some of it is converted in to CO2, but the value of N2 is unchanged. In this way, the
composition of exhaled air, is as follows:
O2 = 18-16%
CO2 = 3-5%
N2 = 79%
When doing normal work, a human takes around 15 breaths per minute, and
when doing hard labour, this number increases to 20. He takes around 2 litres of air in every breathe, and
in this way, he takes around 1.5l. of oxygen. The table gives the air inhaled per minute and oxygen
consumed per minute during different degrees of effort. A spirometer is used to determine the volume of
air breathed per minute.

S. Activity Air Inhaled O2 consumption

No. Litres/Minute litres/minute
1 Resting 8-10 0.3-0.4
2 Walking with rescue Apparatus 15-20 0.6-0.9
3 Rescue Drill 20-30 0.9-1.3
4 Moderate Work with Pauses 30-40 1.3-1.8
5 Hard work with Pauses 40-50 1.8-2.3
6 Very hard Work for short duration 60-90 2.7-4.0

# Mine Rescue Apparatus: Mine rescue apparatus, also called respirators or respiratory protective
equipment used in mines, includes all types of apparatus that enable a wearer to enter or remain for long
or short periods in irrespirable and toxic atmospheres retaining his full physical and mental capacities. They
are primarily used for respiratory protection of men employed in fighting mine fires, and in rescue and
recovery work after explosions. The various types of equipment fall generally into the following main
classes:
1. Self-contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)
2. Filter apparatus or filter respirators
3. Fresh-air tube breathing apparatus or supplied air respirators
The figure gives the classification of the various types of apparatus that have been developed and used in
mines today:
1) Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus: A self-contained breathing apparatus is an apparatus that supplies
all the requirements for respiration by itself and is independent of the surrounding atmosphere. There
are two types of self-contained breathing apparatus:
a) Closed Circuit Apparatus: It is an oxygen-circulating apparatus of the regenerative type, in which,
the oxygen used up by the wearer is supplemented from an oxygen reserve, the unwanted carbon
dioxide in the exhaled air being absorbed at the same time by a regenerating chemical absorbent.
Depending on the source of oxygen supply, the apparatus may be divided into following sub-
categories:
i) Compressed Oxygen Apparatus
ii) Self-Generating or Chemical Oxygen Apparatus
iii) Liquid Oxygen Apparatus
Out of these, the Liquid Oxygen Apparatus are the principle
equipment used by all mine rescue stations throughout the world.
b) Open Circuit Apparatus: In these, the oxygen or air from a compressed oxygen or compressed air
reserve, is supplied to the wearer and the exhaled oxygen or air is discharged into the open and is
put to no further use. They are also called reservoir or non-regenerative apparatus. These are very
similar in design to the former, and differ only in construction of certain parts, source of oxygen or
air, and the arrangement of the parts and the circulating system.
# General requirements of self-contained breathing apparatus: Self-contained breathing apparatus are
designed with the following objectives which must be kept in mind when making their selection.

• Safety and reliability: The apparatus must be designed on sound engineering and scientific
principles so that it is safe and reliable when used under the most unfavourable and dangerous
conditions encountered in mining. It must meet the respiration needs for a period equal to the
rated service time plus a reserve period of about 25 per cent of that time. The components and
materials used should not cause irritation to skin, should withstand repeated disinfection, and meet
the requirements of permissibility.
• Simplicity: The apparatus should be as simple as possible in design, free from complicated
manipulations on the part of the wearer and consistent with safety and efficiency.
• Comfort: The apparatus should be designed so that it gives maximum possible breathing comfort to
the wearer under adverse operating conditions. It should provide as cool an air as is practicable,
maintain low levels of CO, in the inspired air, offer low resistance to breathing, and have a suitable
head harness.
• Weight: The apparatus should be reasonably light when completely assembled and fully charged, as
with lighter apparatus the wearer will be able to perform a larger amount of work.
• Compactness: The apparatus should be designed to be as compact as possible and unnecessary
projections are eliminated so that the work in intricate and confined spaces is facilitates. The
advantages of a modular component design which facilitates servicing and maintenance should not
be lost sight of.
• Durability: The apparatus should be of robust construction. Before being officially approved for use
in mines, all individual parts of the apparatus as well as the assembled apparatus must pass
laboratory and practical approval tests which vary in rigorousness from country to country.
• Initial Cost & Ease & Cost of Maintenance
• Compliance with the country’s National Standards.
# Draeger Model BG 174 Apparatus: This apparatus manufactured by Draegerwerk AG, Lübeck,
Germany, is widely used as a standard mine rescue apparatus in many countries of Europe and India. It
is of the closed-circuit type with a constant and lung-governed dosages or feeds of oxygen. It was
introduced in India in 1992 to replace the Proto Mark IV apparatus.

# Specifications: are as follows:

• Endurance (nominal) 4 hours hard exertion at a working pressure of 200 bar

• Cylinder capacity, empty 2 litres

• Cylinder capacity at 200 bar 400 litres

• Breathing bag capacity, full 6 litres

• Weight of apparatus 12.8kg

• Oxygen flow rate constant dosages Average 1.5 litres/min.

• Lung-governed dosage As Required (min. 100 litres per min.)

# Special features: The special features of the apparatus are:

• The oxygen regulator, also referred to as the oxygen distributor, comprises a pressure
reducer, an automatic pre-flushing device, a bypass valve, and a pressure gauge shut-off
valve. It has no connection with the breathing bag. The pressure reducer reduces the
pressure to 4 bar.
• The lung-demand valve is a diaphragm-operated stem valve in a valve box or housing. It is
not actuated by the breathing bag which has unrestricted movement but by the control
diaphragm responding to small negative pressures resulting from inhalation. The diaphragm
also actuates a relief valve to dissipate the excess circuit pressure. The demand valve, the
relief valve, a metering nozzle, and the inhalation valve are all contained in the valve box.
• A pre-flushing device is fitted to automatically purge the breathing circuit of nitrogen with a
burst of about 7 litres of oxygen when the cylinder valve is opened.
• The apparatus is mounted on the back of the wearer.
• A dry ice cooler may be substituted for the saliva trap in the inhalation tube to cool the
inhaled air temperature to 15°C when working in hot and humid atmosphere wearing full
facepiece.
• Anhydrous NaOH (1.5 kg) is used as CO, absorbent.

# Circulatory system: The exhaled air containing carbon dioxide and excess oxygen flows through
the exhalation tube, exhalation valve into the carbon dioxide absorption canister where it is freed
from carbon dioxide. The air thus purified then flows into the breathing bag and, on inhalation, is
drawn from the breathing bag into the lung demand valve housing where it gets enriched with
oxygen and then flows through the inhalation tube into the wearer's lungs. Excessive pressure
build-up is prevented by the automatic relief valve. Additional oxygen, if needed, is provided by the
lung- demand valve.
 # Tests on Self-Contained Breathing apparatus: All self-contained apparatus should be maintained in a
safe working condition for use at all times, this is achieved in practice by subjecting the apparatus to the
following tests:

• An Approved full test programme carried out on each component of the apparatus between
periods of actual use for air-tightness or air-leakage and operation. It comprises usually of:
o Leak tests at positive and negative pressures
o Pre-Flush test when a pre-flushing device is provided
o Exhalation Valve test
o Inhalation valve test for setting pressure
o Pressure gauge Equalization test
o Lung demand Valve test for response pressure and response volume
o Constant dosage test
o Breathing Bag Volume Test
o Bypass test
o Whistle Activation & Duration test
o High-Pressure Leak test
• Tests on air-tightness of assembled apparatus before it is worn (wearer’s examination and
wearer’s tests)

# Self-contained closed-circuit oxygen self-rescuers (SCSRs): Like filter self-rescuers (FSRs), these are short-
duration emergency gas respirators which provide protection against toxic and noxious gases in mine
atmospheres and enable the wearer to escape from the danger zone to a place of safety but, unlike in filter
self-rescuers, the exhaled air is regenerated and enriched with oxygen for re-breathing so that the wearer
is independent of the surrounding atmosphere. They should not be used for entering hazardous
atmospheres of for fire-fighting. They are the only self-rescuers that can be used in coalmine gas outbursts
which normally contain no-toxic gases but contain large quantities of methane or carbon dioxide with
decrease in oxygen content which permit their use.
Depending on the oxygen source, there are two types
of oxygen self-rescuers:

• Chemical-oxygen: In the chemical-oxygen self-rescuers, a chemical bed is used which, upor contact
with the moisture in the exhaled air, evolves a plentiful supply of pr oxygen for meeting the
breathing requirements, and, by subsequent reaction absorbs the exhaled carbon dioxide. The
chemical employed is potassium tetroxide (K,O,) which liberates oxygen and absorbs carbon dioxide
according to the equations:
2K2O4 + 2CO2 → 2K2CO3 + 3O2
2K2O4 + 2H2O → 4KOH + 3O2
2KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O
The rate of liberation of oxygen is governed by
the rate of breathing by the wearer under various exertion levels, the degree of training, and the
condition of the apparatus. Once the chemical reaction has started, oxygen is liberated faster than
it is consumed until the depletion of KO2and, in consequence, a pressure is built up in the
circulatory system of the apparatus unless the excess oxygen is released by means of a relief valve.
The apparatus, when worn, has, therefore, a slight positive pressure in all parts of its circulatory
system. All chemical oxygen self-rescuers place some limitations on their use due to increasing
 breathing resistance and an increase in the temperature of the inhaled air. For this reason it is
advisable to limit the level of physical exertion, if possible, when wearing them.

• Compressed-oxygen self-rescuers: The compressed-oxygen self-rescuers use for the oxygen source
an oxygen cylinder or bottle storing oxygen under high pressure with a separate absorbent bed for
the removal of CO2. All oxygen self-rescuers are normally rated for one hour of service during
extreme physical exertion and can provide an emergency oxygen-supply for over 5 to 6 hours if the
wearer is at rest waiting for rescue.
All oxygen self-rescuer designs have many parts in common such as
the mouthpiece with a nose-clip or full facepiece, breathing hose, CO absorbent bed, breathing bag, heat
exchanger and a relief valve. The compressed-oxygen self-rescuers use some additional components not
necessary with the chemical. Well-known examples of chemical-oxygen self-rescuers are the AUER SSR 90
(K 60), MSA Portal-Pack, Draeger Oxyboks K and Oxy K-plus, and CSE SR-100 which have a rated duration of
use of 60 min. and approved for use in mines.
# Auer chemical-oxygen self-rescuer SSR 90 (K 60): The Auer SSR 90 (K 60) has German mining approval for
escape times of maximum 60 minutes. The apparatus is worn on the chest. The oxygen needed for
breathing is produced by KO2 contained in a replaceable canister. The self-rescuer is rated for 60 minutes
when performing medium heavy work but the life-supporting emergency supply will continue for 5 hours
when the wearer is at rest. It has a unidirectional flow path through the chemical bed, a volume-activated
relief valve, and a 'quick starter' chlorate candle for initial oxygen flow. The breathing bag assembly
includes a breathing bag of 6-litre capacity, a breathing tube, and a valve housing incorporating a
particulate filter, inhalation and exhalation valves, a heat exchanger, and a relief valve. The heat exchanger
maintains the temperature of the inhalation air nelow 50 degree Celsius. The oxygen produced by the
chemical is inhaled through the breathing bag, filter and heat exchanger. The technical specifications of the
SSR 90 are:
Dimensions (with Container):
Height 310mm.
Depth 220mm.
Width 120mm.
Weight:
With Container 4.9kgf
In use 3.4kgf
Service Time: At a minute volume of
35l/min., approx. 70min.
30l/min., approx. 90min.
10l/min., approx. 300min.
Oxygen Content of Inhalation air ≥21%
Shelf Life of Absorbent canister 5 years
# Draeger Oxy K-Plus Chemical-oxygen self-rescuer: As with other chemical-oxygen self-rescuers, the
oxygen needed is produced by a chemical bed of potassium peroxide (KO) which reacts with the carbon
dioxide and water vapour in the exhaled air absorbing carbon dioxide and liberating chemical oxygen
depending on the breathing intensity. The apparatus consists of a mouthpiece with a noseclip, a 6-litre
breathing bag with a volume activated relief valve, a starter sodium chlorate candle or cartridge to provide
start-up oxygen independent of the wearer's breathing, a metal-mesh heat exchanger contained in a hard
plastic housing to which the mouthpiece is attached, and a head harness. Like the SR-100, the relief valve
purges breathing circuit gas from the breathing hose before it has entered the chemical bed. constantly
carried in its case on the wearer's belt which allows the wearer to The self-rescuer is rated for 60 min. It is
of light-weight design and can be put on or remove the unit without taking off the belt. The carrying case is
provided with a colour display which provides a continuous indication of the readiness of the apparatus for
use. The specification of the equipment are as follows:

• Height 257 mm.

• Width 200 mm.
• Depth 105 mm.
• Weight in Case approx. 2.8 kgf
• Weight in Use approx. 2.4 kgf
• Service Life: At minute volume of
o 30 litres per minute approx. 60 min.
o 10 litres per minute approx. 180 min.
o 90 litres per minute approx. 15 min.
• Inhalation/Exhalation resistance: at minute volume of
o 30 litres per minute 4 mbar
o End of usage period 6 mbar
• CO2 content of inhaled air: at minute volume of
o 30 litres per minute less than 1.5%
o End of usage period max. 2.5%
• Temperature of Inhaled air: at the end of Usage Period max. 6 mbar
• Minimum usage temperature -5℃
• Storage Temperature -20℃ to +50℃
+70℃ for max. 24 hrs.

# Gas Masks: These have been adopted widely for mine use. Gas-mask crews carrying a lighted flame
safety lamp and carbon monoxide detector have successfully fought mine fires and engaged in rescue and
recovery operations following mine disasters, with self-contained breathing apparatus crews in reserve for
their protection. The gas masks may be a single-canister or double-canister type. The double-canister type
is particularly suitable for arduous and prolonged work. As the gas masks do not defend against oxygen
deficiency, one should be careful in using them during fire-fighting operations and their use normally must
be discouraged.
# Common features of gas masks: The following are the common features of gas masks which differ only in
matters of details of construction but are based on the same basic principles:

• A replaceable 'all-service'-type canister of oval cross-section containing mechanical and chemical

filters deposed one above the other that remove toxic dusts, fumes, mists and smoke, absorb acid
gases and organic vapours, and convert carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. The canister has
openings at the top and at the bottom so that, when the wearer inhales, the external air
 surrounding him enters the bottom opening, passes upward through the filters arranged in layers.
and leaves the canister through the top opening. The elimination of irrespirable or toxic
constituents of the air is effected by processes of chemical absorption, physical absorption,
catalytic oxidation, and mechanical filtration. The absorbents used for the removal of gases and
vapours are in the form of granules. The various types of filtering layers commonly used in gas-
mask canisters
o Cellulose particulate filter for removing dusts, fuises, mists and smoke;
o Impregnated activated charcoal and caustite for al-sorbing organic vapours and acid gases;
o Activated charcoal and baryta-charcoal for the renoval of acid gases;
o Silica gel or charcoal impregnated with sulphuric acid for the removal of ammonia;
o Charcoal impregnated with zinc chloride for rem ival of the bulk of water vapour; and
o Anhydrous calcium chloride or calcium chloride-zinc chloride for removal of final traces of
moisture.
• A check valve (inhalation valve) provided either at the top opening in the canister (internal check
valve) or in a special coupling (external check valve) which connects the canister with a breathing
tube, to pass air through the canister! in one direction only, thus preventing the exhaled air from
entering the canister. It also provides an effective seal against entry of any moisture into the top of
the canister during use or storage. It closes automatically after inhalation.
• A facepiece assembly to permit the wearer to breathe through his nose or mouth. It consists of a
moulded rubber facepiece (full mask) which readily fits any face with minimum dead space, an
exhalation valve, a corrugated breathing tube, and a head harness. The facepiece is usually of the
wide-vision type with one or two non-fogging large-area lenses. The exhalation valve allows the
wearer to exhale to the outside atmosphere. The breathing tube connects the facepiece to the
canister. The head harness is made either of rubber bands or terylene elastic straps.
• A warning device or built-in indicator to give a positive indication to the wearer when the canister is
no longer effective against carbon monoxide.
• A canister harness to support and hold the canister securely against the body. The canister may be
worn on the front, on the side, or on the back of the wearer. The back-carrying arrangement has
the advantage that, when the wearer bends over the source of noxious gas, the canister is not
exposed to an unnecessarily high concentration of gas and its life is extended.
# Limitations and use of gas masks: Although the catalytic oxidation of carbon monoxide can still take place
in extremely high carbon monoxide and low oxygen concentrations, there are other reasons that render
the filtered air irrespirable. Firstly, the oxidation of carbon monoxide causes destruction of half the volume
of oxygen in the inspired air, and as the catalytic granules do not supply any of the oxygen used up, the gas
mask does not protect the wearer in atmospheres that do not contain sufficient oxygen to sustain life.
Secondly, the heat developed in the catalytic layer would be so great that injury to the canister is likely to
occur. Hence, the gas masks should only be used in atmospheres containing not more than 3 per cent
volume of carbon monoxide and not less than 16 per cent by volume of oxygen. The following precautions
should be observed when using gas masks in mines:

• Only trained men should be allowed to wear the gas mask for entering hazardous atmospheres.
• Gas-mask crews should always carry a lighted flame safety lamp or an oxygen meter and a carbon
monoxide detector with a measuring range. If it is indicated that the oxygen concentration is less
than 16 per cent or carbon monoxide is 2 per cent or more, the crew should immediately return to
the fresh-air base.
• A man wearing a gas mask should never be allowed to enter a hazardous atmosphere alone without
at least one or other man accompanying him.
 • A crew equipped with a self-contained breathing apparatus should be kept in reserve at the fresh-
air base when gas-mask crews advance.
• The canister should be changed when its service life has ended or when the wearer notices any
gaseous contaminant in the facepiece by odour, taste, breathing resistance or other irritation
whichever occurs first.
# Filter self-rescuers (FSRs): Filter self-rescuers are emergency gas respirators which provide instant
respiratory protection against carbon monoxide gas such as occurs in mines after fires or explosions and
thus enable the wearer to escape to a place of safety. They do not generate oxygen. A filter self-rescuer is
small, compact, and light in weight (maximum 1000 g) and, unlike an oxygen self-rescuer, it is a one-time-
use respirator for escape purposes only. It uses the catalyst hopcalite to convert the toxic carbon monoxide
to non-toxic carbon dioxide. It is carried by every miner on his body and may be taken off only at the
workplace. It does not offer protection in atmospheres containing less than 16 per cent oxygen.
All filter-rescuers are designed on the same principle but differ only in
matters of constructional details. A filter self-rescuer consists of a sealed filter canister or cartridge which is
drawn over by a flannel filter bag which acts as a coarse dust filter, an exhalation valve, a mouthpiece and
chin rest, a nose-clip, head straps, and a carrying case with carrying straps and seal. The canister contains a
layer of a highly efficient drying agent to protect the layer of the hopcalite catalyst from moisture. An inner
fine-dust filter removes dust particles.
Filter self-rescuers were introduced in the coal mines of Germany in the early 1950s.
They are being increasingly replaced by oxygen self-rescuers. They are still required in Germany and in the
UK although they are not used in mines subject to gas outbursts. In India, the use of self-rescuers became
mandatory in gassy mines of the third degree with effect from 1985.

# Draeger FSR 850: It incorporates a heat exchanger in its mouthpiece assembly, which absorbs heat from
inhaled air resulting from the catalytic combustion of CO and gives it off to the exhaled air which passes
through it and out through the spring loaded exhalation valve. The drying agent used is activates charcoal
impregnated with lithium bromide and silica gel. The specification of it are as follows:

• Height 135mm
• Cross Section 94cm2
• Mass 1060g
• Maximum CO-slip using test air containing
0.25% CO & 20.7g water/m3 air 0.001%
after 60 test minutes
• Inhalation resistance
o Unused 6.0 mbar
o Under test conditions after 60 test minutes 8.0 mbar
• Temperature of inspired air at 1.5% CO2 saturated at body temperature 60 degree Celsius
# Fresh-air hose or tube breathing apparatus: These apparatus, also called a supplied-air respirators or
hose masks, supply the wearer with fresh air from a source of fresh-air supply through a flexible non-
collapsible (crush-and-kink resistant) air tube or air hose so that he is independent of the surrounding
irrespirable atmosphere. These are two types of air hose apparatus:

• Suction hose apparatus: These are to work at a short distance from fresh air. The wearer sucks or
draws fresh air through the hose by the inspiratory effort of his lungs. As the inspiratory resistance
increases with increasing length of the hose, the use of suction apparatus is limited to short
distances - within 20 m of fresh air. A suction hose apparatus consists of a full mask (double- or
single-lens type), half mask, or a mouthpiece with a nose-clip, a flexible corrugated tube, a 25-mm
diameter smooth bore hose of canvas and rubber with embedded spiral wire armouring, a stout
leather belt with a rust-less connecting socket (coupling) or metal clamp to prevent the hose from
dragging on the facepiece, half mask, or mouth-piece, and an air filter to prevent entry of dust and
foreign matter. An expiratory valve is provided either on the facepiece or on the facepiece
mouthpiece connection, and an inspiratory valve is placed either in the connecting socket or on the
facepiece/mouthpiece connector. The apparatus is available in the lateral or back type. In the
lateral-type, the connecting socket or clamp on the belt comes on the left hip so that the shoulders
of the wearer are free. The back-type apparatus, on the other hand, has twin corrugated breathing
tubes passing over the shoulders and connected to a swivel-type metal Y-connecting socket on the
wearer's back. Such apparatus is particularly suited for work in confined spaces into which the
wearer enters from above. For reasons of safety, suction hose apparatus are not approved for use
below ground.
• Pressure hose apparatus or supplied-air respirators (SAR): In this type of apparatus, fresh air or
breathable air from a clean air source is continuously forced through a hose to the wearer by
means of a suitable air-supply device. Such apparatus is used when the distance between the
workplace and fresh air is between 20 and 200 m depending on the air-supply means. As the air
hose is constantly under a slight positive pressure, there is no danger to the wearer from leakage of
outside irrespirable atmosphere into the apparatus around the facepiece. Pressure hose apparatus
is available as lateral- or back-type apparatus. A lateral-type pressure hose apparatus consists of a
gas-tight helmet with apron, facepiece (double- or single-lens type), or mouthpiece with nose-clip,
a flexible corrugated breathing tube, a breathing bag or equalizer, a belt with a connecting socket
containing an inspiratory valve, and shoulder harness. With a valveless facepiece or mouthpiece, an
expiratory valve is provided on the facepiece or mouthpiece connector to which the corrugated
breathing tube is attached. The breathing bag serves to maintain a continuous flow in the breathing
tube during the inspiration and expiration phases and to smooth down the peak demands.
The back-type apparatus has two corrugated breathing tubes
passing over the shoulders. It has one inspiratory and one expiratory valve. Fresh air is supplied to
the wearer by using one of the following devices (Fig. 7.26):
o Manual bellows;
o Centrifugal blower (hand-motor- or motor-hand-operated);
o Compressed-air injector (operation from compressed-air storage cylinders).
o Waist-mounted air cylinders and mask-mounted air-pressure regulator, and
o Compressed-air lines by compressed-air system incorporating a fine filter.
The maximum lengths of air hoses that can be used with pressure hose apparatus are:
With manual bellows up to 50 m.
With electric blowers (using a breathing bag and with one apparatus user) up to 100 m.
With compressed-air injector up to 100 m.
 Hand bellows are used for short working
periods and where electricity is not available. For long working periods, apparatus with blower or
injector unit are used, which are capable of supplying air for two men. With motor-hand-operated
blowers, the blowers can be hand-operated where electric current is interrupted or is not available.
When using air from permanent compressed-air lines, an oil filter should be used for cleaning the
air and making it respirable. The compressed- air supply hose is made from electrically conducting,
oil-resistant synthetic rubber for use in areas with explosion hazard. When using compressed-air
pressure hose apparatus, a manually-operated regulator must be used so that the volume of air
required may be adjusted. The excess on expired air escapes into the atmosphere through an
expiratory valve.
The main advantages of an air hose apparatus are its low breathing
resistance, longer duration, and the fact that with waist-mounted air cylinders and a mask mounted air-
pressure regulator, it can be used, with approval, as a 15-minute stand-alone self-contained breathing
apparatus. The disadvantages, however, lie in its heavy large-diameter unwieldy air hoses, restriction of
movement, and potential hazard where the hose can come into contact with machinery.
# Precautions when using fresh-air hose apparatus: The following precautions should be observed when
using a fresh-air hose apparatus:

• The apparatus should be used by trained rescue men;

• Before commencing work, the method of signalling should be decided; if a code of signal is laid
down by regulations, it should be followed;
• One should never work without an observer who should be a trained rescue man in readiness at
the fresh-air source or base for help;
• The wearer should see that the air hose does not get pinched or jammed;
• Full face mask- and half mask-type apparatus should not be used except in conjunction with either
a rotary blower or compressed-air injector which are capable of maintaining positive pressure;
• When the wearer gives the signal "I require help" the fresh-air supply must be maintained;
• The fresh-air supply should not be interrupted before the wearer has removed the facepiece or
mouthpiece;
• When using an electric blower, the wearer should not make a headlong retreat should the blower
cease to function as the pressure hose apparatus then operates as a suction hose apparatus with
increased resistance;
• When using an injector unit, the wearer should retreat from the danger zone as soon as the
pressure gauge on the pressure reducer shows a cylinder pressure of 15 bar (g); and
• The wearer shall have attached to his person a lifeline leading from the fresh air.
The air hose apparatus should be periodically tested. The test should include
visual examination for deterioration of perishable parts, a flow test, and water immersion test of the whole
of the air flow circuit. The results of all tests shall be recorded in a book kept for this purpose at the mine.
Resuscitation: It is also called Artificial Ventilation: When a person becomes unconscious, the gas
interchange in the lungs is disturbed. Unless the normal gas interchange is immediately restored by
resuscitation, death will result. Therefore, the lungs of the victim must be ventilated with adequate
quantity of air or oxygen by artificial respiration and the heart muscles and other important nerve centres
must be excited or stimulated to restore the normal blood circulation. The time factor is of greatest
importance for the success of resuscitation. There is enough oxygen in the blood to keep cells alive for
about 10 minutes but the brain cells start dying after being deprived of oxygen for only 4 minutes. There
are many accidents in mines which require resuscitation operation, the principal causes to them are as
follows:
1. Throttling of the inspired air due to trapment under the fall of debris, crushing of the chest,
compression of the windpipe, and drowning
2. Inhaling oxygen-deficient atmospheres.
3. Inhalation of toxic gases. The inhalation of small quantities of it may do harm the supply of O2 to body
cells.
4. Electric Shocks: electric shocks from voltages greater than 42V affect the respiratory centre paralysing
the O2 supply to the blood cells.
# Preparatory measures for resuscitation: are as follows:
1. Proper Positioning of Patient: In order that the lungs are well ventilated, it is necessary to position the
patient in such a posture that his chest cavity expands as much as possible during inhalation but does
not remain in the contracted condition during exhalation. The patient must be laid on his back on a flat
surface with shoulders raised and supported by a 15cm thick pad of clothes or folded blanket. All tight
clothes around the back, chest and waist must be loosened.
2. Ensuring free Air Passage: In an unconscious person, the mouth is often closed and the tongue fall back
and obstructs the air passage. Also, the lower jaw recedes backwards and backwards. To ensure free air
passage, the mouth must be opened by hand or by means of a mouth opener and shall be cleaned of
water, chewing gum, mucus, food etc.
3. Retaining Body heat: In a completely unconscious person, the formation of heat in the body ceases. For
maintenance of metabolism in the body cells, it is necessary that whatever heat is in the body must be
retained. The patient should therefore be laid on a blanket, and his body, except the upper portion,
covered with warmed up blankets. The wet clothes must be removed, if any.

# Modern Reviving Apparatus: Although the manual methods of artificial respiration have the advantage
that they can be employed immediately, they suffer from an important disadvantage that the first-aider
can get quickly fatigued and the resuscitation of the patient may not be carried out uniformly. It is for this
reason that resuscitating equipment were developed, which require no manual assistance in their
operation and ensure uniform respiration. Many types of resuscitators are available each with its own
characteristic principles of operation. Basically, a resuscitator consists of a supply of oxygen, a mechanism
for forced breathing, and a mask that fits over the face of the victim. Some of the major apparatus, that are
used commonly in mines, are as follows:
1. Draeger pulmotor: The apparatus was first constructed by Heinrich Draeger in the year 1906 and it
course of time was considerably modified and improved upon to become well-proven automatic
equipment for resuscitation. It provides for automatic cycling of breathing by blowing an oxygen-air
mixture into the lungs of the victim and removing the carbon dioxide-charged exhaled air out of the
lungs by it can also be used for extraction of secretions from the respiratory tract and for oxygen
inhalation.
 It essentially consists of one or two 2.5-litre capacity steel oxygen
cylinders) containing oxygen at a filling pressure of 200 bar, a pressure-reducing valve, a distribution
manifold with three shut-off valves and a safety valve, a change-over valve for 50 or 100 percent O2, a
cycling or switching valve unit, a face mask, an aspirating injector, a secretion bottle, an oxygen
economizer breathing bag, an inhalation mask, and four sizes of oral airways. The reducing valve
reduces the high-pressure oxygen to a constant operating pressure of 5 bar. Of the three shut-off
valves, one is connected to the aspirating injector, another to the oxygen inhalation mask, while the
third is connected to the switching unit. The switching unit is the soul of the apparatus. The changeover
valve is normally set for 50 percent O, the remaining being atmospheric air sucked by an injector. It is
set for 100 per cent O, in a toxic atmosphere. Provided that the respiratory tracts are clear and the
mask fits tightly, the respiratory air flows into the lungs of the victim producing a clearly visible
expansion of the thorax. As soon as the pressure of about + 20 mbar is reached in the lungs, the
inspiration phase is completed and the switching unit switches over automatically to the expiration
phase and begins to suck air out of the lungs. When the required negative pressure of -10 mbar is
reached towards the end of the expiration phase, the appliance switches over to a new inspiration
phase. The switching rate depends on the size of the lungs and on the oxygen flow. rate. If the
switching is too fast, the oxygen-supply must be reduced. The negative pressure at the end of
expiration assists the blood circulation but in special cases a special attachment is supplied for cutting it
out during the expiration phase.
The Pulmotor is no longer being manufactured at present. Three new
models of the pulmotor, PT 60, PT61, PK60 have been developed.

2. Siebe Gorman Maxaman resuscitator: The Maxaman resuscitator is a dual-purpose oxygen-powered

resuscitator that automatically adjusts from forced to spontaneous breathing, and vice versa according
to the demands. It has been specially designed for use in irrespirable atmospheres wherein the victim
may or may not be breathing when located or during the rescue operation. The rescuer need not know
whether the victim is breathing or not. The resuscitator consists of a compressed-oxygen supply
cylinder with a pin index cylinder yoke, a first-stage pressure regulator and pressure relief valve, a
control module connected to the pin index cylinder yoke by a small-bore tube and ori-nasal mask
through a non-breathing valve, and a head harness (Fig. 7.36) The first-stage pressure regulator
reduces the oxygen pressure to a value between 4 and 7 bar before it flows to the second-stage
pressure regulator in the control module.
The control module is an oxygen-powered automatic ventilator
combined with a monitored demand facility. It consists essentially of three chambers. The central
stainless steel chamber constitutes the reservoir of the system and contains tubing connecting
together the logic units A and D and the demand valve. All the logic units and the second-stage
pressure regulator are contained in a plastic covered chamber at one end of the stainless steel
chamber while the demand valve, safety relief valve, and an obstruction whistle and indicator are
contained in another plastic covered chamber at its other end. The inlet and outlet tubes are
connected to, the latter end. The outlet tube connects to the victim's non-breathing valve
(unidirectional respiratory valve) fitted to the ori-nasal mask.

3. Inhalators or Oxygen reviving Apparatus: Inhalators supply oxygen to the patient in response to his own
breathing demands. They are used in case of asphyxia, where the casualty has at least partial control of
respiration but it is not getting enough oxygen, or where the casualty has ceased to respire but has
regained consciousness after successful resuscitation. It must be borne in mind that the quantity of
oxygen available with a reviving apparatus is very small, usually 280-420 litres only for 20-30 minutes
usage.
 There are different types of Inhalators available in the market. All are similar in
construction as well as in operation but differ only in the method of oxygen supply and auxiliary
attachment for reviving two or more casualties. Depending on the method of oxygen supply, the
inhalators can be divided into two main groups:
3.1. Inhalators with Constant Dosage: These consist of one or two oxygen cylinders, a pressure
reducing valve with a fine adjustment hand-controlled valve, a pressure gauge, an oxygen
economizer, rubber breathing bag with an excess-pressure valve, a flexible corrugated breathing
tube, and a face mask which is designed to cover the mouth and nose only. A special valve is
sometimes provided to admit fresh air to the flow circuit if desired.
With minor accidents, a rate of feed of 4 to 6
litres per minute oxygen will be sufficient but with serious accidents, especially with carbon
monoxide poisoning, the rate of feed should be increased to 6 to 15 litres per minute. When a
patient shows definite signs of recovery, it is permissible to partially open the fresh-air valve so
that the mixture administered would consist of 50% air & 50% oxygen. A resuscitator with
inhalation mask and breathing bag is an ideal appliance for oxygen inhalation.
3.2. Inhalators with Lung governed Dosage: These are entirely of the lung-governed type available in
different models with one, two or four supply points. The apparatus with one supply point consists
of an oxygen cylinder of 2.6 litres capacity charges to 150 bar pressure, a bypass valve, a lung-
governed admission valve, a pressure gauge, a flexible breathing tube, and a moulded rubber
facepiece with an expiratory valve. The levers of the lung-governed valve re enclosed in or
protrudes into a flexible bag protected in a protective casing. This valve is opened when the bag is
emptied by inhalation. The bypass valve enables the oxygen to be delivered as a continuous feed
direct to the facepiece in case of respiratory failure or faint respiration. A well-known inhalator still
widely used is the Siebe Gorman NOVOX Model I.
Rescue Organization: The mining laws of a country prescribe a general organisation of mine rescue for its
mines which will secure safe and efficient conduct of such operations for rescue of persons as may be
necessary to conduct at mines following an explosion, mine fire, or other accident of whatsoever kind.
# Rescue stations: One distinguishes between three types of rescue stations:

• Central Rescue Stations: The central rescue stations have wider objectives than the district rescue
stations and rescue stations at mines. The objectives of a central rescue station are:
o Recommend formulations of mine rescue rules as well as rules for protection against toxic
gases in auxiliary plants on the surface of mines;
o To draw mutual-aid plans under which neighbouring mines and mines of neighbouring
compances, after occurrence of a major mine disaster, assist each other on a reciprocal
basis;
o To train directors or in-charges of rescue operations, leaders/captains, and apparatus
mechanics or attendants in rescue and disaster techniques for mine rescue brigades, and
also to conduct refresher training courses for them;
o To supervise the training of mine rescue brigades at mines and, under certain
circumstances, even train mine rescue brigades,
o To guide and supervise the conduct of rescue and recovery and reopening operations in
mines;
o To maintain a permanent rescue corpse in constant readiness where the station is required
to help in conducting rescue and recovery operations in mines falling within its radius of
action;
o To store special types of equipment and apparatus for firefighting and mine rescue work;
o To supervise the working of district rescue stations;
o To inspect apparatus and equipment for mine rescue work maintained at mines and report
defects and shortcomings to the management;
o To conduct approval tests and give expert opinion on new designs of equipment and
apparatus for mine rescue work;
• District/Area Rescue Stations: The district rescue stations are established to serve a group of mines
in a mines with special gas outburst- and explosion-hazard. They are fully equipped for rescue work
and for training of rescue men. District rescue stations must be equipped with a rescue van or
truck.
• Rescue Stations/Rescue Rooms at Mines: The mine rescue stations or mine rescue rooms are
provided at mines employing 100 or more persons underground on any shift and maintaining
rescue brigades. Neighbouring mines belonging to a single large mining company or different
mining companies may maintain a joint rescue station at a suitable place. A mine rescue station is
equipped with specified breathing apparatus, equipment and supplies which are maintained in
good order and ready for immediate use by the mine rescue brigade. It comprises an apparatus
room, a cap lamp charging rack, modern hand-held electronic methanometers, CO monitors and a
test room.
The central & district rescue stations should be located so that
the radius of action does not exceed 25-35kms. All stations must efficiently cooperate with another in
emergencies. The establishment, maintenance and management of the rescue stations other than those at
the mines, are usually vested ion a rescue station committee appointed by the government. The cost of
these actions is met by levying on the mine operators, an excise duty per tonne of coal or mineral mined.
The first rescue station in India was established at Oorgaum in the
Kolar Goldfields (19923), and for Coal Industry, the first rescue Station was established in 1941 at Dhansar
(Jharia Coalfields). The Mines Rescue Rules 1985 placed all the Rescue Stations under the respective
companies in whose areas they existed for their administration, control and operation for mine rescue
coverage.
# Station apparatus and equipment: The mining regulations specify the minimum safety apparatus and
equipment of the officially-approved type that should be kept and maintained at every rescue station The
equipment of a rescue station comprises the equipment stored at the station and a mine rescue van which
is kept fully stocked and ready for use as a mobile rescue station whenever an emergency arises. A rescue
station is equipped with:

• self- contained oxygen breathing apparatus and necessary equipment for testing such apparatus
• a portable supply of pressurised oxygen or oxygen-generating chemical as applicable to the
supplied breathing apparatus,
• tins of absorbent chemicals,
• all- service gas masks,
• oxygen self-rescuers,
• gas detectors for CO and CH4,
• oxygen indicators,
• safety lamps, (flame and electrical),
• bird testers with oxygen cylinders,
• permissible flashlights,
• electric cap lamp charging rack,
• resuscitators and inhalators, first-aid materials, stretchers, safety wear,
• portable mine rescue commmunication system or a sound-powered or any approved
communication system,
• a mobile inert gas generator or a mobile nitrogen inertisation plant,
• an emergency power generator,
• a large-diameter hole drill rig,
• a rescue cage/capsule, a diesel-electric mobile emergency hoist,
• high-capacity submersible pumps,
• hydraulic rescue tools consisting of hydraulic spreaders, cutters, combi-cutters, rams, jack sets,
pumps, pneumatic lifting bags, hose reels, fall protection safety harness
• Provision of a gas chromatograph in the mine rescue van for analysis of air samples will be of great
help in rescue and recovery operations.
All mine rescue apparatus and equipment must be properly
maintained to assure their availability for immediate use. All breathing apparatus must be inspected
and tested at intervals not exceeding 30 days and a record of all such inspections and tests must be
maintained.
# Rescue organisation at mines: Every mine must maintain and organize a sufficient number of volunteer
rescue- trained men with training in all types of possible emergencies depending on the size and hazardous
character of the mine. The rescue men may be trained to cooperate with the permanent rescue corps of
the rescue station to which the mine is affiliated on the basis of the knowledge of the mine, or organised
into two or more rescue brigades which will be supplemented by the permanent rescue corps of the rescue
station when an emergency arises. Every mine should have a formal joint scheme of mutual assistance with
neighbouring mines whose advice, rescue teams, and rescue equipment can be drawn upon in willing
cooperation when coping with underground emergencies.
 In India, the Superintendent of the Rescue Station within whose jurisdiction
the mine fall shall perform such rescue and recovery work as may be assigned to him by the manager of
the mine or inn his absence, the principal official on duty. To maintain the station at peak efficiency,
periodic underground drills and refresher training courses should be conducted for all its members
according to a definite schedule which may be prescribed. All the members of the mine rescue team
should be medically examined annually for their physical fitness to perform mine rescue & recovery works
for prolonged periods under strenuous conditions of extreme heat & humidity. At ordinary times, the
rescue men should be distributed, as far as practicable, equally over the different shifts on their normal
duties. They should be easily identified at all times and should leave their working places for their pre-
planned destinations immediately after a mine rescue notification alarm or warning.

• Mine Rescue Notification Alarm: A mine rescue organisation comprising two or three rescue
brigades can only function effectively when arrangements are made to summon its members
immediately when their services, are required. Every mine must perfect its own emergency
organisation depending on the type of emergency most likely to occur and the size of the mine,
which can be set into action immediately after an emergency arises such as after a mine fire or
explosion. The main objective of the Emergency organisation includes a plan for notifying mine
rescue teams and key mine officials likely to be needed and summoning outside help. For
summoning the rescue men employed underground, telephones have proved to be the simplest
and quickest means of sending warning messages in emergencies in mines. Fire warning systems
may also be used. For summoning the rescue men on off-duty, telephone, sirens, messengers,
amateur radio systems and portable radio-frequency phones may be used. Sirens and messengers,
as a mean of communication, are seldom used today. The notification to the rescue men is done
according to a pre-planned scheme in which the order or priority of notification and the method of
communication are laid down.

• Mine emergency notification plan: There are two types of messages for notifying officials and
summoning help, 'Action Messages' and 'Warning Messages'.
'Action Messages' are addressed to persons whose attendance is
required at once or who have to carry out duties immediately as outlined in their 'duty cards. An
action message chart must be prepared indicating the order in which messages are to be
transmitted. Action messages must be short, clear and to the point. ‘Warning Messages' are
addressed to other key personnel whose attendance is required less urgently or who may have to
prepare some action to be taken at a later stage or on receipt of a further message. A Warning
Message Chart must be prepared for the mine and the area in which it is located. Warning
messages should indicate clearly what has occurred and what action, if any, the person or
organisation is required to prepare for.
Besides informing the mine rescue men, action messages
should be sent to the following keymen at the mine:
o All mine officials;
o Safety Engineer/Safety Officer;
o Rescue Room In-charge
o Ventilation Officer;
o Chief/Assistant Chief Surveyor/Surveyors;
o Surface Manager;
o Senior underground mechanical and electrical supervisory officials;
o Senior officials on duty in emergency;
o Welfare Officer;
 o Medical Officer;
o First-aid Attendants;
o Banksman;
o Lamp-room In-charge;
o Timekeeper;
o Storekeeper;
o Security Main Gate Office
o Winding Engineman,
o Fire Deputy.
o Canteen Manager,
o Public Telephone Exchange;
o Colliery Engineer
Warning messages should be
sent to the following
o Central/District Rescue Station;
o Mines Inspectorate;
o Adjoining mines for assistance under mutual-aid plan;
o Head office of the mine/Area/Headquarters;
o Police Authorities;
o Doctors;
o Local hospitals;
o Connecting and adjoining mines endangered;
o Mine Safety Council/Commission;
o Mineworkers' Union; and
o Overmen and Deputies Union.
o District Magistrate

# Rescue and recovery work following mine disasters: The objectives of rescue and recovery operations in
a mine following a large fire or explosion are ordinarily as follows:

• To ensure safety of the persons involved in rescue/recovery work

• To rescue entombed, asphyxiated and missing men or recover their bodies as soon as practicable;
• To examine location of fires and fight them effectively before an explosion could occur; and
• To restore ventilation throughout the mine and to ensure that the mine is in safe condition for
resuming mining operations.
In any mine emergency, it would be advantageous to designate a room adjacent to the
Manager's Office as a conference room in which important decisions on the conduct of exploration, rescue,
and other operations are taken by an advisory committee. It should contain a complete set of accurate
plans and sections of the mine including charts showing the compressed air, water and electrical supply
systems and a telephone directory. There should also be a sound-proof 'control room' for issue of
instructions to under-officials as per decisions taken at the conference of senior officials as well as for
interrogation. In the control room, a 3-member crisis control or management team continuously assesses
the emergency situation, and directs the operation as needed to control the situation, recording the
actions taken and keeping in constant touch with the company's chief executive officer.
Experience with numerous rescue and recovery operations following mine
disasters has shown that temporary underground and surface organisations should be formed as soon as
mine rescue men comprising at least one brigade and other local mine officials and selected employees
have assembled after their notification of an emergency at the rescue station or rescue room at the mine
or surface rescue base, and at the mine office respectively. If, after a mine rescue alarm underground, the
rescue men present in the mine have assembled at a pre-planned central meeting station underground,
their services as the first responders may be utilized, under certain circumstances, to start rescue, and
recovery operations or to do some exploration work in order to throw some light on the situation. In such
a case, breathing apparatus must be transported from the surface to the meeting station by other rescue
men and employees. Ordinarily, after the alarm, the rescue man first arriving at the surface rescue base
performs the duties of the director or in-charge until the latter's arrival. On his arrival, the director must
immediately contact the manager or, in his absence, the principal official present to obtain information on
the probable place of occurrence of the disaster, prevailing underground conditions, and the nature of the
rescue and recovery operations to be conducted. The manager or, in his absence, the senior official in-
charge must formulate a plan for the safe conduct of work in consultation with the director and his
assembled experienced colleagues who are conversant with local conditions and are well-versed in the
procedure following mine disasters. This plan is then discussed at a joint meeting with the representatives
of the mines inspectorate, rescue station, and employees' unions, before it is finally approved for
execution. The work should be planned to be carried out preferably in four 6-hour shifts per day.
As soon as a brigade is formed out of the assembled rescue men, the
apparatus mechanic hands over to them the oxygen breathing apparatus and other accessories. Before the
brigade is sent underground, the director and the mine officials should obtain information on the condition
of the shafts and
the main mine fans and, if they are found to be damaged, make necessary arrangements for their
immediate repair or replacement as little or no recovery progress can be made when they are out of
commission. Also, power should be cut off from the mine. The mine rescue brigade should be ready for
rescue operation within 30 minutes. Besides the rescue brigades, the temporary organisation should
include officials, material track crews, and other men necessary to assist the director or the man in-charge
of operations in performing the work safely, rapidly, and efficiently.
When the task is too great for the temporary organisation to handle efficiently or
when a devastating explosion occurs, the rescue and recovery operations by the temporary organisation
should be continued until the arrival of additional assistance from the neighbouring mines, district and
central rescue stations and other agencies when a permanent organization should be formed. The
permanent organisation should take over the work started by the temporary organisation underground as
well as on the surface, perform any other necessary functions, and complete the rescue and recovery work
in the safest and speediest possible manner. A running record of all important events as they occur should
be kept for use as a Log. It is extremely important for the mine management to properly handle the news
media and the public during a mine disaster. All facts about the situation at specific points of time,
covering important subjects, must be told as fast as they are available through spokespersons from the
same platform.