JARAMOGI OGINGA ODINGA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL: ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT: CIVIL ENGINEERING

NAME: HESBORN MAGARE NYABUTO

REG NO: T122/T/6551/23

TASK: ATTACHMENT REPORT

FIRM ATTACHED TO: GUCHA SOUTH SUB-COUNTY

HEAD OFFICE LOCATION: NAM RAJOPE, KISUMU

Table of Contents
1. Acknowledgments ............................................. (i)
2. Declaration .................................................... (ii)
3. Executive Summary ......................................... (iii)
4. Introduction ................................................... (1)
4.1. Purpose of the Industrial Attachment
4.2. Company Background
4.3. Project Overview
5. Objectives of the Attachment ................................ (5)
5.1. General Objectives
5.2. Specific Objectives
6. Scope of Work .................................................. (7)
6.1. Site Location and Layout
6.2. Project Details
6.3. Phases of the Road Construction Project
7. Attachment Activities .......................................... (11)
7.1. Surveying and Site Investigation
7.2. Earthworks and Excavation
7.3. Drainage and Culvert Installation
7.4. Pavement and Sub-base Construction
7.5. Asphalt Laying and Finishing
7.6. Traffic Management and Safety Measures
8. Laboratory work…………………………….(18)
9. Road inspection………………………………(32)
10. Roles and Responsibilities ................................... (41)
8.1. Supervisor’s Responsibilities
8.2. Student’s Roles and Responsibilities
11. Challenges Faced ............................................... (41)
Lessons Learned ............................................... (41)
Conclusion and Recommendations ....................... (42)
12. References ..................................................... (45)

Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all those who contributed to the successful
completion of the NAM RAJOPE road construction project.

First and foremost, we extend our deepest appreciation to the Gucha South sub-county, whose
vision and funding made this project possible. Their unwavering support and commitment to
improving infrastructure have been vital to this project’s success.

Special thanks go to the local community for their patience and cooperation throughout the
construction process. I understand the inconveniences caused and am grateful for your
understanding and support.

Finally, we are grateful to Jaramogi Oginga Odinga university fraternity and my family of Mr
Nyabuto who played a part in this project. Your contributions, both big and small, have been
integral to making this endeavor a success.

Declaration
I hereby do declare that the work presented herein is my own work and as far as am concerned I
would like to make this solemn affirmation that to the best of my knowledge, this report work
has never been presented anywhere else by any other person.

Signed: …………………… Date: ……………..

DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to my loving father Peter Nyabuto. It has been a precious and memorable
time to have worked under your constant support.

Executive Summary
This report summarizes my industrial attachment with NAM RAJOPE from 13TH MAY 2024 to
13TH AUG 2024, focusing on road construction projects. The goal of the attachment was to gain
practical experience and apply my academic knowledge in a real-world setting.

During this period, I participated in various tasks related to road construction, such as site
inspections, material testing, and project coordination. The main project I worked on was located
at My role included assisting with site inspections, coordinating with contractors, and conducting
material tests. Key responsibilities included assisting in daily operations, preparing reports. This
experience allowed me to develop skills in construction techniques, safety procedures and
provided valuable insights into the road construction process.

Overall, the attachment was a rewarding experience that enhanced my technical skills and
understanding of the industry.

1. Introduction
Gucha South sub-county are rural roads under the Kenya Rural Roads Authority
(KeRRA).Initially the government had meant this to be a rehabilitation process but was later
found out that it could not be done due to unsuitable foundation laid before. As a result of this,
there was need to fully reconstruct the two roads.

This project had two main aims:-

 Improve the physical appearance of the place which is part of Gucha South Sub-county.
 Improve the sewerage and drainage system which has been disastrous during rainy
seasons.

The project was under NAM RAJOPE contractors and supervised by CAS consultants under
Resident Engineer J.A Owino.

The next two pages show the consultants organogram and also the exact location of these project.

1.1 Purpose of the Industrial Attachment

The industrial attachment is a mandatory part of the civil engineering curriculum to provide
practical, hands-on experience in real-life projects, exposing students to industry-standard
practices.

1.2 Company Background

NAM RAJOPE is a private road construction company with headquarters located in

Kisumu Nyanza province. It was founded in the year 2002 specialized in Road
Construction, Bridge Construction, and Building Construction

1.3 Project Overview

improving traffic flow

increasing safety
reducing congestion.

2. Objectives of the Attachment

2.1 General Objectives

 To gain hands-on experience in road construction.

 To understand the various phases of road construction from surveying to finishing.

2.2 Specific Objectives

 Learn how to perform site investigations and surveys.

 Understand how to manage road construction materials like asphalt and aggregate.
 Assist in project supervision and ensure compliance with design specifications.

3. Scope of Work
3.1 Layout

1. Preparation and Site Assessment:

o Conducting land surveys and geotechnical investigations.
o Clearing and grubbing the site, including removing trees, vegetation, and existing
structures.
o Setting up temporary construction facilities and utilities.
2. Design and Planning:
o Developing detailed engineering and architectural plans.
o Preparing construction drawings, specifications, and design documents.
o Coordinating with regulatory agencies for permits and approvals.
 3. Earthwork and Grading:
o Excavating and grading the roadbed to achieve the desired elevation and
alignment.
o Managing soil and material handling, including cut and fill operations.
o Stabilizing and compacting the subgrade to ensure a stable foundation.
4. Roadway Construction:
o Constructing the road base, including laying and compacting aggregate layers.
o Paving the road surface with asphalt, concrete, or other materials as specified.
o Installing curbs, gutters, and sidewalks.
5. Drainage and Utilities:
o Designing and installing stormwater drainage systems, such as culverts, drains,
and retention ponds.
o Relocating or installing utility lines (water, sewer, gas, electricity) if needed.
6. Traffic Management and Safety:
o Setting up traffic control measures, including signs, barriers, and detours.
o Ensuring pedestrian and vehicle safety during construction.
o Implementing measures to minimize disruptions to existing traffic.
7. Bridge and Structure Work (if applicable):
o Constructing or rehabilitating bridges, overpasses, or other structures.
o Installing supports, foundations, and superstructures.
8. Landscaping and Finishing Touches:
o Restoring and landscaping the construction site, including planting vegetation and
erosion control.
o Installing road markings, signage, and traffic signals.
9. Quality Control and Inspections:
o Performing quality assurance and control tests to ensure materials and
workmanship meet specifications.
o Conducting regular inspections throughout the project to monitor progress and
compliance.
10. Project Closeout:
o Completing any final punch list items and addressing any remaining issues.
o Finalizing documentation and obtaining necessary certifications or approvals.
o Conducting a final inspection and handover to the client or relevant authorities.

3.2 Project Details

Project Title: Road Widening and Resurfacing of Main Street

Location: Gucha South Sub-county, Kisii county, Kenya

Project Duration: May 2024 – August 2024

Objectives:

 reduce congestion.
 Enhance road safety for both vehicles and pedestrians.
 Upgrade existing infrastructure to meet current standards.

3.3 Phases of the Road Construction Project

 Phase 1: Site Surveying and Design

 Phase 2: Earthworks and Site Preparation
 Phase 3: Drainage System Installation
 Phase 4: Sub-base and Base Course Construction
 Phase 5: Asphalt Laying
 Phase 6: Road Marking and Finishing Works

4.1 Surveying and Site Investigation

The surveying and site inspection phase is critical in a road construction project as it lays the
groundwork for all subsequent construction activities. This phase ensures that the design aligns
with actual site conditions and helps identify any potential issues before construction begins.
Here's an overview of what typically happens during this phase:

Surveying Phase

1. Initial Site Assessment:

o Site Visit: Conducting a preliminary site visit to understand the general conditions,
access points, and any immediate concerns.
o Review of Existing Data: Examining existing maps, plans, and geological reports.

2. Detailed Land Survey:

o Topographic Survey: Mapping the terrain to capture details of elevations, slopes, and
natural features. This helps in understanding the landscape and planning the road
alignment.
o Boundary Survey: Establishing property boundaries to ensure the road is constructed
within the legal limits and does not encroach on neighboring properties.
o Utility Survey: Identifying the location of existing underground utilities (water, sewer,
gas, electricity) to avoid conflicts during construction.

3. Geotechnical Investigation:
 o Soil Testing: Conducting tests to determine soil properties, such as compaction, bearing
capacity, and moisture content. This information is crucial for designing the road's
foundation.
o Subsurface Exploration: Drilling boreholes to collect soil samples from different depths
and assess subsurface conditions.

4. Data Analysis and Design Integration:

o Analysis of Survey Data: Evaluating survey and soil data to inform the design process
and make necessary adjustments.
o Integration with Design Plans: Incorporating survey findings into the road design to
ensure accuracy and feasibility.

Site Inspection Phase

1. Inspection of Site Conditions:

o Verification of Site Layout: Checking that the site conditions align with the design plans
and identifying any discrepancies or issues.
o Evaluation of Existing Structures: Assessing existing structures (e.g., buildings, roads)
that might affect or be affected by the new construction.

2. Identification of Environmental and Regulatory Concerns:

o Environmental Impact: Inspecting the site for environmental concerns, such as
protected species or wetlands, and ensuring compliance with environmental
regulations.
o Regulatory Compliance: Verifying that the site meets all local, state, and federal
regulations and that necessary permits are in place.

3. Assessment of Potential Obstacles:

o Site Hazards: Identifying potential hazards such as unstable soil, contamination, or
difficult access that may impact construction.
o Obstructions: Locating and planning for any obstructions that might interfere with the
construction process, such as large trees, rocks, or existing infrastructure.

4. Coordination with Stakeholders:

o Engagement with Local Authorities: Coordinating with local authorities and
stakeholders to address any site-specific concerns and obtain necessary approvals.
o Communication with Utilities: Working with utility companies to plan for any required
relocations or adjustments to existing services.

5. Documentation and Reporting:

o Site Inspection Reports: Documenting findings from site inspections and surveys,
including any issues or recommendations.
o Update Design Plans: Making any necessary adjustments to the design plans based on
site conditions and inspection results.

4.2 Earthworks and Excavation

1. Site Preparation

 Clearing and Grubbing:

o Vegetation Removal: Removing trees, shrubs, and other vegetation from the site.
o Debris Removal: Clearing rocks, stumps, and other debris to prepare the site for
excavation.
 Establishing Site Access:
o Temporary Roads: Building access roads or paths for construction equipment
and materials.
o Site Facilities: Setting up temporary construction facilities, such as offices,
storage areas, and restrooms.

2. Excavation

 Cutting and Filling:

o Cutting: Removing excess material from high areas (cut areas) to achieve the
required grade and alignment for the road.
o Filling: Adding material to low areas (fill areas) to build up the roadbed to the
desired level.
 Stripping Topsoil:
o Topsoil Removal: Removing the top layer of soil (usually rich in organic
material) to prevent it from mixing with the roadbase and affecting stability.
 Boring and Drilling:
o Subsurface Investigation: Drilling boreholes for soil sampling and geotechnical
investigation, if not done earlier. This helps assess soil conditions and determine
the need for any special treatments.

3. Grading and Shaping

 Grading:
o Subgrade Preparation: Shaping and leveling the soil to create a stable
foundation for the road. This involves achieving the correct slope and alignment.
o Compaction: Compacting the soil to increase its density and stability. This is
usually done using rollers or compactors.
 Shaping:
o Cross-Section Shaping: Ensuring the roadbed is shaped according to the design
specifications, including proper slopes for drainage.

4. Subgrade Stabilization

 Soil Stabilization:
o Chemical Stabilization: Adding materials such as lime or cement to improve the
strength and stability of the soil.
o Mechanical Stabilization: Mixing in aggregate or other materials to enhance the
soil's load-bearing capacity.
  Drainage Preparation:
o Subsurface Drainage: Installing drainage systems such as French drains or
perforated pipes to manage water flow and prevent soil erosion.
o Surface Drainage: Ensuring proper grading to direct surface water away from the
roadbed.

5. Inspection and Quality Control

 Inspection:
o Site Inspection: Conducting inspections to ensure that excavation and grading
work meets design specifications and quality standards.
o Subgrade Testing: Performing tests to check soil compaction, moisture content,
and stability.
 Quality Control:
o Material Testing: Testing the materials used for fill and subgrade to ensure they
meet required standards.
o Documenting Work: Keeping detailed records of excavation, grading, and
compaction activities.

6. Safety and Environmental Considerations

 Safety Measures:
o Protective Barriers: Installing barriers and signage to protect workers and
manage site access.
o Dust Control: Implementing measures to control dust, such as watering the site
or using dust suppressants.
 Environmental Management:
o Erosion Control: Using erosion control measures such as silt fences or erosion
blankets to prevent soil runoff.
o Waste Management: Managing and disposing of excavated material and debris
in an environmentally responsible manner.

4.3 Drainage and Culvert Installation

Highlight your role in installing drainage systems and the technical details involved in laying
culverts and manholes.

4.4 Pavement and Sub-base Construction

1. Sub-base Preparation

 Clearing and Grubbing: Remove vegetation, topsoil, and other debris from the construction site.
  Excavation: Dig out the existing soil to the required depth, considering the design specifications
for the sub-base.
 Subgrade Preparation: Compact the native soil to ensure a stable foundation for the sub-base.
Sometimes, stabilization with additives might be required if the subgrade is weak.

2. Sub-base Installation

 Material Selection: Choose appropriate materials for the sub-base, such as crushed stone,
gravel, or sand. The material must meet the specified gradation and quality requirements.
 Layering: Place the sub-base material in layers, typically 6-12 inches thick, depending on the
design specifications. Each layer should be compacted thoroughly using heavy machinery, such
as rollers or vibratory compactors.
 Leveling and Grading: Ensure the sub-base is evenly distributed and graded to the correct
elevation and slope, as specified in the design.

3. Pavement Construction

 Base Course: This is the layer placed above the sub-base, providing additional strength and load
distribution. The base course material is often a mix of larger aggregates and finer materials.
 Binder Course: Also known as the intermediate layer, this course is made of bituminous or
asphalt material and provides a binding function. It helps in distributing loads and improving the
pavement's durability.
 Surface Course: The top layer of the pavement, often made of high-quality asphalt or concrete,
provides a smooth, skid-resistant surface. It should be laid with precision to ensure proper
thickness and compaction.

4. Quality Control

 Testing: Conduct various tests on the materials and construction methods, including compaction
tests, moisture content tests, and strength tests.
 Inspection: Regular inspections during construction ensure that the work adheres to the design
specifications and standards.

5. Finishing

 Surface Treatment: Apply any necessary surface treatments or sealants to protect the
pavement and extend its lifespan.
 Cleaning: Remove any construction debris and clean the area before opening the road to traffic.

6. Maintenance and Monitoring

 Regular Inspection: Periodically inspect the pavement for signs of wear and tear or damage.
 Repairs: Address any issues promptly to maintain the road's integrity and safety.

4.5 Traffic Management and Safety Measures

In the context of a road construction project, effective traffic management and safety measures
are crucial to ensure the smooth flow of traffic and the safety of both the public and construction
personnel. This phase involves planning, implementing, and monitoring strategies to manage
traffic around the construction site and maintain high safety standards.

1. Traffic Management

1.1 Traffic Flow Planning

 Diversion Routes: Plan and set up alternative routes to redirect traffic around the construction
site. Ensure that these routes are well-signposted and capable of handling the expected traffic
volume.
 Lane Closures: Implement lane closures as required, using appropriate signage and barriers to
inform drivers of the changes and to direct them safely through the site.
 Traffic Signal Control: Use temporary traffic signals or manual traffic control (e.g., flaggers) to
manage traffic flow at points where the construction activities intersect with existing roadways.

1.2 Signage and Communication

 Advance Warning Signs: Install warning signs well in advance of the construction zone to alert
drivers to upcoming changes or hazards. Examples include “Roadwork Ahead,” “Detour,” and
“Reduced Speed Limit.”
 Variable Message Signs (VMS): Use electronic message boards to provide real-time updates on
traffic conditions, delays, and alternative routes.
 Public Communication: Inform the public about construction schedules, expected delays, and
any road closures through local media, social media, and community notifications.

1.3 Traffic Control Devices

 Cones and Barricades: Use traffic cones, barrels, and barricades to create safe working zones
and guide traffic around the construction area.
 Road Markings: Apply temporary road markings to delineate lanes, guide drivers, and ensure
safe navigation through the construction site.

2. Safety Measures

2.1 Worker Safety

 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Ensure that all construction personnel wear appropriate
PPE, including helmets, high-visibility vests, gloves, and safety boots.
 Training: Provide training for workers on safety protocols, including how to work safely around
traffic and how to use safety equipment effectively.
 Site Supervision: Maintain vigilant supervision to ensure that safety procedures are followed
and to address any safety issues promptly.

2.2 Traffic Safety

  Speed Limits: Implement reduced speed limits within the construction zone to ensure the safety
of both drivers and construction workers. Clearly post speed limit signs and enforce compliance.
 Pedestrian Safety: Set up safe pedestrian walkways and crossings to protect pedestrians in
areas where the construction site intersects with sidewalks or pedestrian paths.
 Emergency Access: Ensure that emergency vehicles have unobstructed access to and from the
construction site at all times. Coordinate with local emergency services to address potential
access issues.

2.3 Hazard Identification and Management

 Risk Assessments: Conduct regular risk assessments to identify potential hazards in the
construction zone, such as uneven surfaces, open trenches, or moving machinery.
 Hazardous Material Handling: Safely store and manage any hazardous materials used on site,
such as fuels or chemicals, to prevent spills and accidents.

2.4 Incident Management

 Emergency Response Plan: Develop and implement an emergency response plan to address
potential incidents, such as accidents or hazardous spills. Ensure that all workers are familiar
with the plan and know how to respond in case of an emergency.
 Accident Reporting: Establish a procedure for reporting and documenting any accidents or near-
misses that occur on site. Use this information to review and improve safety practices.

2.5 Monitoring and Evaluation

 Regular Inspections: Conduct regular inspections of the traffic management and safety
measures to ensure they are functioning correctly and making necessary adjustments.
 Feedback Mechanism: Implement a system for receiving feedback from drivers and
construction workers about the effectiveness of the traffic management plan and safety
measures.
5.0 LABORATORY WORK
To any client, quality of a product can never be compromised under any circumstance. In this
case, the government of Kenya bears the responsibility to ensure that its citizens (road users) get
roads of high quality and long lasting.

To ensure all this, there is need for the lab work to ascertain that the materials being used meet
the minimum standards set by the Kenyan government. Just like in surveying, joint testing by
contractor and consultant is conducted. From each; they have a representative in the lab who
submits his/her findings to the respective material engineer.

Material engineers have an obligation to give go ahead, order demolish or further recommend.
Among the materials that undergo test are:-

 Subgrade s(1 and 2)

 Improved subgrade
 GCS (Graded Crushed Stones)
 DBM (Dense Bituminous macadam)
 AC (Asphaltic Concrete)

In materials specifications, the following standards have been used as references:-

 AASHTO 1176
 British Standards 1377, part 2
 British Standard 812, part 105
 British Standard 812, part 110 to 114
 ASTM C131 and C535
 British Standards 812, part.2
 AASHTOT104
 D White oak (1990) (shell bitumen handbook)
 AASHTOT182
 AASHTOT283

For this duration of two weeks, the following experiments/tests were conducted:-

1. Liquid limit test by the cone penetrometer method.

2. Plastic limit
3. Sieve analysis
4. Linear shrinkage test
 5. Standard proctor compaction test
6. Field density test by sand replacement method

5.1 LIQUID LIMIT TEST BY CONE PENOTROMETER

Aim: To determine the minimum moisture content at which a cohesive soil losses its ability to
flow as a liquid under its own weight using the cone penetrometer apparatus.

5.1.1 APPARATUS

a) A flat, gall plate, of which a convenient size is 10 mm thick and about 500mm square.
b) Two palette knives or spatulas.
c) A penetrometer as used in bituminous material testing.
d) A cone of stainless steel
e) One or more metal cups
f) An evaporating dish, of about 150mm diameter
g) Moisture content tins
h) A wash bottle or beaker
i) A corrosion-resistant airtight container
j) A metal straightedge about 100mm long or a straight-bladed spatula.
k) A stopcock or stopwatch readable to 1s.

5.1.2 PROCEDURE

1. Take about 100g of air-dry soil that passes through a 425um sieve.
2. Mix the soil with distilled water to form a paste for at least 10 min using the two palette
knives. If necessary add more distilled water so that the first cone penetration reading is
about 15mm.
3. Push a portion of the mixed soil into the cup with a palette knife taking care not to trap
air. Strike off excess soil with the straightedge to give a smooth level surface.
4. With the penetration cone locked in the raised lower the supporting assembly so that the
tip of the cone just touches the surface of the soil. When the cone is in the correct
position a slight movement of the cup will just mark the nearest 0.1mm.
5. Release the cone for a period of 5s. If the apparatus is not fitted with an automatic release
and locking device take care not to jerk the apparatus during this operation. After locking
the cone in position lower the stem of the dial gauge to contact the cone shaft and record
the reading of the dial gauge to the nearest 0.1mm. Record the difference between the
beginning and end of the drop as the cone penetration.
6. Lift out the cone and clean it carefully to avoid scratching.
7. Add a little more wet soil to the cup, taking care not to trap air, make the surface smooth
as in 3 and repeat 4 to 6.
8. If the difference between the first and second penetration readings is not more than
0.5mm record the average of the two penetrations and proceed to 9. If the second
penetration is more than 0.5mm and less than 1mm different from the first, carry out a
third test. If the overall range is then not more than 1mm record the average of the three
penetrations and proceed to 9. If the overall range is more than 1mm remove the soil
from the cup, remix and repeat 3 to 8 until consistent results are obtained and then
proceed to 9.
9. Take a moisture content sample of about 10g from the area penetrated by the cone and
determine the moisture content.
10. Repeat 3 to 9 at least three more times using the same sample of soil to which further
increment of distilled water have been added. Proceed from the drier to the wetter
condition of the soil. The amount of water added shall be such that a range of penetration
values of approximately 15mm to 25mm is covered by the four or more test runs and is
evenly distributed. Each time soil is removed from the cup for the addition of water, wash
and dry the cup.
11. If at any time during the above procedure the soil has been left for a while on the glass
plate cover the soil with the evaporation dish or damp cloth to prevent the soil from
drying out.
12. From the linear graph read off the moisture content corresponding to a cone penetration
of 20mm to one decimal place.
13. Express the moisture content corresponding to a cone penetration of 20mm to the nearest
whole number and report it as the liquid limit (WL) of the sample.
14. Express the percentage of material passing the 425um test sieve correct to the nearest
whole number.
5.2 STANDARD PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST
5.2.1 INTRODUCTION

For construction of highways, airports, and other structures, it is often necessary to compact soil
to improve its strength. Proctor (1933) developed a laboratory compaction test procedure to
determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction of soils, which can be used for
specification of field compaction. This test is referred to as the Standard Proctor Compaction
Test. It is based on compaction of soil fraction passing No. 4 U.S. sieve.

5.2.2 EQUIPMENT

1. Compaction mold
2. No. 4 U.S. sieve
3. Standard Proctor hammers (5.5 lb.)
4. Balance sensitive up to 0.01g
5. Balance sensitive up to 0.1g
6. Large flat pan
7. Jack
8. Steel straight edge
9. Moisture cans
10. Drying oven
11. Plastic squeeze bottle with water

Proctor Compaction Mold and Hammer:

The Proctor compaction mold and hammer is 4” in diameter and 4.584” in height. The inner
volume is 1/30 ft3. The height of fall of the hammer is 12”.

5.2.3 PROCEDURE

1. Obtain about 10 lb. of air dry soil and break the soil lumps.
2. Sieve the soil on a No. 4 U.S. sieve. Collect all the minus 4 sieve materials (about 6 lb.) in a
large pan.
3. Add water to the minus 4 sieve materials and mix thoroughly to bring the moisture content to
about 5%.
4. Determine the weight of the Proctor Mold + base plate (not extension), W1 (lb.).
5. Attach the extension to the top of the mold.
6. Pour the moist soil in three equal layers. Compact each layer uniformly with the Standard
Proctor hammer 25 times before each additional layer of loose soil is poured. At the end of
 the three-layer compaction, the soil should extend slightly above the top of the rim of the
compaction mold.
7. Remove the extension carefully.
8. Trim excess soil with a straight edge.
9. Determine the weight of the Proctor Mold + base plate + compacted moist soil, W2 (lb.).

10. Remove the base plate from the mold. Extrude the compacted moist soil cylinder using a
jack.
11. Take a moisture can and determine its mass, W3 (g).
12. From the moist soil extruded in step 10, collect a moist sample in a moisture can (step 11)
and determine the mass of moist soil + can, W4 (g).
13. Place the moisture can with soil in the oven to dry to a constant weight.
14. Break the rest of the soil cylinder by hand and mix with leftover moist soil. Add more water
and mix to raise moisture content by 2%.
15. Repeat steps 6-12. In this process, the weight of the mold + base plate + moist soil (W2) will
first increase with the increase in moisture content and then decrease. Continue the test until
at least two successive decreased readings are obtained.
16. The next day, determine the mass of the moisture cans + soil samples, W5 (g) (from step 13).

5.2.4 CALCULATION

1. Determine weight of the mold W1 (step 4).

2. Determine weight of the mold + compacted moist soil,W2 (step 9).
3. Determine weight of the compacted moist soil = W2-W1.
4. Moist unit weight γ = weight of the compacted moist soil / volume of mold = (W2 - W1) /
(1/30 ft3).
5. Determine mass of moisture can, W3 (step 11).
6. Determine mass of moisture can + moist soil, W4 (step 12).
7. Determine mass of moisture can + dry soil, W5 (step 16).
8. Compaction moisture content , w (%) = (W4 - W5) x 100 / (W5 - W3).
9. Dry unit weight γd = γ/ (1+ w (%) / 100).
5.3 FIELD DENSITY TEST BY SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

5.3.1 INTRODUCTION

The dry density of the compacted soil or pavement is a common measure of the amount of
compaction achieved during the construction. Knowing the field density and filed moisture
content, the dry density is calculated. Therefore filed density test is important as a field control
test for the compaction of soil or any other pavement layer.

There are several methods for the determination of field density of soils such as core cutter
method, sand replacement method, rubber balloon method, heavy oil method.e.t.c

One of the common methods of determining field density of fine-grained soils is core cutter
method; but this method has a major limitation in the case of soils containing coarse-grained
particles such as gravel, stones and aggregates. Under such circumstances, filed density test by
sand replacement method is advantageous, as the presence of coarse-grained particles will
adversely affect the test results.

The basic principle of sand replacement method is to measure the in-situ volume of the hole from
which the material was excavated from the weight of sand with known density filling in the hole.
The in-situ density of material is given by the weight of the excavated material divided by the in-
situ volume.

5.3.2 APPARATUS

A. Sand pouring cylinder equipment:

B. Small pouring cylinder: suitable for fine and medium grained soils. This consists of a metal
cylinder of capacity 3 litres, 100mm in diameter and 380 mm length with an inverted funnel or
cone at one end and a shutter to open and close the entry of sand and a cap on the other end.
Metal tray to excavate the hole with suitable shape and size. Calibration container of the small
pouring cylinder (size 100 x 150 mm)

C.Large pouring cylinder suitable for fine, medium and coarse grained soils. This consists of a
metal cylinder of capacity 16.5 litres, 200mm in diameter and 610mm length with all
arrangements mentioned above. Calibration container size 200 x 250 mm.

D.Medium pouring cylinder: suitable for fine, medium and coarse grained soils. This cylinder
with 150mm diameter and length 450mm. The calibration container size is 150 x 200mm.

E. Tools for levelling and excavating

F. Hand tools such as scraper for levelling the surface; a dibber or an elongated trowel for
digging and excavating the material.

G. Containers: Metal containers of any convenient size (about 150mm diameter and 200mm
depth) with removable lid for collecting the excavated material.

H. Sand: Dry and clean test sand of uniform gradation, passing 1.0mm and retained 600-micron
sieve.

I. Balance: A suitable balance of capacity 15 or 30kg accuracy 1.0g and necessary set of weights.

5.3.3 PROCEDURE

The test may be conducted in two stages:

(i) calibration of apparatus

(ii) measurement of field density

Calibration of apparatus:

The determination of volume of the excavated hole is based on the weight of sand filling the hole
and the cone and the density of the test sand used in the experiment under identical height and
pouring conditions of the sand into the test hole and determination of the weight of the sand
occupying the cone of the sand pouring cylinder.

Clean and dry tests and passing 1.0mm sieve and retained 600-micron sieve is collected in
sufficient quantity required for at least three or four sets of tests. The top cap of the sand –
pouring cylinder is removed. The shutter is closed, the cylinder is filled with dry test sand up to
about 10mm from the top and the cap is replaced. The of the cylinder with the sand is
determined accurate to one gram and is recorded =w1.in all the subsequent tests for calibration
as well as for the field density tests, every time the sand is filled into the cylinder such that the
initial weight of the cylinder with sand exactly W1. The sand pouring cylinder is placed over
the calibration cylinder over test holes already excavated, the shutter is opened and the sand
equal to the volume of the calibration cylinder or the excavated test hole is allowed to flow out
and the shutter is closed.

The sand pouring cylinder is now placed on a clean plane surface (glass or Perspex plate), the
shutter is kept open till the sand is fills up the cone fully and there is no visible movement of
sand as seen from the top of the cylinder by removing the cap. The shutter is closed, the cylinder
is removed and the sand which occupies the cone is carefully collected from the plate and
weighted=W2.

The sand pouring cylinder is refilled with sand such that the initial weight is again W1. Now the
cylinder is placed centrally on the top of calibration container and the shutter is opened.When the
sand fills up the calibration container and the cone completely and there is no movement of sand,
the shutter is closed and the sand pouring cylinder and the remaining sand is weighted = W2.

The above steps are repeated three times and the mean value of W2 and W3 are determined such
that the mean value of the weight of sand required to fill the calibration container up to the level
top can be determined.

The volume calibrating container, V is determined either by measuring the internal dimensions
or by filling with water and weighing. From the weight of sand Wa and its volume V in the
calibrating, the density of sand is determined.

5.3.4 MEASUREMENT OF FIELD DENSITY

The site where the field density test is to be conducted is cleaned and levelled using a scraper for
an area of about 450mmsquare. The metal tray central hole is placed on the prepared surface.
Using this central hole as pattern, the soil/material is excavated using a dibber or a trowel up to a
required depth and the loose material removed is carefully collected in the metal container and is
weight=W. The sand-pouring Cylinder is refilled with sand such that its weight is again W1. The
metal tray with central hole is removed and sand-pouring cylinder is placed centrally over the
excavated hole.The shutter is opened till the sand fills the excavated hole and the cone completly
and there is no further movement of the sand in the cylinder. The shutter is closed and the
cylinder is weighed again=W4, so that the weight of sand filling the excavated hole alone = Wb
can be found.

The moisture content of the excavated soil% is determined by taking a sample of soil from its
moisture content dish, weighing, drying in oven at 110c and re-weighing. Alternatively,the
moisture content (W %) is determined by placing the entire excavated soil collected from the
hole (of weight W) in the oven and finding its dry weight=Wd.

The above steps for the determination of the weights of excavated soil, the weight of the sand
filling the hole and the weights of samples for the moisture content determination area repeated
at least three times and the average values taken for the determination of fields density(wet and
dry) values.

5.3.5 CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS

W 1 =weight of sand pouring cylinder and filled up to 10mm from top edge, g

W 2= weight of sand in the cone, mean value, g

W3=weight of cylinder and sand after pouring into the calibration container and cone, g

W4=weight of cylinder and sand after pouring into the excavated hole and cone, g

Va=volume of the excavated container, cm3

W=weight of the soil from the excavated hole,g

Wd=oven dry weight of the soil excavated from the hole, g

W=moisture content of the soil, %

The weight of sand filled the calibrating container only =Wa= (W1-W3-W2), g

Bulk density of sand =Wa g/cm3

Va
Weight of sand filling the excavated hole alone=Wb-(W1-W4-W2), g
In situ bulk density of wet excavated soil=
The results are reported as the average value of at least three sets of tests in the following:
In-place wet density of soil in g/cm3, correct to second decimal place or in kg/m3 correct to
nearest whole number.
In place dry density of soil in g/cm3 or in kg/m3 (as above)
Moisture content of the soil in percent, correct to first decimal place.

5.4 STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BY CUBE CRUSHING

5.4.1 CONCRETE CUBE TESTING

Concrete cube testing is a simple, cost effective test of the compressive strength of concrete,
providing you peace of mind that your concrete is fit for purpose and in line with BS EN 12390.
Samples are taken from the concrete while being poured then cast and air cured under BS
standard conditions. They are then water cured for a specified period then crushed to determine
the maximum compressive strength at accredited Laboratory.

Concrete cube testing is the main compliance test for concrete and is also a requirement of BSI
kite marking. Cubes come in mainly two sizes 100mm and 150mm, 100mm are more common
for continuous testing and more easily storable. For most of the works cubical molds of size 15
cm x 15cm x 15 cm are commonly used. Cube testing is now a common operation for all
concrete suppliers not only does it tell you if your concrete is ok but with enough information it
can help alter mixes which will save money.

This concrete is poured in the mold and tempered properly so as not to have any voids. After 24
hours these molds are removed and test specimens are put in water for curing. The top surface of
this specimen should be made even and smooth. This is done by putting cement paste and
spreading smoothly on whole area of specimen.
These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after 7 days curing or 28 days
curing. Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the Specimens
fails. Load at the failure divided by area of specimen gives the compressive strength of concrete.

Following are the procedure for Compressive strength test of Concrete Cubes

Apparatus

Compression testing machine

5.4.2 PREPARATION OF CUBE SPECIMENS

The proportion and material for making these test specimens are from the same concrete used in
the field.

Specimen

6 cubes of 15 cm size Mix. M15 or above

Sampling

(i) Clean the mounds and apply oil

(ii) Fill the concrete in the molds in layers approximately 5cm thick

(iii) Compact each layer with not less than 35strokes per layer using a tamping rod (steel bar
16mm diameter and 60cm long, bullet pointed at lower end)

(iv) Level the top surface and smoothen it with a trowel

Curing

The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24hours and after this period the specimens are
marked and removed from the molds and kept submerged in clear fresh water until taken out
prior to test.

Precautions

The water for curing should be tested every 7days and the temperature of water must be at 27±
2oC.

5.4.3 PROCEDURE

i. Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time and wipe out excess water
from the surface.
 ii. Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m
iii. Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine
iv. Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the
opposite sides of the cube cast.
v. Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.
vi. Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the
specimen.
vii. Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of
140kg/cm2/minute till the specimen fails
viii. Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.
NOTE

Minimum three specimens should be tested at each selected age. If strength of any specimen
Tamping
varies by more than 15 per cent of average strength, results of such specimen should be rod
rejected.
Average of their specimens gives the crushing strength of concrete.

Molds

Figure 1: Illustrates cubes already in the curing tank with identification numbers

5.4.4 CALCULATIONS

Size of the cube =15cm x15cm x15cm

Area of the specimen (calculated from the mean size of the specimen) =225cm2

Characteristic compressive strength (f ck) at 7 days =

Expected maximum load =fck x area x f.s

Range to be selected is …………………..

Similar calculation should be done for 28 day compressive strength

Maximum load applied =……….tones = ………….N

Compressive strength = (Load in N/ Area in mm2)=……………N/mm2

5.5 SLUMP TEST

The concrete slump test is an empirical test that measures the workability of fresh concrete. More
specifically, it measures the consistency of the concrete in that specific batch. This test is
performed to check the consistency of freshly made concrete. Consistency is a term very closely
related to workability. It is a term which describes the state of fresh concrete. It refers to the ease
with which the concrete flows. It is used to indicate the degree of wetness. Workability of
concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more workable than drier
mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. It is also used to determine
consistency between individual batches.

The test is popular due to the simplicity of apparatus used and simple procedure. Unfortunately,
the simplicity of the test often allows a wide variability in the manner that the test is performed.
The slump test is used to ensure uniformity for different batches of similar concrete under field
conditions and to ascertain the effects of plasticizers on their introduction.

5.5.1 APPARATUS

Metal mold, in the shape of the frustum of a cone, open at both ends, and provided with the
handle, top internal diameter 102 mm, and bottom internal diameter 203 mm with a height of 305
mm.

A 610 mm long bullet nosed metal rod, 16 mm in diameter.

5.5.2 PROCEDURE

The test is carried out using a mold known as a slump cone or Abrams cone. The cone is placed
on a hard non-absorbent surface. This cone is filled with fresh concrete in three stages, each time
it is tamped using a rod of standard dimensions. At the end of the third stage, concrete is struck
off flush to the top of the mold. The mold is carefully lifted vertically upwards, so as not to
disturb the concrete cone. Concrete subsides. This subsidence is termed as slump, and is
measured in to the nearest 5 if the slump is <100mm and measured to the nearest 10mm
>100mm slump mm.

5.5.3 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped concrete, the
slump is termed as true slump, shear slump or collapse slump. If a shear or collapse slump is
achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test repeated. A collapse slump is an indication
of too wet a mix. Only a true slump is of any use in the test. A collapse slump will generally
mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability mix, for which slump test is not
appropriate. Very dry mixes, having slump 0 – 25 mm are used in road making, low workability
mixes; having slump 10 – 40 mm are used for foundations with light reinforcement, medium
workability mixes; 50 - 90 for normal reinforced concrete placed with vibration, high workability
concrete; > 100 mm.

5.5.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE SLUMP TEST

The slump test is suitable for slumps of medium to high workability, slump in the range of 5 –
260 mm the test fails to determine the difference in workability in stiff mixes which have zero
slump, or for wet mixes that give a collapse slump. It is limited to concrete formed of aggregates
of less than 38 mm (1.5 inch).

5.6 SIEVE ANALYSIS

Aim: To determine the particle size distribution of aggregates/soil by sieving

5.6.1 APPARATUS

 Weighing balance accurate to 0.5% of mass of test sample

 Test sieves as listed below
 Oven capable of maintaining constant temperature to within 5%
 Sieve shaker
 Chart for recording results

5.6.2 SIEVE SIZES

Course aggregates: 63, 50, 37.5, 28.0, 20.0, 14.0, 10.0 and 2.36mm

Fine aggregates: 4.75, 2.8, 2.0, 1.0, 0.5, 0.3, 0.212, 0.106 and 0.075mm

Test proportion: The minimum mass of test portions taken shall be according to the following
table, depending on the nominal size of aggregates.

Nominal size in 40 20 10 5 or less

mm
Minimum mass 10 5 2 0.200
in kg

Drying: Dry the test samples to a constant mass by oven drying at temp of about 105 oc

5.6.3 PROCEDURE

Take an approximate minimum sample from the original sample either by quartering or by
means of sample divider.

Make sure that the sieves are dry and clean before use.

Machine sieving: Fit the nest of sieves and pan (mesh size) diminishing towards the bottom. Tip
the weighed sample into the nest of sieves, fit the lid and clamp the whole in the machine.
Operate the machine for 5 min(coarse aggregate) and 3 min.(fine aggregates) Weigh the material
retained on each sieve and the pan together with any material cleaned on the mesh by light
brushing on completion of sieving.

Hand sieving: Weigh out the required sample. Stand the sieves of the largest mesh size in the
tray and put the weighed sample onto the sieve.

Shake the sieve horizontally with a jerking motion in all directions for at least minutes and until
no more than a trace of sample passes. Ensure that all material passing falls into the tray.

Weigh any material retained on the sieve.

Pass material collected in the tray through the sieve of the next smaller mesh size, and weigh any
material retained.

Repeat the procedure for the remaining sieves in order of diminishing size.

5.6.4 RESULTS

Tabulate the results in the table provided and calculate the cumulative weight passing each sieve
as a percentage of the total sample to the nearest whole number.

Plot the grading curve for the sample in the grading chart provided and comment on the curve
obtained.

5.7 CONCLUSION

Having conducted all these tests, I came to understand their importance in quality assurance.
Apart from two experiments that were new, all the others I was familiar with. Either done at
school or did them in JKUAT. Lab work was involving and required dust coats among other
clothing. Some experiments were done in the lab whereas others were done in the field upon
signing of requests. In addition, I realized how important it was for references to be readily
available to ascertain results and give zero tolerance to errors.

5.8 REFERENCES

1) R.F Craig; Craig’s Soil Mechanics (7th edition)

2) V.N.S Murthy; Geotechnical engineering.

6.0 ROAD INSPECTORATE
Inspection in the area of road infrastructure is directed mainly towards checking the
reinforcement of laws and other regulations which govern state road maintenance, their
safeguarding, and safeguarding of traffic on them and also laws and other regulations governing
tolling obligations. Supervision can either be during construction or after completion for the
following purposes:-

 Regular maintenance of state roads.

 Renovation of state roads.
 Reconstruction of state roads.
A contractor may not necessarily be interested in giving the best quality as required by the client.
Just like any other firm, he has to maximize his profits under all circumstance and make losses a
past for him to sustain his firm.

It’s very possible that even when a contractor notices mistakes done, he may not attend unto
them on basses of resources forgetting that blame will befall on him. Road projects are huge in
terms of the resources used. During construction, an error can be realized and attended to fast
enough unlike that seen on completion. A client may be pleased by the wearing course not
paying a lot of attention to how the base has been put up. A weak base will be realized later
when the wearing course shows some signs physically.

Due to all these shortcomings, there is needed to involve inspectorate an s a party in the
construction process. In the reconstruction and rehabilitation of 1stAvenue and General
Waruinge phase 1; I observed that the inspectors were four. They represented the CAS
consultant firm and reported directly to the Deputy Resident Engineer.

There were four and their number may increase or decrease depending on the size of the project.

They were divided as per the following activities/tasks:-

 Inspector for concrete.

 Inspector for earth works
 Inspector for laying Improved GCS, DBM and AC.
6.1 CONCRETE INSPECTION

Concrete is made by mixing:

(i) Cement
(ii) Water
(iii) Coarse and fine aggregates
(iv)Admixtures (if required).
The aim is to mix these materials in measured amounts to make concrete that is easy to:-

 Transport
 Place
 Compact
 Finish
And which will set, and harden, to give a strong and durable product. The amount of each
material (i.e. cement, water and aggregates) affects the properties of hardened concrete.
CEMENT: The cement powder, when mixed with water, forms a paste. This paste acts like glue
and holds or bonds the aggregates together.
The Properties of Concrete are its characteristics or basic qualities. The four main properties of
concrete are:
 Workability
 Cohesiveness
 Strength
 Durability
Concrete has three different states:
 Plastic
 Setting
 Hardening
In each state it has different properties.
CONCRETE STATES
Plastic State: When the concrete is first mixed it is like 'bread dough’. Itis soft and can be
worked or moulded into different shapes. In this state concrete is called plastic. Concrete is
plastic during placing and compaction. The most important properties of plastic concrete are
workability and cohesiveness.
Setting State Concrete then begins to stiffen. The stiffening of concrete, when it is no longer
soft, is called SETTING. Setting takes place after compaction and during finishing. Concrete that
is sloppy or wet may be easy to place but will be more difficult to finish.
Hardening State After concrete has set it begins to gain strength and harden. The properties of
hardened concrete are strength and durability. Hardened concrete will have no footprints on it if
walked on.
Strength and Durability
Well-made concrete is a naturally strong and durable material. It is dense, reasonably watertight,
able to resist changes in temperature, as well as wear and tear from weathering. Strength and
Durability is affected by the density of the concrete. Denser concrete is more watertight (or less
permeable).Concrete durability increases with strength.
Strength and Durability are affected by:
COMPACTION: Compaction is removing the air from concrete. Proper compaction results in
concrete with an increased density which is stronger and more durable.
CURING: Curing is keeping concrete damp for a period, to allow it to reach maximum strength.
Longer curing will give more durable concrete.
Weather: Warmer weather will cause concrete to have a higher early strength.
Type of cement: Different types of cement will affect concrete properties: ie how
Quickly or slowly concrete gains strength.
The water to cement ratio: Too much water and not enough cement means
Concrete will be weaker and less durable.
The water to cement ratio (W/C) is the weight of the water divided by the weight of cement.
Water 20 litres
Cement 40 kg
W/C = i.e. = 0.5
The lower the ratio, the stronger the concrete.

Normal class concrete has a strength grade of N20, N25, N32, N40 and N50 with the
corresponding characteristic strength of 20, 25, 32, 40 and 50 MPa at 28 days. The slump at the
point of delivery should be 20–120 mm and the maximum size of coarse aggregate should be 10,
14 or 20 mm. Normal class concrete is suitable for most purposes. For most domestic
applications such as driveways and paths grade N20 and N25 are the common grades ordered.
Special class concrete is specified when you have additional or alternative
Requirements to those for normal class concrete, e.g. lightweight aggregate, colour pigments,
anon-standard strength grade. Special class concrete will not always be available from every
concrete supplier.
The road inspector on the ground has to be present when delivery from trucks is done. He has to
check the workability 1st with assistance from laboratory technicians who will conduct the slump
test.
He records their outcome and also ensures that cube for compression testing are prepared from
every truck delivered.
He also checks that blowing of dust has been done before casting starts. The inspector also
records the concrete mixer number as a record of how many trucks is using to ensure the project
runs fast enough as agreed during tendering processes. All this is for the purpose of evaluation of
what is happening on daily bases of the project life cycle.
6.2 INSPECTION OF ROAD LAYERING

Layering of a road is essential, if not well supervised its likely that the thickness can be
compromised or even a layer can be skipped. Inspector in charge has the mandate to sign
requests brought in by the foreman in charge of the activity on the ground. These requests are a
green light to lab technicians to come and conduct their tests. Since compaction test cannot be
done on all the sections of the road, then the inspector has to ascertain that processing is done
uniformly to evade any likelihood of unevenness.
The following is a procedure of the work being inspected during layering:-

 Cutting
 Backfilling
 Final earthworks
 1st subgrade
 2nd subgrade
 Sub base-Improved Graded Crushed stones
 Priming
 Base –Dense bituminous macadam
 Wearing coarse-Asphaltic concrete

6.2.1 CUTTING

Cutting is where soil or rock material from a hill or mountain is cut out to make way for a canal, road or
railway line. In cut and fill construction it keeps the route straight and/or flat, where the comparative
cost or practicality of alternate solutions (such as diversion) is prohibitive. Contrary to the general
meaning of cutting, a cutting in construction is mechanically excavated or blasted out with
carefully placed explosives. The cut may only be on one side of a slope, or directly through the
middle or top of a hill. Generally, a cut is open at the top (otherwise it is a tunnel). A cut is (in a
sense) the opposite of an embankment.
There are at least two types of cut, side hill cut and through cut. The former permits passage of a
transportation route alongside of or around a hill, where the slope is transverse to the roadway. A side
hill cut can be formed by means of side casting, i.e., cutting on the high side balanced by moving the
material to build up the low side to achieve a flat surface for the route. In contrast, through cuts,
where the adjacent grade is higher on both sides of the route, require removal of material from the
area since it cannot be dumped alongside the route.
Cutting is highly dependent on the section being worked on. This makes the depth of cutting very
different from one point to another.
6.2.2 FILLING

There are a variety of reasons for creating fills, among them reduction of grade along a route or
elevation of the route above water, swampy ground, or areas where snow drifts frequently
collect. Fills can also be used to cover tree stumps, rocks, or unstable soil, in which case material
with a higher bearing capacity is placed on top of the obstacle in order to carry the weight
of the roadway or railway and reduce differential settlement. While filling a depression to
reach the road level, the original bed is flattened after the removal of the topsoil. The fill layer is
distributed and compacted to the designed specifications. This procedure is repeated until the
compaction desired is reached. The fill material should not contain organic elements, and
possess a low index of plasticity. Fill material can include gravel and decomposed rocks of a
particular size, but should not consist of huge clay lumps. Sand clay can be used. The area is
considered to be adequately compacted when the roller movement does not create a
noticeable deformation. The road surface finish is reliant on the economic aspects, and the
estimated usage.

6.2.3 FINAL EARTHWORKS

After laying of 1st and 2nd subgrades, Final earth works takes place to pave way for the laying of
the base. Final earthwork is of great importance in giving the right and sound foundation. Is
similar to subgrades in nature and is processed using grader to ensure proper distribution of
moisture.
These layer is easily affected by weather condition and cant be laid when the weather is very wet

6.2.4 SUBGRADES

Subgrade is purposely for pavement support. Materials forming the direct support of the
pavement normally comply with the following requirements:-

 CBR at 100% MDD (standard compaction) and 4 days soak:more than 5.

 Swell at 100% MD (standard compaction) and 4 days soak: less than 2%.
 Organic matter (percentage by weight): less than 3%

This means that no pavement should be placed directly on class S1 soil and that an improved
subgrade is required on such soil.

6.2.5 IMPROVED SUBGRADE

Placing an improved subgrade not only increases the bearing strength of the direct support of the
pavement but also:

 Protects the upper layers of the earthworks against adverse weather conditions (protection
against soaking and shrinkage)
 Facilitates the movement of construction traffic.
 Permits proper compaction of the pavement layers.
 Reduces the variation in the subgrade bearing strength
 Prevents pollution of open-textured subbases by plastic fines from the natural subgrade.

It happens technically and economically advantageous to lay an improved subgrade not on S1,
but also on S2 and S3 class soils. The decision will generally depend on the respective costs of
sub base and improved subgrade materials.

An improved subgrade would generally not be economically justified on class s4 soils. An

improved subgrade placed on the soils of any particular class must obviously be made of a
material of higher class (up to class s5, since class s6 is sub base quality).

6.2.6 LIME TREATED SUBGRADE

Treatment of the subgrade soils with lime may be considered in the following cases:

Where the natural soils are excessively clayey and no better material is economically available,
their treatment with hydrated lime may be the cheapest solution.

Where the natural soils are excessively wet and cannot be dried out because of adverse weather
conditions, their treatment with quicklime may allow construction to proceed and provide a
markedly stronger subgrade.

6.2.7 SUBBASE

Sub base materials

a) Natural gravel

Many different types of natural gravel occur in Kenya, namely lateritic gravels, quartzite gravels,
calcareous gravels, some forms of weathered rock, soft stone,coral rag and conglomerate.

Natural gravels for sub base shall have a CBR of at least 30% at 95% MDD (modified
AASHTO) and after 4 days soak.

b) Clayey and silty sands

Various types of clayey and/or silty sands are to be found in Kenya. These are suitable as sub
base materials if their CBR,at 95% MDD and after 4 days soak, is at least equal to 30% and if
they comply with the other requirements given on table below. Attention is particularly drawn to
the plasticity limitations.

c) Cement and lime improved materials

Natural gravels, sands and clayey sands, which do not meet the sub base requirements given,
may be improved by treatment with cement or lime.

d) Graded crushed stones(GCS)

Stones are abundant in many parts of the country and graded crushed stones may as well be sued
as sub base material particularly where no suitable natural gravel can be economically found. To
avoid segregation, graded crushed stones should always be kept moist during handling,
transporting and layering and should not be stockpiled in heaps higher than 5m

6.2.8 PRIMING

A prime coat is an application of low viscosity bituminous binder to an absorbent surface. Its
purposes are to waterproof the surface being sprayed and to help bind it to the overlying
bituminous course. All non-bituminous road bases must be primed. The rate of application
depends on the texture and density of the material being primed.

Figure 2: illustrates priming being done

6.2.9 BASE

Base materials.

a) Natural gravels

Must have a CBR of at least 80, at 95% MDD and after 4 days soak. Natural gravels meeting
these requirements are very scarce in Kenya. Most of the lateritic gravels are not suitable for
roadbase,due to their poor nodule hardness(incomplete laterization) and high plasticity.
Weathered rocks are even poorer. Only a few quartz gravels and coral gravels have been found
to be adequate.

b) Graded Crushed Stones

Graded crushed stones are one of the most widely used base materials in Kenya. The material
requirements, traffic limitations and construction procedures are summarized below. A minimum
amount of fence of 4%is considered necessary to ensure stability of the base.Again,no plasticity
is allowed in graded crushed stones for base.

c) Dense Bitumen Macadam

Because of the rapid ageing of bitumen observed in Kenya, the use of 40/50 bitumen is not
recommended for dense bitumen macadam.DBM is adequate for all traffic but is economically
justified only for heavy traffic.

Below is a a typical road cross section showing all the layering together with the respective
thickness of each.

6.3.0 SURFACE DRESSING

Surface dressing is a surfacing of the highest importance. It can be sued as a definitive surfacing
under light and medium traffic or as an economical first surfacing under heavy traffic. Further,
surface dressing can be applied as a maintenance process. The service life of all forms of
bituminous surfacing is extended by periodic resealing.

Asphalt concrete (A.C)

Is a common surface dressing material. Consists of a well graded mixture of coarse aggregate,
fine aggregate and filler; bound together with straight-run bitumen. There are two types of A.C:-

(i)Asphalt concrete type 1(high stability): Is fairly stiff type of mix, designed to resist rutting and
high stresses. May be placed in a thin layer (50mm or less) on only rigid or semi-rigid pavements
or in a thick layer (minimum 75mm) on a flexible pavement.

(ii)Asphalt concrete type II (Flexible): This is a flexible type of mix, designed to resist
comparatively high flexural deformation. Is placed in a thin layer(maximum 50 mm).

The desired rigidity/flexibility will be obtained by proper combination of the following factors:-

i. Grade of bitumen
ii. Crushing ratio of coarse aggregates
iii. Angularity of sand.
iv. Mix grading
 v. Amount of filler
vi. Amount of bitumen
vii. Filler bitumen ratio
viii. Voids in total mix.

As a road inspector, one has to be familiar with all this elements. They help in proper
evaluation. The next page show a typical road cross section, giving all the above layering and
respective thickness.

6.4 CONCLUSION
Road inspection was a very keen process. The is no room for error whatsoever since an error
made will cost the contractor. From the exercise I also realized that the road inspectors are the
eyes of the resident engineer in any project. They have a responsibility to alert the Engineer of
any abnormality if any and also keep him updated of the daily/weekly progress.

Inspection may not be very involving but is just about professionalism of the work done. It was
an interesting area to work in during the attachment period.

6.5 REFERENCES

1. Road design manual part V( may 1988)

2. Internet: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_construction#Construction
5. Roles and Responsibilities
5.1 Supervisor’s Responsibilities

Here are some key responsibilities:

1. Project Management: Overseeing the daily operations of the construction site, including
managing workers and coordinating tasks.
2. Safety Compliance: Ensuring that all safety regulations and standards are followed to
prevent accidents and injuries on site.
3. Quality Control: Monitoring the quality of work to ensure it meets the required
specifications and standards.
4. Schedule Management: Tracking progress against the project timeline and making
adjustments as needed to stay on schedule.
5. Resource Allocation: Managing the use of materials, equipment, and labor to ensure
efficient and effective use of resources.
6. Communication: Acting as a liaison between the project team, contractors, and
stakeholders, ensuring that everyone is informed and aligned.
7. Problem Solving: Addressing and resolving any issues or conflicts that arise during the
construction process.
8. Documentation: Maintaining accurate records of work performed, materials used, and
any changes to the project scope.
9. Inspection: Regularly inspecting work to ensure compliance with plans and regulations.
10. Reporting: Providing regular updates and reports on project status to higher management
or stakeholders.

5.2 Student’s Roles and Responsibilities

1. Internship or Co-op: Students often participate in internships or cooperative education

programs where they assist with various tasks under the guidance of experienced
professionals. This could involve anything from site inspections to data analysis.
2. Research Assistance: Students, especially those in engineering or environmental
sciences, may assist with research related to construction materials, traffic patterns, or
environmental impacts.
3. Project Support: They might help in preparing project documentation, managing
schedules, or coordinating with different teams. This can include administrative tasks or
hands-on involvement in specific project phases.
4. Fieldwork: For those studying civil engineering or construction management, fieldwork
might involve monitoring construction activities, ensuring safety compliance, or
conducting surveys.
5. Design and Planning: Advanced students might contribute to the design and planning
stages by creating models, simulations, or conducting feasibility studies.
6. Challenges Faced
1. Environmental Concerns: Managing the impact on local ecosystems, wildlife, and
water sources.
2. Weather Conditions: Adverse weather can delay construction and affect materials.
3. Budget Overruns: Unexpected costs can arise from various sources, including design
changes or unforeseen problems.
4. Regulatory Compliance: Adhering to local, state, and federal regulations can be
complex and time-consuming.
5. Traffic Management: Minimizing disruption to existing traffic flow and ensuring safety
for both drivers and construction workers.
6. Material Supply Issues: Delays or shortages in the supply chain can impact project
timelines.
7. Labor Shortages: Finding skilled workers and managing labor disputes or shortages.
8. Design Changes: Adjustments to the project design can lead to delays and additional
costs.
9. Safety Concerns: Ensuring the safety of workers and minimizing accidents on site.
10. Community Impact: Addressing concerns from local residents and businesses affected
by the construction.

7. Lessons Learned
1. Planning and Design: Thorough planning and detailed design are crucial. This includes
considering soil conditions, drainage, and traffic patterns. Inadequate planning can lead to
delays and cost overruns.
2. Stakeholder Communication: Regular communication with stakeholders, including
local communities, government agencies, and contractors, helps in addressing concerns
and managing expectations.
3. Permitting and Regulations: Navigating the permitting process and adhering to
regulations can be time-consuming but essential. It's important to stay informed about
local, state, and federal requirements.
4. Risk Management: Identifying potential risks early and developing contingency plans
can help mitigate unforeseen issues. This includes managing risks related to weather,
environmental impact, and site conditions.
5. Budget and Cost Control: Staying within budget requires careful financial management.
This includes tracking expenses, managing change orders, and avoiding scope creep.
6. Quality Control: Ensuring quality through regular inspections and adherence to
standards helps avoid rework and long-term maintenance issues.
7. Safety: Prioritizing safety for workers and the public is essential. This includes proper
training, adherence to safety protocols, and regular safety audits.
 8. Technology Integration: Utilizing technology, such as GPS for surveying or project
management software, can improve efficiency and accuracy.
9. Environmental Considerations: Implementing sustainable practices and minimizing
environmental impact are increasingly important. This includes managing construction
waste and protecting local wildlife.
10. Post-Construction Evaluation: Conducting a post-construction review to assess what
went well and what could be improved helps in refining processes for future projects.

7.2 Problem-solving and Decision-making

Problem-Solving Steps

1. Identify the Problem: Clearly define the problem or issue. For example, delays due to
unforeseen geological conditions or budget overruns.
2. Gather Information: Collect data related to the problem. This might involve soil tests,
traffic studies, weather conditions, or budget reports.
3. Analyze the Problem: Understand the root cause of the issue. This could involve
examining project plans, reviewing historical data, or consulting with experts.
4. Develop Solutions: Brainstorm possible solutions and evaluate them based on feasibility,
cost, and impact. Consider alternative materials, methods, or schedules.
5. Select the Best Solution: Choose the solution that best addresses the problem while
meeting project constraints and objectives.
6. Implement the Solution: Put the chosen solution into action. This may involve adjusting
construction schedules, reallocating resources, or modifying plans.
7. Monitor and Evaluate: Track the effectiveness of the solution. Make adjustments as
necessary to ensure the problem is fully resolved.

Decision-Making Strategies

1. Use Data-Driven Approaches: Make decisions based on data and empirical evidence
rather than intuition alone. This might involve statistical analysis, modeling, or
simulation.
2. Involve Stakeholders: Consult with project stakeholders, including engineers, architects,
local authorities, and the community. Their input can provide valuable perspectives and
help ensure decisions are well-rounded.
3. Consider Risk Management: Evaluate potential risks associated with each decision.
Implement risk mitigation strategies to address potential issues before they arise.
4. Prioritize Objectives: Balance competing objectives such as cost, time, quality, and
safety. Ensure that decisions align with the project's overall goals and constraints.
5. Document Decisions: Keep a record of the decision-making process, including the
rationale for choices and any assumptions made. This documentation can be valuable for
future reference and accountability.
6. Review and Learn: After implementing decisions, review the outcomes to learn from
successes and failures. Apply these lessons to improve future decision-making processes.
8. General Conclusion and Recommendations
Conclusions

1. Project Outcomes: Evaluate if the project met its goals, such as improving traffic flow,
reducing congestion, and enhancing safety.
2. Budget and Schedule: Review if the project was completed within the budget and on
time. Identify any cost overruns or delays and their causes.
3. Quality and Compliance: Assess the quality of the construction work and ensure it
complies with the specifications and standards.
4. Stakeholder Satisfaction: Gather feedback from stakeholders, including local
communities, businesses, and users, to gauge satisfaction levels.

Recommendations

1. Future Planning:
o Enhanced Design: Use the lessons learned to improve future road designs,
focusing on areas like traffic management and safety features.
o Cost Management: Develop more accurate budgeting and forecasting techniques
to better handle unexpected expenses.
2. Maintenance and Upkeep:
o Regular Inspections: Implement a schedule for regular inspections and
maintenance to ensure the road remains in good condition.
o Responsive Repairs: Set up a system for quick response to issues such as
potholes or surface damage.
3. Community Engagement:
o Communication Plans: Improve communication with the community about
construction schedules, traffic impacts, and benefits.
o Feedback Mechanisms: Establish channels for ongoing feedback to address any
concerns promptly.
4. Sustainability:
o Environmental Considerations: Incorporate sustainable practices, such as using
recycled materials and minimizing environmental impact.
o Energy Efficiency: Consider energy-efficient lighting and other green
technologies.
5. Risk Management:
o Risk Assessment: Conduct thorough risk assessments for potential issues and
develop mitigation strategies.
o Contingency Planning: Have contingency plans in place for unforeseen
circumstances or emergencies.
6. Technology Integration:
o Smart Solutions: Explore the use of smart technologies for traffic management
and road safety.
o Data Collection: Utilize data analytics to monitor road usage and performance,
guiding future improvements.
9. References
Books

1. "Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis" by Fred L. Mannering,

Scott A. Washburn, and Walter P. Kilareski
o Covers fundamentals of highway engineering, traffic analysis, and related design
principles.
2. "Highway Engineering" by Paul H. Wright and Karen K. Dixon
o Provides comprehensive coverage of highway planning, design, and construction.

International Road Assessment Programme (iRAP)

 iRAP Guidelines
 Provides standards and tools for road safety assessment and improvement.

Online Resources

1. Engineering Toolbox
o Engineering Toolbox - Road Design
o Provides technical details and calculations related to road design.