Anatomy and Physiology LEC • Examples: stomach, heart, liver, ovary, bladder, kidney

Chapter 1: The Human Organism Lecture Outline 5. Organ-System:

Anatomy and Physiology • group of organs contributing to some function

Anatomy: • for example, digestive system, reproductive system

• investigates body structure 6. Organism:

• the term means to dissect • all organ systems working together

Physiology: • includes associated microorganisms such as intestinal

bacteria
• processes and functions
Characteristics of Life
Human Physiology:
1. Organization:
• studies the human organism
• functional interrelationships between parts
Systemic Physiology:
2. Metabolism:
• studies body organ-systems
• sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an
Cellular Physiology: organism

• studies body cells • ability to acquire and use energy in support of these
changes
Importance of Anatomy and Physiology
3. Responsiveness:
Understand how the body:
• ability to sense and respond to environmental changes
• responds to stimuli
• includes both internal and external environments
• environmental changes
4. Growth:
• environmental cues
• can increase in size
• diseases
• size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials
• injury
5. Development:
Types of Anatomy
• changes in form and size
 Systemic: studies body organ-systems
 Regional: studies body regions (medical schools) 6. Differentiation
 Surface: studies external features, for example, bone
projections • changes in cell structure and function from generalized to
 Anatomical imaging: using technologies (x-rays, ultrasound, specialized
MRI)
7. Reproduction:
Structural and Functional Organization 1
• formation of new cells or new organisms
Six levels from chemical to organism:
• generation of new individuals
1. Chemical:
• tissue repair
• smallest level
Homeostasis
• atoms, chemical bonds, molecules
• maintenance of constant internal environment despite
2. Cellular: fluctuations in the external or internal environment

• cells: basic units of life • Variables: measures of body properties that may change in
value
• compartments and organelles • Examples of variables: body temperature, heart rate, blood
pressure, blood glucose levels, blood cell counts, respiratory
• examples of organelles: mitochondria, nucleus rate
3. Tissues: • Normal range: normal extent of increase or decrease around a
set point
• group of cells with similar structure and function plus
extracellular substances they release • Set point: normal, or average value of a variable
• four broad types: • Over time, body temperature fluctuates around a set point
o Epithelial • Set points for some variables can be temporarily adjusted
a. Connective depending on body activities, as needed:
b. Muscular
c. Nervous Negative feedback is the main mechanism used homeostatic
regulation.
4. Organs:
• A negative feedback response involves:
• Two or more tissue types acting together to perform detection: of deviation away from set point and
function(s)
 • correction: reversal of deviation toward set point and normal • Transverse plane: a horizontal plane that separates the
range body into superior and inferior parts.
• The components of feedback:
• Frontal plane: a vertical plane that separates the body into
• Receptor: detects changes in variable anterior and posterior parts.

• Control center: Body Cavities

1. receives receptor signal  Dorsal Body cavity: Encloses the organs of the nervous system
 Cranial cavity: Contains the brain
2. establishes set point  Vertebral Canal: Contains the spinal cord
 Ventral Body cavity:Contains the majority of internal organs
3. sends signal to effector (viscera)
• Effector: • Divided into:
1. directly causes change in variable o Thoracic cavity
Positive feedback mechanisms occur when the initial stimulus
o Abdominopelvic cavity
further stimulates the response
• Abdominopelvic cavity divided into:
• system response causes progressive deviation away from
o Abdominal cavity
• set point, outside of normal range

• not directly used for homeostasis Thoracic cavity:

• some positive feedback occurs under normal conditions • space within chest wall and diaphragm
Example: childbirth
• contains heart, lungs, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea
• generally associated with injury, disease
Mediastinum:
• negative feedback mechanisms unable to maintain
• space between lungs
homeostasis
• contains heart, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea
Terminology and the Body Plan
Abdominal cavity:
Anatomical position:
• space between diaphragm and pelvis
• person standing erect with face and palms forward
• contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys
• all relational descriptions based on the anatomical position,
regardless of body orientation Pelvic cavity:
Directional Terms • space within pelvis
• Superior: above • contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, part of large
• Inferior: below intestine
• Anterior: front (also: ventral)
• Posterior: back (also: dorsal) Serous Membranes
• Note: In four-legged animals, the terms ventral (belly) and
dorsal (back) correspond to anterior and posterior in  Line trunk cavities, cover organs in the ventral body cavity.
humans  Structure:

• Medial: close to midline o visceral serous membrane covers organs

• Lateral: away from midline o parietal serous membrane lines the walls of the cavities

• Proximal: close to point of attachment o cavity - a fluid-filled space between the membranes

• Distal: far from point of attachment  Serous membranes are named after the cavities they are in.

• Superficial: structure close to the surface

Body Regions

Upper limbs: Pericardial Cavity

• upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand Pericardium

Lower limbs: • visceral pericardium covers heart

• thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot • parietal pericardium thick, fibrous

Central region: • pericardial cavity reduces friction

• head, neck, trunk Pleura and Pleural Cavity

Body Planes Pleura

• Sagittal plane: separates the body into right and left parts • visceral pleura covers lungs

• Median plane: a sagittal plane along the midline that • parietal pleura lines inner wall of thorax
divides body into equal left and right halves
• pleural cavity
 o reduces friction  Flow occurs from high to low concentration unless prevented by
resistance
o adheres lungs to thoracic wall
Passive Transport
Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity
 Movement does not require energy
Peritoneum  Requires a concentration gradient
 Two forms:
• visceral peritoneum  Simple diffusion: molecules move from higher to lower
concentration without the use of membrane proteins
o covers, anchors organs
 Facilitated diffusion: molecules move from higher to lower
concentration through membrane proteins
o double layers called mesenteries
Examples of Diffusion (Figure 4.6)
• parietal peritoneum lines inner wall of abdominopelvic cavity
Everyday examples of diffusion:
• peritoneal cavity reduces friction
 Perfume diffuses across a room
peritoneal fluid, and organs surrounded by visceral peritoneum.
 Sugar molecules dissolve in coffee
Chapter 4.1: The Cell Membrane and Its Involvement in Transport  Dye diffuses through water

Structure of the Cell Membrane Simple Diffusion Across a Cell Membrane (Figure 4.5)

 Separates the cell’s internal environment from the external  Small, nonpolar molecules can pass through the cell membrane
environment  Diffusion continues until a net equilibrium is reached
 Regulates the movement of materials into and out of the cell  Diffusion occurs faster at higher temperatures
 Composed of phospholipids, cholesterol, carbohydrates, and
Facilitated Diffusion Across a Cell Membrane (Figure 4.7)
proteins
 Flexible, dynamic structure  Requires assistance of transmembrane proteins
 Molecules still move down concentration gradient
Major structural component of the cell membrane
 Used for molecules that cannot diffuse through the cell
 Amphipathic molecules membrane
 Hydrophilic (“water-loving”) phosphate heads  Such as polar or ionic molecules
 Hydrophobic (“water-fearing”) fatty acid tails
Osmosis
 Arranged into a bilayer (two layers)
 Phosphate heads face internal and external environments  The movement of water across the cell membrane
 Fatty acid tails create hydrophobic region within bilayer  Water moves from areas of lower solute to higher solute
concentration
Phospholipid Structure (Figure 4.1)
 Hypotonic solution—less solute outside of cell
 Amphipathic molecule  Water enters cells when they are in hypotonic solutions
 Hydrophilic head contains a phosphate group and is attracted to  Hypertonic solution—more solute outside of cell
water  Water will leave cells in hypertonic solutions
 Hydrophobic tails are nonpolar and repelled by water
Water Molecule Concentration (Figure 4.8)
 Organized into a bilayer to form biological membranes
 Osmosis depends on the ratio of solute molecules to water
Cell Membrane Structure (Figure 4.3)
 Water will move from areas of lower solute concentration to
 Selectively permeable barrier areas of higher solute concentration
 Composed mainly of phospholipid bilayer
Osmosis Across a Membrane (Figure 4.9)
 Intracellular fluid (ICF) inside of cell
 Also called cytosol  Water moves across a semipermeable membrane toward the
 Extracellular fluid (ECF) outside of cell area with a higher solute concentration (i.e., lower water
 Proteins also associate with cell membrane concentration)
 Solution Comparisons (Figure 4.10)
Membrane Proteins (1 of 2)
 Isosmotic solutions have equal concentrations of solute
 Proteins associated with cell membrane add functionality  A hyperosmotic solution contains more solute by comparison
 Serve as channel proteins, receptors, enzymes, and in cell–cell  A hypoosmotic solution contains less solute by comparison
recognition  Tonicity describes the osmolarity of the ECF compared to the
 Transmembrane, or integral, proteins cytosol of the cell
 Span the entire width of the cell membrane
Effect of Tonicity on Cells (Figure 4.11)
 Peripheral proteins
 Do not span the membrane  An isotonic solution has equal water concentration across the
 Attached to the interior or exterior of the membrane cell membrane
 Glycoproteins = proteins that have carbohydrate molecules  Cell functions normally
attached  A hypertonic solution contains more solutes in the environment
 Aid in cell recognition  Cell shrinks
 Glycocalyx is formed by numerous glycoproteins  A hypotonic solution contains fewer solutes in the environment
 Only present in some cells  Cell swells and may burst
 Can serve as receptors for hormones and a means to bind to
other cells Active Transport
 Helps break down nutrients
 Requires energy to move molecules against their concentration
Transport Across the Cell Membrane (Figure 4.4) gradient
 From areas of lower concentration to areas of higher
 Cell membrane is selectively permeable concentration
 Allows only small, nonpolar molecules to pass freely  Primary active transport—uses ATP as energy source
 Molecules able to pass will flow across the membrane if there is  Secondary active transport—uses electrochemical gradient as
a gradient energy source
  Symporters—move two molecules in the same direction The Cytoskeleton (Figure 4.19)
 Antiporters—move two molecules in opposite directions
 Helps maintain the structure of the cell
Sodium-Potassium Pump (Figure 4.12)  Organizes cytoplasm
 Aids in separation during cellular division
 Common example of primary active transport  Composed of protein filaments that provide support
 Uses ATP to move 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 1. Microtubules—made of tubulin
potassium ions into the cell, against their concentration 2. Intermediate filaments—made of keratin
gradients 3. Microfilaments—made of actin

Endocytosis Dynamic Nature of the Cytoskeleton (Figure 4.20)

 A form of active transport  Cytoskeleton is not fixed

 Uses the cell membrane to engulf materials  Cytoskeletal components form and can move depending on
 Cell membrane pinches off to form a vesicle and material enters needs of the cell
cell  Helps move molecules and structures around interior of cell

Forms of Endocytosis (Figure 4.13) Cell Surface Specializations (Figure 4.21)

 Phagocytosis: extends the cell membrane to bring in large  Microvilli help increase surface area of the cell
molecules  Cilia aid in movement of the cell or movement across the
 Pinocytosis: membrane invagination brings in small amounts of surface of the cell
fluid containing dissolved substances  Flagella are long appendages used for movement
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis: more selective
o Ligand binds to membrane receptor for cellular entry Section 4.3: Nucleus and DNA

Exocytosis (Figure 4.14) Organization of the Nucleus (Figure 4.22)

 The process of a cell exporting material, or cell secretion  Nucleus houses the DNA of the cell
 Vesicle fuses with cell membrane  Most human cells have a single nucleus.
 Contents are released from cell  Nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope.
 Hormones and digestive enzymes secreted this way  Nuclear pores allow small molecules to move into and out of
nucleus.
Section 4.2: The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles  Nucleolus within nucleus is involved in ribosome production.

Internal Components of Cells

 Major components of the inside of cells include: Nucleic Acids Found in Human Cells (Table 4.1)
 Cytoplasm—the fluid-like interior of cells including its
compartments and organelles  Nucleic acids found in a healthy human cell include DNA,
 Organelles—membrane-bound structures that perform specific mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
functions  DNA is storage form of genome
 Cytosol – the gel-like substance within the cytoplasm  mRNA is used in translation of proteins
 Contains organelles and molecules needed by cell  tRNA moves amino acids during translation
 rRNA is structural component of ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (Figure 4.16)
Nucleotide Bases of DNA (Figure 4.23)
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)—series of channels continuous
with the nuclear membrane; provides passages for synthesis,  DNA has a double-helix structure formed by hydrogen bonds
transportation and storage between nucleotide bases.
 Rough ER—contains ribosomes  The four nucleotide bases of DNA are:
 Involved in protein synthesis  Adenine (A)
 Smooth ER—lacks ribosomes  Thymine (T)
 Involved in lipid synthesis  Cytosine (C) and
 Guanine (G)
Golgi Apparatus (Figure 4.17)  Adenine forms a double bond with thymine.
 Cytosine forms a triple bond with guanine.
 The Golgi Apparatus—series of flattened sacs
 Sorts and modifies products from rough ER for transport Organization of DNA (Figure 4.24)
 Cis-face receives products for modification
 Trans-face releases products after modification  DNA strands are wrapped around histone proteins for
organization
Membranous Organelles for Detoxification and Energy Production  Chromatin is the loose form of DNA
 Chromatin is packaged during replication to form chromosomes
 Lysosomes—membrane-bound vesicles that contain digestive
enzymes Section 4.4: Protein Synthesis
 Used to break down wastes within cell
 Peroxisomes—contain enzymes used to produce hydrogen Protein Synthesis within the Cell
peroxide
 Used for detoxification and lipid metabolism  DNA contains the genetic code of the cell
 Mitochondria—site of aerobic respiration  Genetic code provides the instructions to produce cellular
 Responsible for nutrient breakdown and ATP production proteins
 Protein production begins in the nucleus and ends in the
cytoplasm
 Genes are transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA)
Mitochondria (Figure 4.18)  Gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a protein
 mRNA is then translated into proteins
 “Energy transformer” of the cell
 Lined by 2 bilayers Making Proteins from DNA (Figure 4.25)
 Outer membrane
 Inner membrane is folded into cristae  Proteome is a cell’s full complement of proteins
 More numerous in muscle and nerves  Genes contain information necessary to make proteins
 DNA is transcribed to mRNA
  mRNA is then translated to proteins DNA Replication

Transcription (Figure 4.26)  The process of copying DNA

 Occurs during the S phase of the cell cycle
 Process of creating a strand of messenger RNA (mRNA) from a  Three phases:
DNA template 1. Initiation: the DNA strands are separated by helicase
 Occurs within the nucleus of the cell 2. Elongation: the DNA polymerase synthesizes a new strand
 Complementary mRNA is made from a gene of one strand of 3. Termination: the DNA replication stops
DNA
 mRNA will leave the nucleus for translation Chromatin—the linear form of DNA

The Process of Transcription  Condensed into chromosomes during replication

 Replicated copy is called a sister chromatid
Three stages of transcription:  Sister chromatids are attached at a centromere
 Chromatids separate during mitosis
1. Initiation – DNA strands are separated and RNA  Makes sure each daughter cell has a complete copy of DNA
polymerase begins to synthesize complementary RNA
molecule Phases of Nucleic Acid Processes (Table 4.2)
2. Elongation – RNA polymerase continues to add
nucleotides to growing strand  Transcription, translation, and replication are each divided into 3
3. Termination – RNA polymerase reaches end of gene and steps:
mRNA transcript is released o Initiation
o Elongation
Creating a Mature mRNA Transcript (Figure 4.27) o Termination
 Before leaving nucleus, mRNA transcript is modified
Mitosis
 DNA contains regions that do not code for amino acids
 Called introns  Cell replication consists of four major phases, followed by
 Regions that code for amino acids are called exons cytokinesis:
 Introns must be removed before mRNA leaves nucleus  Prophase: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the
centrioles migrate to opposite sides of the cell.
 Metaphase: Chromatids align in the middle of the cell.
Translation  Anaphase: Chromatids separate and move toward the opposite
sides of the cell.
 Process of creating a protein from a mRNA template  Telophase: Nucleoli and nuclear membranes start to form, and
 Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell chromosomes return to chromatin form
 Carried out by ribosomes  Cytokinesis: Cleavage furrow divides cell into two distinct cells.
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)—component of ribosomes
 Each three nucleotide sequences of mRNA is a codon. Factors That Regulate Cell Division (Figure 4.34)
 Ribosomes read codons.
 Cellular division is regulated by:
 Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to ribosomes.
 Growth factors like hormones
 tRNA contains anticodons that match specific mRNA codons.
 Contact inhibition
 Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to form proteins.
 If cell is surrounded, it won’t divide
The Process of Translation (Figure 4.28)  Increasing efficiency
 Larger cells are less efficient
 Initiation – ribosome subunits attach to start codon of mRNA
transcript Section 4.6: Cellular Differentiation
 Elongation – tRNA molecules are attracted to the ribosome and
Cellular Differentiation (Figure 4.35)
deliver the corresponding amino acids to the growing
polypeptide  The cells of the human body develop from a single cell.
 Termination – translation continues until ribosome reaches a  Cells become specialized for a specific function through
“stop” codon that ends the process differentiation.
 Stem cells are undifferentiated yet can become required cell
Section 4.5: Cell Replication
types.
The Cell Cycle (Figure 4.29)
Stem Cells
 Three phases: Interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis
 Stem cells can differentiate into specific cell types.
 The cell spends most of its time in interphase
 Specific genes are turned on during differentiation.
 Interphase is split into:
 Transcription factors turn on necessary genes.
1. G1 phase—cell grows, makes proteins, and carries out
 Turning specific genes on in stem cells produces certain
cellular functions
proteins needed for the differentiated cell’s function.
2. S phase—cell replicates its DNA
3. G2 phase—cell prepares for mitosis 

 Anatomy and Physiology, 1e

Chapter 5: The Tissue Level of Organization

Cellular Replication Section 5.1: Types and Components of Tissues
 Cellular replication occurs as the parent cell divides to form two Levels of Organization (Figure 5.1)
daughter cells
 Mitosis occurs in somatic cells  Tissues are groups of cells that function together in
 Daughter cells are identical to parent cell the body
 Cells contain 46 chromosomes or the diploid number o Histology = microscopic study of the
 Meiosis occurs for reproductive cells appearance, function, and organization of
 Resulting cells have half the amount of genetic material from tissues
one parent and half from the other parent o Pathology = study of changes that occur with
 Cells contain 23 chromosomes or the haploid number disease
Tissues Section 5.2: Epithelial Tissue

 A tissue is a group of cells that performs a specific Characteristics of Epithelia

function.
 Histology is the study of tissue structure, organization,  Form coverings, linings, and glands
and function.  Basement membrane anchors epithelia to ECM
 Four main types of tissue make up the human body. (extracellular matrix)
 Pathology is the study of changes associated with  Two surfaces of epithelia:
disease of tissues. o Basal surface—attached to basement membrane
o Apical surface—exposed to external
Tissue Types (Figure 5.2) environment or internal space
 Avascular
 The four types of tissue in the body are:  Highly regenerative
1. Epithelial tissue—form coverings, linings,
and glands Anatomy of Epithelia
2. Connective tissue—protection and support
3. Muscle tissue—provides movement  Epithelia are:
4. Nervous tissue—allows communication o Highly cellular
o Polar (apical and basal surface)
General Features of Tissues o Avascular
o Innervated
 Extracellular matrix (ECM)—material found outside of
a tissue o Bound to basement membrane
 Major components:
The Epithelial Cell (Figure 5.4)
o Collagen—tough, protective protein fibers
o Proteoglycans—negatively charged  Apical and basal membranes may have different
protein/carbohydrate molecules functions
o Cellular connections—attachments between  Apical surface modifications
cells o Cilia – move materials across surface
• Tight junctions—allow no movement of o Microvilli – increase surface area
substances between cells
• Desmosomes—flexible connections that Cells of Epithelia (Figure 5.5)
allow some movement of substances
between cells  Epithelial tissue is named after its shape and number
• Gap junctions—passageways that allow of layers of cells on the apical surface
movement of certain substances between  Based on shape:
the cells 1. Squamous—flat cells
2. Cuboidal—box-shaped cells
Cellular Connections (Figure 5.3) 3. Columnar—column-like cells
 Based on number of layers:
 Cells can be connected by: 1. Simple—one layer of cells
o Tight junctions – fuse membranes of adjacent 2. Stratified—two or more layers of cells
cells 3. Pseudostratified—one layer of cells that
o Desmosomes – provide strong, flexible appears like more
connections between cells
• Hemidesmosomes connect cells to ECM Epithelia That Defy Naming Convention (Figure 5.6)
o Gap junctions – allow for intercellular
passageways between cells  Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
o May appear stratified
Preparing Tissues for Examination o All cells touch basement membrane because
there is only a single layer
 Tissues must be carefully prepared for examination  Transitional epithelium
 Multiple factors influence the appearance of a tissue o Stratified tissue
o Plane of section o Cells stretch and change shape
o Stain used during preparation  Goblet Cells (Figure 5.7)
o Common feature of simple and pseudostratified
Planes Influence Appearance
epithelia
 Same structure may appear differently depending on o Secrete mucus
the plane of the section  Stratified Epithelia (Figure 5.8)
o Sagittal plane o Contain more than one layer of cells
o Transverse plane o Cells of basal layer are stem cells that
o Oblique plane regenerate cells into apical layers
o Basal layer cells may be different in shape from
Cutting Tissues for Examination apical layer cells
o Tissue is named based on shape of cells in
 Special blade is used to cut tissues apical layer
 Cut into thin slices for examination  Simple Squamous Epithelium (Table 5.1, 1 of 4)
o Consists of a single layer of flat cells
Tissues Placed on Slides
o Found in the air sacs of lungs, the lining of the
 Thin slices of tissue are placed on slides heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels
o Allows materials to pass through by diffusion and
Tissues are Stained for Examination filtration
o Secretes lubricating substances
 Many tissues are stained prior to examination  Simple cuboidal epithelium
o Lines kidney tubules
Results of Various Stains
o Secretes and absorbs substances (Na+, K+,
 Tissues may have different appearances and colors glucose, etc.)
depending on the stain used  Simple columnar epithelium
 o Lines digestive and reproductive tracts o Elastic—provide elasticity
o Secretes and absorbs various materials o Reticular—branching fibers that support internal
 Pseudostratified columnar epithelium organs
o Lines trachea and respiratory tract  Adipocytes—store energy and provide cushioning
o Secretes and moves mucus  White blood cells—provide immune function
 Stratified squamous epithelium  Red blood cells—carry gases such as oxygen and
o Lines esophagus, mouth, vagina carbon dioxide
o Protects against abrasion
Connective Tissue Types (1 of 2) (Table 5.2, 1 of 2)
 Stratified cuboidal epithelium
o Found in sweat glands, salivary glands  Connective tissue proper
o Secretes and protects o Loose connective tissue
 Stratified columnar epithelium 1. Areolar
o Found in male urethra 2. Reticular
o Secretes and protects  Supportive connective tissue
 Transitional epithelium  Hyaline cartilage
o Lines bladder, urethra, and ureters 1. Fibrocartilage
o Allows urinary organs to expand and stretch 2. Elastic cartilage
 Fluid connective tissue
Glands of Epithelia 1. Blood

 Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood Connective Tissue Types (2 of 2) (Table 5.2, 2 of 2)
o Examples: Thymus, pituitary gland, adrenal
glands  Connective tissue proper
o Are ductless o Dense regular connective tissue
 Exocrine glands secrete substances locally through a o Dense irregular connective tissue
duct o Adipose tissue
o Examples: Sweat glands and glands of digestive  Supportive connective tissue
system o Bone
o Secrete mucus, sweat, saliva, and breastmilk  Fluid connective tissue
o Lymph
Exocrine Gland Structure (Figure 5.9)
Loose Connective Tissues (1 of 2) (Figures 5.11 and 5.12)
 Unicellular – single cells
 Multicellular – single layer of cells that fold into  Areolar connective tissue
surrounding tissue o Subcutaneous layer
 Tubular glands form tubes o Supports nearby tissues
 Acinar glands form pockets  Adipose tissue
 Simple glands have one duct o Subcutaneous layer
 Compound glands combine formats  Energy storage, cushioning
 Reticular connective tissue
Exocrine Secretions (Figure 5.10)
o Framework of internal organs
 Merocrine secretion: accomplished by exocytosis o Lymphatic tissues, spleen, liver
 Apocrine secretion: material accumulates near apical
Dense Connective Tissues (Figure 5.14 and 5.15)
surface of gland
 Holocrine secretion: involves rupture and destruction  Dense regular connective tissue
of entire gland cell o Tendons, ligaments
 Serous glands produce watery secretions
 Dense irregular connective tissue
 Mucous glands produce watery to thick secretions
o Skin
Section 5.3: Connective Tissue
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue (Figure 5.14)
Anatomy of Connective Tissue
 Contains a high number of collagen fibers
 Connective tissue consists of cells and the  Fibers oriented in every direction
extracellular matrix (ECM) o Allows tissue to withstand force in any
 Cells rarely touch each other plane
 ECM consists of ground substance and fibers  Found in the dermis of the skin
o Ground substance is between fibers
Dense Regular Connective Tissue (Figure 5.15)
 Vascularized
 Contains a high number of collagen fibers
Classification of Connective Tissues
 Collagen fibers oriented parallel to each other
 Twelve types of connective tissues are separated into o Allows tissue to withstand force in the
three categories: direction of the orientation of the fibers
o Connective tissue proper o Found in ligaments and tendons
o Areolar, adipose, reticular, dense
Cartilage (Figure 5.17)
regular, and dense irregular
connective tissue  Hyaline cartilage
o Supportive connective tissue o Located within joints, ribs
o Hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage, elastic o Most abundant cartilage
cartilage, compact bone, spongy bone  Fibrocartilage
o Fluid connective tissue o Located in intervertebral discs
o Blood and lymph o Strongest cartilage
 Elastic cartilage
Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissues
o Located in external ear
 Fibroblasts produce fibers in the ECM o Most flexible type of cartilage
o Collagen—strongest fibers
Application: The Ribcage (Figure 5.16)
  The ribcage merges two supporting connective tissue Anatomy of Nervous Tissue
types
o Bone makes up most of the ribcage  Nervous tissue makes up the brain, spinal cord, and
o Protects lungs and heart peripheral nerves
o Cartilage allows for expansion during  Neurons conduct action potentials to communicate
with other cells
breathing
 Glial cells support neuronal functioning
The Perichondrium (Figure 5.18)
Neurons and Nervous Tissue (Figure 5.22)
 Made of dense irregular connective tissue
 Neurons generate action potentials
 Encapsulates cartilage within the body
 Anatomical structure of neurons:
Bone (Figure 5.19) o Dendrites—short branches that receive
signals
 The most rigid of the connective tissues o Cell body—houses nucleus and organelles
 Provides protection and support for internal organs o Axon—long projection used to send action
 Compact bone potentials
o Solid with greater strength than spongy  Synapse—gap between neuron and its target cell
bone
 Spongy bone Glial Cells
o Empty spaces contain red bone marrow
 There are various types of glial cells associated with
Fluid Connective Tissues (Figure 5.20) nervous tissue
 Many perform support functions for neurons
 Blood and lymph  Some form myelin that insulates axons
 Transport molecules and cells throughout the body o Allows for faster movement of action
 Blood contains cells: potentials
o Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets
 Lymph is primarily acellular Section 5.6: Membranes

Lymph (Figure 5.21) Tissue Membranes (Figure 5.23)

 Lymph is a fluid connective tissue  Mucous membranes line body cavities that are open
 Unlike blood, lymph is mainly acellular to the outside
 Serous membranes line body cavities and surround
Section 5.4: Muscle Tissue some organs
 Cutaneous membrane is the skin and covers the body
Anatomy of Muscle Tissue  Synovial membranes line joints
 Muscle tissue is responsible for movement Mucous Membranes
 Shortens to generate pulling force
 Cells are tightly packed  Line body cavities that are exposed to the external
 Differs in location and manner of control environment
 Skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle  Usually contain goblet cells that secrete mucus
 Associated with:
Characteristics of Muscle Tissue 2. Digestive tract
3. Respiratory tract
 The major function of muscle tissue is movement
4. Urinary tract
 Contracts in response to stimuli 5. Reproductive tract
 Voluntary muscle—conscious control
o Skeletal muscle Serous Membranes
 Involuntary muscle—unconscious control
o Cardiac and smooth muscle  Cover and line internal organs
 Reduce friction created as organs move
Skeletal Muscle  Examples include:
o Pericardium of the heart
 Attached to bone o Pleura of the lungs
 Allows body movement and maintains posture o Peritoneum of the abdominal cavity
 Contains striations—alternating light and dark bands
under light microscope Cutaneous Membrane
 Voluntarily controlled
 Cells are multinucleated  Essentially the skin
 Protects body from desiccation and pathogens
Cardiac Muscle  Made of stratified squamous epithelium and
connective tissue
 Found in the walls of the heart
 Keratin provides a thick barrier for protection against
 Contains striations
pathogens
 Involuntarily controlled
 Cells attached by intercalated discs Synovial Membrane
Smooth Muscle  Found inside freely moveable joints like the elbow,
hip, and knee
 Found within internal organs
 Cells secrete synovial fluid
 Associated with digestive, respiratory, urinary, and
 Helps lubricate and nourish the cartilage at the joint
reproductive systems
 Reduces friction as bones move
 Lacks striations
 Involuntarily controlled Section 5.7: Tissue Growth and Healing

Inflammation (Figure 5.24)

Section 5.5: Nervous Tissue  The body’s initial response to injury
 Limits extent of injury and begins the repair process
  Acute inflammation is short-term  Avascular
 Chronic inflammation persists for long periods of time  Contains four to five layers depending on location
o Thick skin (five layers)—found on palms of hands and
Tissue Healing (Figure 5.25) soles of feet
o Thin skin (four layers)—found in all other locations
 Begins with removal of debris and toxins
 Clotting stops the bleeding Layers of the Epidermis (1 of 2)
 Granulation tissue forms to allow epithelial cells to
regenerate lost tissue  There are four to five layers in the epidermis.
 Scar tissue may form due to rapid repair and o Thick skin contains one additional layer.
replacement of collagen fibers  Cells are produced in the deepest layer and migrate from
deepest layer to the superficial layer.
Tissue and Aging  Mature cells are called keratinocytes.
 Tissue changes as the body ages  Keratin makes cells tough and water-resistant.
 Rate of mitosis slows down
Keratin (Figure 6.3)
o Leads to slower tissue healing
 Number of elastic fibers decreases  Produced by keratinocytes
o Structures are less elastic  Keratin is an intracellular fibrous protein made of long alpha
o Contributes to wrinkles, joint stiffness, and helices
high blood pressure  Gives hair, nails, and skin hardness and water-resistance
o Makes up the main component of hair shafts
Tissues and Cancer
Layers of the Epidermis (2 of 2) (Figure 6.2)
 Mutations may alter the regulatory signals cell
receives  From superficial to deep:
 Altered signals lead to uncontrolled replication of cells o Stratum corneum
 Mass of cells is a tumor o Stratum granulosum
o Malignant tumors are cancerous, cause o Stratum spinosum
disease, and can spread to other areas of o Stratum basale
the body
o Benign tumors do not cause disease in the Stratum Basale
body or metastasize (spread to other areas
of the body)  Deepest of the epidermal layers
 Single layer of cells
o Actively divide to replace cells in superficial layers
 Additional cells found in stratum basale:
Tumor Growth o Merkel cells—sensory receptors used for
discriminatory touch
 Tumor growth is typically limited by physiological
o Melanocytes—produce melanin to protect cells from
constraints
 Tumors that grow “trick” tissues into supporting their UV radiation
growth
Melanocytes
Breast Density and Breast Cancer
 Produce melanin that protects cells from UV radiation
 Increased collagen density is correlated with  Two forms of melanin:
increased breast cancer risk o Eumelanin – black and brown pigment
o Pheomelanin – reddish pigment
Chapter 6: The Integumentary System  All humans have similar concentration of melanocytes
o Activity of melanocytes leads to different skin tones
Section 6.1: Layers of the Skin
Stratum Spinosum
Components of the Integumentary System
 Eight to ten cell layers thick
 The integumentary system is composed of:  Keratinocytes are shaped like footballs
1. The skin o Pointed ends that look like spines give rise to the
2. Hair name “spinosum”
3. Nails  Langerhans (dendritic) cells provide immune protection
4. Associated exocrine glands  Cells are continually pushed toward the stratum granulosum
Integumentary System Functions Stratum Granulosum
 The integumentary system is responsible for protection of  Named for its granular appearance
internal organs  Cells begin to flatten and accumulate more keratin
 It also aids in:  Melanin can travel to cells within this layer
1. Sensory function o Contained in melanosomes
2. Thermoregulation
 Cells begin to die at the most superficial layers of the stratum
3. Vitamin D synthesis
granulosum
Skin Layers (Figure 6.1)
Melanosomes (Figure 6.5)
 The layers of the skin are the:
 Melanin produced by melanocytes in stratum basale
o Epidermis
 Long extensions transfer melanin to cells in stratum granulosum
o Dermis  Melanin stored in granules called melanosomes
o Hypodermis (Subcutaneous layer)
 Fascia connects skin to underlying muscle. Stratum Lucidum

Epidermis  Only found in thick skin

 Located in palms and soles of feet
 Most superficial layer of the skin  Composed of tightly packed, dead keratinocytes
 Made of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium  Cells contain eleidin
 o Protein that functions as a water barrier Section 6.2: Accessory Structures of the Skin

Stratum Corneum Structures Associated with Skin

 Most superficial layer of the epidermis  Accessory structures of the skin include:
 About 15 to 30 layers of dead keratinocytes o Hair
 Cells are shed and lost due to mechanical forces o Nails
 Cells are replaced by cells in deeper layers migrating into the o Sweat glands
stratum corneum o Sebaceous glands

Thin Versus Thick Skin (Figure 6.4) Hair

 Thin skin covers most of the body  Found on most body surfaces
o Has four layers of epidermis o Exceptions include palms of hands and soles of feet
 Thick skin is found on the soles of the feet and palms of the (thick skin)
hands  Composed of dead, keratinized cells from epidermis
o Has five layers of epidermis  Structures associated with hair:
o Contains additional stratum lucidum not found in thin o Sebaceous (oil) glands—secrete sebum
skin o Arrector pili muscles—contract to make hair “stand
 Thick skin also has higher number of sensory receptors up”
Dermal Papillae (Figure 6.6) Functions of Hair
 Fingerlike projections of the dermis into the epidermis  Functions of hair include:
 Helps to anchor the epidermis to the dermis o Physical protection
o Prevents the two layers from separating o Sensory input
 Noticeable as fingerprints o Thermoregulation
o UV protection
Dermis

 Lies deep to the epidermis Anatomy of Hair

 Forms projections that extend into the epidermis
 Components of hair from deep to superficial:
 Composed mainly of connective tissue
o Hair papilla—blood supply to hair follicle
 Also contains:
o Hair bulb—deepest portion of follicle
o Blood vessels
o Hair root—between bulb and shaft
o Hair follicles
o Hair shaft—visible portion above skin
o Glands
 Medulla—center of hair shaft
 Supports the epidermis with nutrients, strength, and elasticity
 Cortex—surrounds medulla
Layers of the Dermis (Figure 6.7)  Cuticle—surrounds cortex

 Collagen fibers provide strength and structure Hair Growth (Figure 6.8)
 Elastic fibers provide elasticity
 Hair growth is not continuous.
 The dermis has two layers:
 Follicles alternate between growth and rest cycles.
o Papillary layer
 New growth pushes old hair out of follicle.
 More superficial layer
o Reticular layer
 Deeper layer
Nails (Figure 6.9)
Papillary Layer
 Composed of keratinized epidermal cells
 Superficial layer of the dermis  Nail bed – living component of nail
 Composed of loose areolar connective tissue o Produces nail body
 Contains dermal papillae that project up into the stratum basale  Nail body – visible hard portion of nail
of the epidermis  Nail root – proximal side of nail body
 Dermal papillae contain:  Nail cuticle (eponychium) – thin layer of skin at base of nail
o Blood vessels  Lunula – crescent-shaped region of nail bed
o Nerve fibers
o Tactile (Meissner’s) corpuscles Sweat Glands (1 of 2)
 Used to detect light pressure
 Also known as sudoriferous glands
 Produce sweat (perspiration) to aid in temperature regulation
 Two types of sweat glands:
Reticular Layer o Eccrine sweat glands
o Apocrine sweat glands
 Deeper layer of the dermis
 Much thicker than papillary layer Comparison of Sweat Glands
 Made of dense irregular connective tissue
 Contains hair follicles, blood vessels, and nerves  Eccrine sweat glands
 Pacinian corpuscles—cells that sense deep pressure o Found all over body
o Less viscous sweat
Hypodermis o Involved in thermoregulation
 Apocrine sweat glands
 Also known as the subcutaneous layer
o Found in groin and axilla (armpit)
 Lies deep to the dermis
 Composed of adipose and loose areolar connective tissue o More viscous secretion
 Provides insulation and cushioning o May be involved in pheromone release
 Highly vascularized  Apocrine sweat glands secrete a viscous sweat within hair
 Contains brown fat in infants follicles
o Aids in thermoregulation in infants o Associated with pubic hair
o Not active till puberty
  Eccrine sweat glands secrete a less viscous sweat onto surface o Third-degree burns—affect epidermis, dermis, and
of skin hypodermis

Sebaceous Glands (Figure 6.10) The Severity of Burns (Figure 6.17)

 Usually associated with hair follicles  First-degree burns—only affect epidermis

 Secrete an oily mixture called sebum  Second-degree burns—affect epidermis and dermis
 Lubricate and waterproof skin  Third-degree burns—affect epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis
 Secretion stimulated by hormones released during puberty
Estimating the Size of a Burn (Figure 6.16)
Acne (Figure 6.11)
 Size of burn is important in determining treatment
 Accumulation of sebum, keratin and dead cells can block hair  “Rule of nines” is used for estimation
follicle o Head and neck – 9%
 Bacteria feed on sebum and sweat to grow o Upper limbs – 9% each
 This leads to inflammation of the skin called acne o Trunk – 36%
o Genitalia – 1%
Section 6.3: Functions of the Integumentary System
o Lower limbs – 18% each
Protection
Wound Healing (Figure 6.15)
 Keratin, sebum, and glycolipids protect against water loss
 Dermcidin in sweat and macrophages (immune cells) protect  Multi-step process:
against microbes o Blood clotting
 Melanin protects against UV radiation o Fibroblasts produce new collagen (granulation tissue)
o Regeneration of epidermis
Sensory function  Scar may form after healing

 The skin contains different types of sensory receptors found in Application: Skin Cancer
various layers
o Meissner’s corpuscles and Pacinian corpuscles—  Associated with overexposure to UV radiation
tactile sensations o UV radiation causes mutations in DNA, leading to
 Touch, pressure, vibration, tickle increased cancer risk
o Thermoreceptors—warm, cool  Skin cancers vary depending on cell where the cancer
o Nociceptors—pain originated
 Three forms of skin cancer:
Sensory Receptors of the Skin (Figure 6.12) o Basal cell carcinoma – cause by cells of stratum
basale
 Thermoreceptors detect heat or cold o Squamous cell carcinoma – caused by keratinocytes
 Nociceptors detect pain of stratum spinosum
 Tactile corpuscles detect touch o Melanoma – caused by melanocytes
 Lamellated corpuscles detect pressure and vibration

Thermoregulation (Figure 6.13)

Basal Cell Carcinoma (Table 6.1A)
 Sweat helps keep the body cool
 Increased blood flow to the skin cools body  Affects cells of stratum basale
 Most common cancer in United States
Vitamin D Synthesis
Squamous Cell Carcinoma and Melanoma (Table 6.1B)
 Ultraviolet (UV) rays activate the precursor molecule to initiate
vitamin D synthesis  Squamous cell carcinoma is less common than basal cell
 Vitamin D aids in the absorption of calcium from foods in the carcinoma
gastrointestinal tract o More aggressive and can metastasize
 Necessary for bone growth and immune function  Melanoma usually begins as a mole
o Difficult to detect and highly metastatic
Application: Rickets (Figure 6.14)
Chapter 7: Bone Tissue and The Skeletal System
 Misshaped bones due to calcium deficiency in children
 Bones are weak due to lack of calcium Section 7.1: The Functions of the Skeletal System
 May develop into osteomalacia in adults
Functions of the Skeletal System
Section 6.4: Healing the Integument
 The skeletal system is made of bone and cartilage
Injuries  Functions include:
o Providing rigid support framework of the human body
 Skin is highly vulnerable to injury
o Allowing movement as muscles pull on bones
o Examples include abrasions, cuts, burns
o Providing protection for soft internal organs
 Skin is highly regenerative
o Storing minerals in the bone extracellular matrix
 Wound healing may lead to scars
o Loss of accessory structures (hair, glands) o Storing energy in the form of adipose in yellow bone
o Repaired tissue may have a different texture or marrow
o Production of blood cells
consistency

Burns Bone Functions (Figure 7.1)

 Occur when damage is caused by heat, radiation, electricity, or  Attachment sites for muscles
chemicals  Protection of internal organs
 Skin cells die and can be replaced  Storage of calcium and other minerals
 Different categories of burns:  Production of blood cells
o First-degree burns—only affect epidermis  Storage of adipose tissue
o Second-degree burns—affect epidermis and dermis Cartilage
  Cartilage contributes to skeletal system  Found at ends of long bones where joints form
o Elastic cartilage is not found in the skeletal system  Made of hyaline cartilage
o Hyaline cartilage is found at the ends of bones where  Reduce friction and act as shock absorber
they form joints
 Helps bones glide past one another Short and Flat Bones
 Loss of hyaline cartilage leads to
 Short bones
osteoarthritis
 Cube-like in shape
o Fibrocartilage is found between vertebrae, within the
 Approximately equal length, width, and thickness
knee, and the pubic symphysis
 Provide stability and support
Anatomy of a Typical Bone  Examples:
o Carpal bones of the wrist
 Periosteum covers the surface of the bone o Tarsal bones of the ankle
 Outer shell of compact bone protects entire bone
 Spongy bone contains red bone marrow Flat bones
 Medullary cavity contains yellow bone marrow
 Usually thin, but can be curved
 Articular cartilage made of hyaline cartilage is found at the joints
 Protect internal organs
 Ligaments attach bones to each other
 Examples:
Section 7.2: Bone Classification o Cranial bones (skull)
o Sternum
Classes of Bones (Figure 7.02) o Ribs
o Scapula
 Bones are classified primarily according to shape
o Long bones Flat Bones (Figure 7.9)
o Short bones
o Flat bones  Composed of a layer of spongy bone between two layers of
o Irregular bones compact bone
o Sesamoid bones  Help protect internal organs (e.g., skull, ribs)
 Spongy bone houses red bone marrow
Bone Classifications (Table 7.1)
Irregular and Sesamoid Bones
 Bone classifications include:
o Long bones  Irregular bones
o Short bones o Do not have an easily characterized shape
o Flat bones o Does not fit any other classification
o Irregular bones o Complex shapes
o Sesamoid bones o Examples:
 Vertebrae
Long Bones  Facial bones
 Sesamoid bones
 Bones that are longer than they are wide o Small, round bones suspended in a tendon or
 Function as levers ligament
 Examples: o Protect tendons from compressive force
o Humerus o Example:
o Femur  Patella
o Ulna  Only common sesamoid bone
o Tibia
Sesamoid Bones (Figure 7.3)
Common Structures of a Long Bone (1 of 3) (Figure 7.4)
 Small, round bones suspended within a tendon or ligament
 Epiphysis—end of long bone  Develop over time due to friction
 Diaphysis—shaft of long bone  Help protect tendons
 Metaphysis—between epiphysis and diaphysis  Typically seen in tendons of feet, hands, and knees
o Location of epiphyseal plate/line  Patella is the only common sesamoid bone in every person
 Medullary cavity—hollow space in diaphysis
o Houses yellow bone marrow Bone Markings
 Articular cartilage—layer of hyaline cartilage that reduces friction  The surface features of bones
in joint  Articulating surfaces – where two bones meet
 Epiphyseal plate (growth plate) found in children  Depressions—sunken portion of a bone
o Contains growing cartilage that allows bones to  Projections—projects above surface of bone
increase in length  Holes and spaces—an opening or a groove in the bone
o Ossifies to become epiphyseal line in adults
 Epiphyseal line—site of previous epiphyseal plate The 4 Classes of Bone Markings (Table 7.2)
 Periosteum—dense irregular connective tissue lining surface
o Contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic  The four general classes of bone markings include:
vessels o Articulating surfaces
o Tendons and ligaments attach to periosteum by o Depressions
perforating fibers o Projections
 Endosteum—dense irregular connective tissue lining medullary o Holes and spaces
cavity
 Periosteum and endosteum contain cells that allow bone growth Articulating Surfaces

Periosteum (Figure 7.7)  Articulating surfaces

o Condyle—rounded surface
 Periosteum is attachment site for tendons and ligaments o Facet—flat surface
 Collagen fibers of tendon weave into those of periosteum to o Head—prominent rounded surface
anchor muscle to bone o Trochlea—rounded articulating surface
Articular Cartilage (Figure 7.8)
 Depressions  Contain osteocytes within trabeculae
 Trabeculae—beams of bone that form lattice-like network within
 Depressions spongy bone
o Fossa—elongated basin  Form along stress lines to provide strength
o Sulcus—groove  Spaces house red bone marrow where hematopoiesis occurs

Projections Section 7.4: Formation and Growth of Bone and Cartilage

 Crest—ridge Formation of Bone

 Epicondyle—projection off a condyle
 Line—slight, elongated ridge  Ossification—the process of forming bone
 Process—prominent feature  A cartilage or membranous model is required
 Ramus —long projection (branch)  New bone tissue is built on the model
 Spine—sharp process  Intramembranous ossification—connective tissue membrane is
 Trochanter—rough round projection used to make bone
 Tubercle—small, rounded process  Endochondral ossification—hyaline cartilage is used to make
 Tuberosity—rough surface bone

Intramembranous Ossification (Figure 7.14)

Holes and Spaces  Forms flat bones of cranium and face

 Mesenchymal cells group together and differentiate into
 Canal—passage in bone osteoblasts forming ossification center
 Fissure—slit through bone  Osteoblasts begin to secret osteoid
 Foramen—hole through bone  Trabeculae and periosteum form
 Meatus—opening into canal  Compact bone surrounds trabecular bone
 Sinus—air-filled space in bone
Endochondral Ossification (Figure 7.15)
Section 7.3: The Microscopic Structure of Cartilage and Bone
 Forms most long bones
Three Types of Cartilage (Figure 7.11)  Cells in cartilage differentiate into osteoblasts
 Minerals are deposited on collagen fibers in cartilage starting at
 Hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage diaphysis
o Chondroblasts – cells of cartilage that secrete matrix  Perichondrium becomes periosteum
o Chondrocytes – cells that are completely surrounded  Blood vessels penetrate periosteum forming primary ossification
by matrix center
 Found in lacunae o Mineralization increases
 Cartilage remains at epiphyseal plate
Cartilage Tissue (Figure 7.10) to allow bone to grow in length
 Epiphyses ossify after birth at secondary ossification centers
 Semi-solid connective tissue
 Avascular Ossification of Embryonic and Fetal Skeletons (Figure 7.16)
o Covered by perichondrium
o Dense irregular connective tissue  Embryonic and fetal skeletons form by combination of
o Contains blood vessels intramembranous and endochondral ossification
o Provides nutrients to cartilage  Long bones are formed via endochondral ossification
 Flat bones are formed via intramembranous ossification
Tissue  Mineralization increases during development

Solid connective tissue Section 7.5: Growth, Repair, and Remodeling

 Compact bone Cartilage Growth

o More dense
o Provides support and protection  Interstitial cartilage growth—cartilage grows longer
 Spongy bone o Due to mitotic replication of chondrocytes
o Provide strength to bone o Allows bone to increase in length
o Spaces house red bone marrow  Appositional cartilage growth—cartilage grows wider
o Occurs as cells in perichondrium become
Cells of Bone chondroblasts and secrete matrix
o Allows bone to increase in width
 Osteogenic cells—stem cells that replicate
o Develop into osteoblasts Interstitial Cartilage Growth (Figure 7.17)
o Communicate via canaliculi
 Osteoblasts—cells that form new bone matrix  Chondrocytes divide by mitosis which allows cartilage to grow in
 Osteocytes—mature osteoblast that are completely surrounded length
by matrix  Initially share same lacuna
o Located in lacunae  Chondrocytes move apart as they secrete matrix
 Osteoclasts—cells that breakdown bone
Appositional Cartilage Growth (Figure 7.18)
o Aid in bone remodeling
 Allows cartilage to increase in width
Compact Bone (Figure 7.12)  Cell in perichondrium differentiate into chondroblasts
 Chondroblasts secrete matrix allowing increase in width
 Osteon—structural unit of compact bone
 Made of rings of matrix called concentric lamellae How Bones Grow in Length (Figure 7.19)
 Concentric lamellae surround central canal and provide support
 Blood vessels in central canal connected to periosteum by  Epiphyseal plate grows
perforating canals  The increase in size increases the distance between the
 Nutrients and wastes move through canaliculi epiphysis and diaphysis
 Cartilage on the diaphysis side of the plate is replaced with bone
Spongy Bone (Figure 7.13)  Bone is longer as a result
Anatomy of Epiphyseal Plate

 Epiphyseal plates exhibit four zones of activity

o Reserve zone – anchors epiphyseal plate to epiphysis
o Proliferative zone – chondrocytes that recently
underwent mitosis
o Zone of mature cartilage – older, more mature
chondrocytes
o Zone of calcified matrix – dead chondrocytes
surrounded by bone matrix
 Anchors epiphyseal plate to diaphysis

How Bones Grow in Diameter (Figure 7.20)

 Occurs by appositional growth

 Osteoblasts in periosteum form new matrix on surface of bone
 Osteoclasts break down older bone that lines medullary cavity

Bone Remodeling

 The changes bones go through on a daily basis

 Bone is constantly broken down and new bone is formed
 Aids homeostasis by making minerals available
 Caused by injury, exercise, and other activities
 Bone remodels to increase strength along line of resistance

Blood Calcium Regulation (Figure 7.21)

 Bones store calcium and other minerals

 Hormones influence bone:
o Calcitonin causes bones to take up calcium
 Lowers blood calcium levels
o Parathyroid hormone causes bones to release
calcium
 Increases blood calcium levels

Hormones that Influence the Skeletal System (Table 7.3)

 Growth hormone (GH) – promotes bone growth

 T3 and T4 – promotes bone growth
 Estrogen and testosterone – increase osteoblast activity
 Calcitriol – increases absorption of calcium and phosphate from
intestine
 PTH – increases osteoclast activity
 Calcitonin – increases osteoblast and decreases osteoclast
activity

Bone Repair (Figure 7.22)

 Fracture—break of a bone
 Steps in bone repair:
o Hematoma prevents blood loss
o Cartilage callus forms new bone template
o Callus is replaced by bone
o Compact bone is built around the outer surface of
bone

Assisting Bone Repair (Figure 7.23)

 Reduction = aligning of bones for optimal healing

o Should be done as soon as possible
 Cylinders and screws can be added surgically for stabilization