A SEMINAR PAPER ON

ROLE OF MICROORGANISM IN SOIL FERTILITY AND CARBON

SEQUESTRATION
Course Title: Seminar

Course Code: SSC 598

Summer
SUBMITTED TO:
Course Instructors Major Professor
Dr. Md. Mizanur Rahman
1. Dr. Md. Mizanur Rahman Professor , Dept. of Soil Science
Professor BSMRAU
BSMRAU
2. Dr. A. K. M. Aminul Islam
Professor
BSMRAU
3. Dr. Md. Rafiqul Islam
Professor
BSMRAU
4. Dr. Dinesh Chandra Shaha
Assistant Professor
BSMRAU

SUBMITTED BY:
ShahidaArofi
MS Student
Reg. No.: 13-05-2954
Department of Soil Science
BANGABANDHU SHEIKH MUJIBUR RAHMAN AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
SALNA, GAZIPUR 1706
 Abstract

Soil microorganism are vital part of soil and microbial mass vary with soil depth. So availability
of nutrients also vary with soil depth. Almost every chemical reactions in soil is done by
microbes and make nutrients available for plant and crops uptake. They play an active role in
soil fertility hence all of the bio-geochemical cycle mediated by microbes such as nitrogen
,phosphorus, carbon cycle etc. By the decomposition of organic matter, microbes recycle the
nutrients in soil. Nitrogen fixation is occurred by microbes either free living or non-freeliving
microorganism. Rhizobium is the most common symbiotic bacteria whch can fix nitrogen
biologically. Some bacteria such as Micrococcus spp., Enterobacter aerogens, Pseudomonas
capacia and some funji like Aspergillus niger, A flavus, A. japonicas, Penicillium sp., and also
actinomycetes like Streptomyces can solubilize p and make available for plant. Micorrhiza help
plant to uptake nutrients from deeper horizon specially p. Micorrhiza mediated nontoxification of
some inorganic pollutant like As, Cd, Pb ,Cu. Organic fertilizer(Compost) and biofertilizer are
made by microbes helps to improve soil fertility and these are very eco-friendly. In recent past
there is an another important fuction of microbes has been invented, that is role of microbes in
carbon sequestration. Soil is a large sink for storing atmospheric carbon. Since carbon is the
main reason for global warming ,microbes play a great role by storing carbon in soil. Some
ectomicorrhiza and bacteria can fix carbon.Carbon can persist in humas for long time by the
humification process.

I
 Content

Topics Page No.

Introduction 01-02

Objectives 02

Materials & Methods 03

Review & Discussion of Findings 04-21

Conclusions 22

References 23-25

II
 List of Tables

Serial no. Title of Tables Page no.

1 Essential plant nutrient in soil and their available form 04

2 Distribution of Microorganisms in soil according to soil depth 05

3 Some estimates of the amount of nitrogen fixed on a global scale 06

4 A short list of Rhizobium species that fix nitrogen symbiotically 07
and their corresponding hosts
5 Increase in rice grain yield and estimated amounts of fixed N2by 07
different N2fixing systems
6 Phosphorus solubilizing microorganisms 08
7 Some amounts of P solubilized by selected species o 08
microorganism
8 Total P accumulation in cultures of different bacterial species 09
grown on insoluble mineral phosphate substrates
9 Inoculation ct ofBacillus sp. on seed yield and plant height of 10
cotton
10 Inoculation effect of Bacillus sp. on NP content in cotton leaves 10
11 Effects of Enterobacteragglomerans (PSRB) and 11
Glomus.etunicatum (AMF) inoculation on tomato plant growth and
P uptake (75 days after inoculation)
12 Mycorrhiza increase soil fertility 13
13 AR (μg mg-1) of macroelements (P, Ca and Mg) and 13
microelements (Cu, Zn and Mn) in mycorrhizal (+M) and
nonmycorrhizal (-M) wheat plants
14 Mycorrhiza mediated nontoxification of some inorganic pollutants 13
in soils their mechanisms
15 Average yields by treatment with compost in kg/ha for 5 crops 15

16 Microorganisms and uptake of heavy metals 16

17 Effect of inoculum size on the lindane removal by Streptomyces 16
sp.in sterile soil samples, after 4 weeks of incubation
18 Some commonly used biofertilizers with their active ingredient 17

Fertilizer saved when biofertilizer applied and their recommended 18

19 crops

III
 List of Figures

Serial no Name of the figures Page no.

1 Clover root bearing naturally occurring nodules of Rhizobium 06

2 Schematic diagram of soil phosphorus mobilization and 19

immobilization by bacteria

3 Available P status after 30 days of sowing cotton (inoculated 11

with Bacillus sp)

Available P status after 30 days of sowing cotton (inoculated 12

4 with Bacillus sp)

5 Response curve was produced by growing mycorrhizal and 12

nonmycorrhizal plants Cassia at a range of soil P levels.

6 Tree bearing the orange-yellow coloured nodules (arrowheads) 14

containing Frankias

7 Response of a soybean crop in Hawaii to inoculation with 27

rhizobia biofertilizer with various levels of phosphorus fertilizer
added
8 Plant associated microorganism and carbon 19

9 Fruting body ectomicorrhizal fungi from genus Amantia 20

10 Soil carbon storage by Humification 20

IV
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Microorganisms play veryuseful role in soil fertility. Usually people think that microbes are
agents of disease, but, they perform many other beneficial functions in soil. The beneficial
microorganisms help in the decomposition of organic residues, toxic substances and other
pollutants and add to the soil fertility (Afzal, 2012). The role they play in improving the soil
fertility has become a subject of more investigations during the recent past.

Capacity of soil to supply the essential plant nutrients in available form and in a proper
balance for healthy plant growth is called soil fertility. Soil fertility depends on the presence
of inorganic substances, organic substances, water and air, as well as, on the presence of
microbes (Basta, 2011).

A renowned microbiologist Jacob Lipman, remarked, “A soil lack of microorganisms is dead

soil”. Soil is not a dead mass. Fertile soil contains a wide variety of microbes which include
different types of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae and actinomycetes. Mostly they a r e found
in rhizosphere where they decompose organic matter to humus which is the store house of
nutrients and influences soil fertility. Microorganisms are responsible for making up
numerous transformations, which changes plant nutrients to readily available forms and make
and stabilize desirable soil structure for luxuriant plant growth Phosphorus Solubilizing
bacteria and fungi play an important role in converting insoluble phosphatic compound such
as rock phosphate, bone meal etc particularly the chemically fixed soil phosphorus into
available form. Mycorrhiza plays a very important role in supplying nutrients to the crop
plants by improving soil fertility through increasing root surface area. Soil organic matter
holds more than 95% of soil nitrogen, 5-60% of total phosphorus and 30% of soil sulfur. The
benefits of soil microorganisms are realized through soil management practices or cropping
systems that maximize their activities in their soil habitat, composting and application of
effective microorganisms as inoculants or biofertilizers (Omar, 2009).

Microorganisms have also role in carbon sequestration. Which a most important topic is in
now days, sinceAmount of carbon is increasing day by day. Over the past 150 years amount
of carbon has increased by 30%.

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We know that there is direct relationship between increased levels of carbon and global
warming. So how can we reduce carbon from atmosphere it‟s a burning question. One of the
granted proposals is carbon storage in soil which is one part of carbon sequestration.
Carbon sequestration refers the process of removal of carbon the atmosphere and storage in
soil, ocean and vegetation. Although oceans store most of the Earth‟s carbon, soils contain
approximately 75% of the carbonpool on land. Carbon cycle is dominated by the balance
between photosynthesis and respiration. Carbon is transferred from the atmosphere to soil by
„carbon-fixing‟ autotrophic organisms; theyalso make carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic
material. The objectives of the study are-

 To review the role that play microorganisms in N-fixation and P-solubilization,

 To review the role of Mycorrhiza in improving soil fertility,
 To review the role of microorganisms in heavy metal uptake and pollutants
degradation and
 To reviewrole of microorganism in soil carbon sequestration

2
 CHAPTER II

MATERIALSAND METHODS

This seminar paper is exclusively a review paper so all of the information has been collected
from the secondary sources. During preparation of this paper I went through various relevant
books, journals, proceedings, reports, publications etc. Findings related to my topic have been
reviewed with the help of the library facilities of Bangabandhu Sheikh MujiburRahman
Agricultural University (BSMRAU) and Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI).
Information also collected from Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC). I have
also searched related internet web sites to collect information. I got valuable suggestion and
information from my major professor and course instructors. After collecting all the available
information, I myself compiled and prepared this seminar paper.

3
 CHAPTER III

REVIEW AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS

The soil fertility improving functions of soil microorganisms include release of plant
nutrients such as P,K and Zn from insoluble inorganic forms, decomposition of organic
residues and release of nutrients, formation of beneficial soil humus by decomposing organic
residues and through synthesis of new compounds ,production of plant growth promoting
compounds and improvement of plant nutrition through symbiosis.
Fertile soil contains all of essential nutrients require for plant growth and development in
available form. The conversion of complex molecular compounds into ionic forms is carried
out by microorganisms either directly or indirectly. (Table1).
Table1.Essential plant nutrient in soil and their available form
Element name Chemical symbol Available form to %Concentration in dry
plants tissue
Nitrogen N NO3-, NH4+ 1.5
Potassium K K+ 1.0
Phosphorus P H2PO4-,HPO42- 0.2
2+
Calcium Ca Ca 0.5
2+
Magnesium Mg Mg 0.2
Sulfur S SO42- 0.1
Zinc Zn Zn2+ 0.002
Iron Fe Fe2+, Fe3+ 0.01
Manganese Mn Mn2+ 0.005
2+
Copper Cu Cu 0.0006
Boron B H3BO3 0.002
Molybdenum Mo MoO42- 0.00001
Chlorine Cl Cl- 0.01
Oxygen O O2,H2O 45
Carbon C CO2 45
Hydrogen H H2O 6
Source: FAO, 2004.

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Distribution of microorganisms in soil

There are many microorganisms live in soil and they perform many activities. Among them
the number of bacteria per gram soil is highest, then actinomycetes and fungi. The number of
microorganisms varies according to depth of soil (Table2). The highest number of bacteria
(7800000+195000) lived in top soil which is much higher (only 1000) than sub soil or deeper
soil.

Table2.Distribution of Microorganisms in soil according to soil depth

Depth Microorganisms per gram of soil

CM Aerobic Anaerobic Actinomyces Fungi
Bacteria Bacteria
3-8 7800000 1950000 2080000 119000
20-25 1800000 379000 245000 50000
35-40 472000 98000 49000 14000
65-75 10000 1000 5000 3000
135- 100 400 3000

Source: Alexander, 2008

Nitrogen fixation by microorganisms

A relatively small amount (<1% of total) of ammonia is produced by lightning. Some

ammonia also is produced industrially (about 50×106 MT) by the Haber-Bosch process, using
an iron-based catalyst, very high pressures and fairly high temperature (400-5500 c and 200
atm). But the major conversion of N2 into ammonia, and thence into proteins, is achieved by
microorganisms in the process called nitrogen fixation. The total biological nitrogen fixation
(about 175×106MT) is estimated to be twice as much as the total nitrogen fixation (about
80×106 MT) by non-biological processes (Table3).

5
Table3. Some estimates of the amount of nitrogen fixed on a global scale

Type of fixation N2 fixed (1012 g per year, or 106 metric tons

per year)
Non-biological
Industrial about 50
Combustion about 20
Lightning about 10
Total about 80

Biological
Agricultural land about 90
Forest and non-agricultural land about 50
Sea about 35
Total about 175
Source: Kennedy et al., 2009.

The nitrogen-fixing organisms

All the nitrogen-fixing organisms are prokaryotes (bacteria). Some of them live
independently of other organisms - the so-called free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Others
live in intimate symbiotic associations with plants or with other organisms (e.g. Rhizobium).

Symbiotic nitrogen fixation

Legume symbioses

The most familiar examples of nitrogen-fixing symbioses are the root nodules of legumes
(peas, beans, clover, etc.).

Fig1. Clover root bearing naturally occurring nodules of Rhizobium.

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Table4. A short list of Rhizobium species that fix nitrogen symbiotically and their
corresponding hosts
Rhizobium species Host plants
Bradyrhizobiumjapanicum Glycine max(soybean)

R. phaseoli Phaseolus vulgaris(common bean)

R. meliloti Medicago sativa(alfalfa)

R. trifolii Melilotussp. (sweet clovers)
R. trifolii Trifoliumsp.
Source: Peoples et al.., 2007
N2– Fixators

When Azolla-Anabaena inoculated to rice at field conditions showed yield increase1.5 t/ha
which is 50% higher than control field.SimilarlyCyanobacteria, Azotobacter,
R.leguminosarum inoculated field showed yield increase 29%,20% and 2-22% (Table5)
respectively
Table 5. Increase in rice grain yield and estimated amounts of fixed N2by different
N2fixing systems
N2– Fixators Increase in rice yield Estimated amount
Amount (%) of N2

Azolla-Anabaena 1.5 t ha-1 50 48.2 kg ha-1

Cyanobacteria 1.4 t ha-1 29 24.2 kg ha_1
Azotobactersp 0.4–0.9 t ha-1 7-20 11–15 kg ha-1
Rhizobium leguminosarum 0.6–7.9 g pot-1 2-22 23–31 mg
Source:Ladaha et al., 2004
Phosphorus-solubilizing microorganisms
Microorganisms solubilize P through production of low molecular weight organic acids in
which hydroxyl and carboxyl groups chelate cations that are associated with complexedforms
of P (Ca, Al and Fe) thus rendering phosphate soluble in both basic and acid soils and directly
dissolve mineral phosphates from Al-P and Fe-P complexes as a result of anionexchange of
PO43- with acid anion. The organic acids and proton release mechanisms by microorganisms
also decrease the pH in basic soils and thus solubilize P from the calcium phosphate (Ca-P).

7
Substantial amounts of P solubilized by some selected microbial species/strains as reported
by a number of authors are presented in Table6.
Table6. Phosphorus solubilizing microorganisms
Bacteria Fungi Actinomycetes
Enterobacteraerogenes Aspergillusflavus
Pseudomonas cepacia Penicilliumradicum
Streptomyces
Bacillus licheniformis A. Niger
Micrococcus spp. Penicillium variable
Enterobacterintermedium A. Japonicas

Source: Hayat et al., 2007.

In a study scientist showed that Arthrobactersp. solubilized P about 550 mg/L in their life
time which is higher than that of Aspergillusniger(400 mg/L) ,Chryseobacteriumsp.( 289.8
mg/L),Burkholderiasp.( 167.2 mg/L) andPantoeasp.( 479 mg/L). Substantial amounts of P
solubilized by some selected microbial species/strains as reported by a number of authors are
presented in Table 7.
Table7. Some amounts of P solubilized by selected species of microorganism
Mechanism Amount of P Microbial References
Solubilized (mg/L) species/strains
Production of organic 519.7 Arthrobactersp. Okokoet al.,2007
acids(citric acid and
lactic acid)
Production of organic 400 Aspergillusniger Edwards et al.,2009
acids
Production of organic 293 Enterobacter Gilleret al.,2012
acids cloacae
Production organic 289.8 Chryseobacteriumsp. Sangingaet al.,2012
acids
(citric acid)
Production of acids; 167.2 Burkholderiasp. Oppermanet
al.,2008
Production of organic 479 Pantoeasp. Rannaegymanet
acids al.,2009

8
Phosphorus Mobilization
Microorganisms play critical roles in soil P dynamics including mineralization and
immobilization of organic P. The positive influences of soil microorganisms are on
mineralization of organic P and solubilization of P from its fixed or precipitated forms
including P from rock phosphate.

Fig2.Schematic diagram of soil phosphorus mobilization and immobilization by

bacteria.Source: Khan et al., 2012.

There are many bacteria that amass P from insoluble mineral phosphate substrates. A study
showed that some bacteria such as Bacillus polymyxa ,Pseudomonasstriata ,Bacillus
circulansetc grow on insoluble substrate(Hydroxyapatite) could amass 87,143 and 65ppm P
respectively(Table8)

Table8. Total P accumulation in cultures of different bacterial species grown on

insoluble mineral phosphate substrates

Bacterial strain Substrate Reference

Ca3(PO4)2 Hydroxyapatite Rock
phosphate(ppm)
(ppm) (ppm)
Bacillus polymyxa 116 87 17 Bishop et al.,2009
Pseudomonas striata 156 143 22 Riccioet al.,2008
Burkholderiacepacia 35 Nd Nd Suslovet al.,2003
Rhizobium sp. Nd 300 Nd Kloeppeet al.,2003
Rhizobium meliloti Nd 165 Nd Bishop et al.,2009

Bacillus circulans 11 65 13 Glick et al.,2002

Source: www.bashanfoundation.org

9
Effect of Bacillus sp. on cotton yield and plant height

Phosphate solubilizing Bacillus sp enhanced the seed cotton yield and plant height (Table 9).
The highest seed cotton yield was produced with Bacillus inoculation (1733.3 kg ha-1) at 90
kg P ha-1. Bacterial inoculation produced higher seed cotton yield at all P levels compared to
their general control condition. Similarly, bacterial inoculation produced also higher plant
height than their usual controls. Data regarding NP content in cotton leaves was put on (Table
10). Inoculation with Bacillus sp produced highest N-content (1.707%) at 90 kg P ha-1.
Higher N and P-content in cotton leaves was observed with inoculated treatments as
compared to un-inoculated ones.

Table9. Inoculation effect ofBacillus sp. on seed yield and plant height of cotton

Treatments Seed cotton Yield (kg ha-1) Plant Height (cm)

kg P ha-1 Un-inoculated Inoculated Un-inoculated Inoculated

30 1377.7 1489.0 152.5 156.5

60 1544.3 1666.7 154.5 158.7
90 1611.3 1733.3 157.2 160.2
Source: Qureshiet al., 2012

Table10. Inoculation effect of Bacillus sp. on NP content in cotton leaves

Treatments N-content (%) P-content (%)

kg P ha-1 Un-inoculated Inoculated Un-inoculated Inoculated
30 1.627 1.660 0.227 0.243
60 1.660 1.683 0.250 0.273
90 1.670 1.707 0.257 0.277
Source: Qureshiet al., 2012

Inoculation with Bacillus sp enhanced the availability of P at every case than un-inuculated
treatments.

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 Fig3.
Available P status after 30 days of sowing cotton (inoculated with Bacillus sp).

Effects of PSRB and AMF inoculation on tomato plant

PSRB and AMF significantly enhanced the growth of tomato plant and increase uptake of P
(Table 11).PSRB and AMF inoculation produced higher growth and P uptake compared to
their general control. Inoculation with PSRB+AMFtogetherly produced highest P-content in
both shoot(134.41g/plant) and root(16.7g/plant) (Table11).
Table11.Effects of Enterobacteragglomerans (PSRB) and Glomus.etunicatum (AMF)
inoculation on tomato plant growth and P uptake (75 days after inoculation)
Treatment Shoot dry weight (g Root dry weight (g Total P (g per plant)
per plant) per plant)

Shoot Root
Control 4221 429 11.6 2.5
PSRB 4849 510 12.5 3.2
AMF 4762 557 13.7 3.6
PSRB + AMF 54,56 6,77 27.44 16.7
Source: Kim Kim et al, 2009.
Fertility improvement by micorrhizal fungi

Mycorrhizas are refers to mutually beneficial associations of fungi with roots. Mycorrhizas
are very important in the uptake of nutrients such as P, N, K, Cu, Zn and Ca by plants
especially in soil where these nutrients are present in low amount. P is the most limiting

11
nutrient in tropical soils, mycorrhizas are very important for improving P nutrition
particularly for that soil. The thin mycorrhizal hyphae are able to penetrate soil pores (Kirkby
and Mengel, 2009). Studies have shown that the heavily mycorrhizal root of cassava enables
it to grow well in phosphate-deficient soils where other crops fail to grow (Wild, 1993). In
alkaline soils, mycorrhiza have ability to prevent iron and manganese deficiencies.

Fig4. Showing mycorrhizal association

Source: Igual,2013

Shoot dry weight enhanced when the Cassia plants treated with mycorrhiza at a range of soil

P levels than non-mycorrhizal treatment.

Fig5.Response curve was produced by growing mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal plants

Cassia at a range of soil P levels.

Source: Sharma et al., 2009

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Table12. Mycorrhiza increase soil fertility by

Direct positive effects upon Lessen negative effects from

 Uptake of immobile nutrients  Root pathogens
 Drought tolerance  Leaching loss of nutrients
 Soil macroaggregates formation  Microbial immobilization of nutrients
and stabilization
 Soil organic matter
Source: Sharma et al., 2009
A study showed that wheat plant treated with Mycorrhiza absorbed higher rate of both macro
and micro nutrients than non Mycorrhizal wheat plant (Table13).
Table13. AR (μg mg-1) of macroelements (P, Ca and Mg) and microelements (Cu, Zn
and Mn) in mycorrhizal (+M) and nonmycorrhizal (-M) wheat plants

AM Macro elements Micro elements

P Ca Mg Zn Cu Mn
-M 0.47 7.10 2.22 0.026 0.013 0.047
+M 0.58 7.20 2.24 0.044 0.015 0.049
Source: Cornejoet al., 2008

Scientist showed that mycorrhiza are the effective nontoxifier of soil pollutants. There are
several mechanisms such Phytoextraction and Phytostabilization are used by mycorrhiza
during non toxification of pollutants such as As Cd, Cu, Pb etc. (Table14).

Table14.Mycorrhiza mediated nontoxification of some inorganic pollutants in soils their

mechanisms.
Pollutant Mechanism Reference
As Phytoextraction Trottaet al., 2006

Cd Phytostabilization owskaet al., 2012

Cu Phytostabilization Cheng et al., 2007

Pb Phytostabilization Janouskovaet al., 2006

Source: British Microbiology Research Journal, 3(4): 724-742, 2013

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Actinomycetes
Actinomycetesare necessary for the breakdown of certain components in organic
matter.Frankiais a genus of actinomycetes. They form nitrogen-fixing root nodules with
several woody plants of different families.

Fig6. Tree bearing the orange-yellow coloured nodules (arrowheads) containing Frankias
Source: Siddique., 2008

Microorganisms act as a pool of nutrients

Organic matter acts as nutrient reservoir for the plants. One of the most important pools of
organic matter is the microbial biomass. The microbial biomass is a relatively available
reservoir of plant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus (Marumoto, 2006). Although the
size of the microbial biomass is relatively small (e.g., its nitrogen content constitutes only 1
to 5 percent of the total organic nitrogen in soil), the nutrients within this pool are recycled
rapidly within the soil profile, perhaps 8 to 10 times per year (Coleman, 2007). The amount
of nitrogen in microbial biomass in agricultural soils ranges from 36 to 344 pounds per acre
(40 to 385 kg/ha) (Paul and Vorone , 2006).

Microorganisms act as agents of change

The major groups ofsoil microorganisms are bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Bacteria and fungi
are responsible for the conversion of organic compoundsto their mineral components, a
processcalled mineralization. The mineralizers includemicrobes that split complex and large

14
plant moleculesintosmaller molecules. Many other agriculturally important functionsare
carried out by soil microorganisms. Important groups include the nitrifying bacteria
(Nitrosolobus, Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas) that are involved in the conversion of ammonium
to nitrate. This conversion makes the nitrogen more available for plants. Mycorrhizal fungi
make phosphorus more accessible to plants.
Involvement of Microorganisms in the Composting Process
Composting is a controlled decomposition of organic residues or waste to a state in which the
composted material can be safely handled, stored and/or applied to land without adverse
effects to the environment. It is a process that creates humus like organic materials.
Composting mainly happensbecause of microbial activities. Microbes decompose organic
materials through production of various extracellular enzymes such as peptidases, cellulases,
hemicellulases and pectinases.(Table15) presents results of the impacts of compost use on
yields of different crops inEthiopia.
Table15. Average yields by treatment with compost in kg/ha for 5 crops
Crop Average yields (kg/ha)
Check Compost
Barley 1115 2349
Wheat 1228 2494
Maize 1760 3748
Sorghum 1338 2497
Field pea 1527 1964
Source: Kennedy., 2012
Role of microorganisms in removing heavy metals

Microorganisms play vital roles in removing heavy metals which are harmful for plant and
also for human health. They detoxify heavy metals by breaking down their bonds and convert
into simpler molecules which are nontoxic both for plants and animals. They also remove
toxic heavy metals by direct uptake from the soil.They uptake heavy metals upto 10-170% of
their dry weight (Table16).

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Table16. Microorganisms and uptake of heavy metals

Microorganisms Elements Uptake(% dry weight)

Citrobacter spp. Co and Ni 25 and 13
Bacillus spp. Cd 170
Chlorella vulgaris Zn and Cu 15 and 14
Rhizopusarrhizus Au 10
Aspergillusniger Hg 58

Source: Kennedy et al., 2013

Toxic pesticides degradation by microbes
A substantial decline of the residual lindane at different inoculum concentrations was
observed within 0-2 weeks of incubation whereas the compound did not disappear from the
uninoculated sterile control. Maximal pesticide depletion (56.0%) was observed at 4gcells
Kg-1soil (Table17)

Table17. Effect of inoculum size on the lindane removal by Streptomyces sp.in sterile
soil samples, after 4 weeks of incubation

Inoculum size g Kg-1soil Lindane removal (%)

0.5 24.4
1.0 30.0
2.0 45.8
4.0 56.0

Source: Benson et al., 2011

Biofertilizer and soil fertility improvement

Indiscriminate use of synthetic fertilizers has led to the pollution and contamination of the
soil, has polluted water basins, destroyed microorganisms and friendly insects, making the
crop more prone to diseases and reduced soil fertility.Depleting feedstock/fossil fuels (energy
crisis) and increasing cost of fertilizers. This is becoming unaffordable by small and marginal
farmers, depleting soil fertility due to widening gap between nutrient removal and supplies,
growing concern about environmental hazards, increasing threat to sustainable agriculture.
Besides above facts, the long term use of biofertilizers is economical, ecofriendly, more
efficient, productive and accessible to marginal and small farmers over chemical fertilizers.

16
Table 18. Some commonly used biofertilizers with their active ingredient

Products Active Ingredient Use

ENRHIZO Rhizobium sp. Atmospheric nitrogen fixation for legumes.
ENFOSFO-P Bacillus polymyxa Converts non-available form of phosphorus to
available form.
ENPOTASH Frateuriaaurantia Mobilize potash and make available to roots.
ENSULF Thiobacillusferrooxidans Enhances sulphur availability to plants.
ENZINC Thiobacillusthiooxidans Mobilize zinc and make available to roots.
ENFER Acidithiobacillus Mobilizes Ferrous in Soil
Source:Mohammadi, 2012

Seed yield increased drastically when rhizobia biofertilizer applied in the soybean field. Yield
response increased as the P application increased.

Fig7. Response of a soybean crop in Hawaii to inoculation with rhizobia biofertilizer with
various levels of phosphorus fertilizer added.

Source :Uchidaet al.,2008.

17
Biofertlizer Saves Chemical Fertilizer
A study conducted at Gujarat in India showed that a huge amount N and P saved when
biofertilizer applied in the crop fields (Table19). 20-40 kg N/ha saved when
Azotobacterchroococcumapplied in sorghum field. The highest N (100 kg N) saved by the
application of Acetobacterdiazotrophicusin sugarcane fields. 20-50kg P2O5 saved

whenBacilluscirculans applied in the cowpea field (Table19).

Table19.Fertilizer saved when biofertilizer applied and their recommended crops

Type Biofertilizer Recommended Crop Fertilizer Saving/ ha

Azollapinnata(fresh) Low land rice 30-50 kg N

Azotobacterchroococcum Pearl millet, sorghum 20-40 kg N

BGA Low land rice 30-50 kg N

N fixers

Rhizobium spp. Pigeon pea and 30-50 kg N

Chickpea
Azospirillumlipoferum Maize and sesame 20-40 kg N

Acetobacterdiazotrophicus Sugarcane 100 kg N

Bacillus circulans Cow pea

Bacillus brevis
Wheat
Bacillus coagulans Sorghum
PSM 20-50kg P2O5
Maize
Torulopsoraglobosa

Source: Bastaet al., 2010

Carbon Sequestration

Atmospheric carbon-di-oxide is increasing due to human sources of carbon dioxide emissions

,industrialrevolution,destroy of forest,burning of coal,gas,fossil fuel etc.So scientists are
trying to invent the way of removal of extra carbon from the earth. And the carbon
sequestration is the most accepted way. Plant use carbon dioxide from atmosphere for
photosynthesis and emit carbon di oxide by respiration.

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 Fig8: Plant associated microorganism and carbon

When input of carbon in plant is higher than the output of carbon by plant then net carbon
sequestration is occurred. In soil carbon is stored as soil organic carbon as a part of soil
organic matter.

Soil carbon sequestration is a process in which carbon dioxide is removed from atmosphere
and stored in the soil carbon pool.Carbon sequestration is mediated by soil microbes. Where
the mcobial mass is higher, c sequestration is higher in that soil than the soil which have less
microbial mass.Microbial mass is influenced by land management,plant diversity and also
influenced carbon storage in soil.Soil under organic farming condition accumulate more
carbon than soil under conventional farming condition,even though organically farmed soil
may be tilled frequently and incorporated with more less carbon rich residues.

It also found that higher biodiversity of plants increase the root mass which is responsible for
higher soil microbes. And higher soil microbes accumulate higher carbon than bare land or
less vegeted area.(source;USDA-funded research at Michigan State University‟s Kellogg
Biological Station)

Carbon Sequester Micorrhizal fungi

These fungi are associated with plant roots and getssuger from root exudation.They use
sugers and help plants to uptake more water and nutrients. By eating sugersmicorrhizal fungi
deposits carbon containing residues in surrounding soil. Ectomiccorhizal fungi help to store
50%- 70%carbon in soil(Averill,c,et al)

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 Fig9: Fruting body ectomicorrhizal fungi from genus Amantia

Sequester BacteriaThere are some aerobic bacteria such as

Knallgasbacteria(chemolithoautotrophs). As a carbon source some anaerobic bacteria and
archaea(e.g., acetogenicbacteria,carbonmoxideutilizer,methanogenogens) use carbon dioxide
and can fix C.

Humification

If photosynthesis is higher than the plant and microbes respiration then more carbon will get
stored in humas by humification process. Humas is a stableproduct which is produced by
organic matter degradation by microbes. Carbon can persist in carbon rich humas for long
periods.

Fig10: Soil carbon storage by Humification

20
Challenges Faced in Exploiting Soil Microorganisms
There are a number of factors that derail maximization of beneficial microbial activities.
Apart from climatic factors, there are a number of anthropogenic or social factors that affect
biological functions and soil productivity. Chianuet al. noted the following some of the main
challenges faced in exploiting beneficial activities of soil microorganisms for improving soil
fertility and productivity:
 Absence or very weak institutions, policy and budgetary support for research.
 Limited knowledge of inoculation.
 Poorly developed marketing channels and infrastructure and limited involvement of
the private sector in the distribution of inoculants.
 Limited farmer awareness about and access to inoculants.
 Lack of development of technology in this field.

21
 CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSIONS

From this review it is noted that soil microorganisms have a huge contribution in soil fertility
and carbon sequestration. This is achieved through a number of ways. Biological nitrogen
fixation is an economically attractive and ecologically sound route for augmenting nutrient
supply. The commonly reported Rhizobium/legume symbiosis contributes substantial
amounts of biologically fixednitrogen to cropping systems and significantly benefits crops
that follow in rotation. Soilmicroorganisms such as bacteria and fungi contribute to plant
phosphorus nutrition throughsolubilization of fixed or precipitated phosphorus from
complexes with Al and Fe in acidicsoils and calcium complexes in alkaline soils. Phosphate
solubilizing rhizospheric bacteria has a high potential to be used in the management of P
deficient soils.
Mycorrhizal associations are reported to contribute to plantphosphorus nutrition through
increasing root surface area for soil exploration, production ofphosphorus solubilizing
enzymes and organic acids. Mycorrhizal fungi and bacteria alsosolubilize other nutrients such
as zinc, copper, and calcium.Microorganisms also contributeto soil fertility improvements
through their roles in composting. Soil microorganisms arecurrently isolated, studied and
packaged as biofertilizers and used to supplement chemicalfertilizers.The relevance of
biofertilizers is increasing rapidly since chemical fertilizers (nitrogenous fertilizers) damage
the environment. In contrast, biofertilizers lead to soil enrichment and are compatible with
long-term sustainability. Further they are ecofriendly and pose no danger to the
environmentAgain,SOC is a vital components of soil and have important on terrestrial
ecosystem. From interaction amongthe dynamic ecological processes of
photosynthesis,respiration,decomposition which are mediated by microbes ,net carbon are
store in soil. Carbon dioxide is increased greatly by human activities,but now human
activities provide an opportunity for sequestering carbon back into soil. Carbon sequestration
also improve soil quality by maintaining and increasing soil organic matter adds to soil
fertility, water retention and crop production. It can be noted that thorough exploitation of
microbial activities can contribute tobalanced fertilization and carbon storage for long term
which help in improving long term soil health.

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