* Physics: Study of natural phenomena and properties of matter and energy *

Chapter 1: Measurement
* 1.1 Physical Quantities: Quantities that contain magnitude and unit. It is a measurable quantity.

Based Quantity Derived Quantity

Physical Quantity that cannot be derived in other physical Physical quantity that derived from combination of base
quantities. quantities by using multiplication, division or both.
2 −2
Example: 𝑚 , 𝑚𝑠
Example: 𝑘𝑔, 𝑠

Scalar Quantity Vector Quantity

Physical quantity that has magnitude only. Physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
(does not show direction)

1.2 Scientific Investigation

𝑦 is directly proportional to 𝑥 𝑦 increases linearly with 𝑥 𝑦 decreases linearly with 𝑥

𝑦 increases non-linearly with 𝑥 𝑦 decreases non-linearly with 𝑥 𝑦 is inversely proportional to 𝑥

1
𝑦 is directly proportional to 𝑥

1. The relationship between two variables.

 Example (with graph): y is directly proportional to x (no graph)：When y increases, x increases

2. The gradient of the graph. 3. The area under the graph.

Analysing
Graphs
4. Interpolation 5. Extrapolation

Chapter 2: Force and Motion 1

2.1 Linear Motion

Distance, 𝑑 [𝑚] Displacement, 𝑠 [𝑚]

* Total length of the path travelled by an object. The straight line from starting point to the final point in a
specified direction.

−1 −1
Speed, 𝑣 [𝑚𝑠 ] Velocity, 𝑣 [𝑚𝑠 ]

* Rate of change of distance travelled. Rate of change of displacement. - Uniform Velocity

𝑑 [𝑚] −1 𝑠 [𝑚] −1 ( Constant )
𝑣 = 𝑡 = [𝑠] = 𝑚𝑠 𝑣= = = 𝑚𝑠
𝑡 [𝑠] - Non-uniform Velocity
( Acceleration )

−2 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦−𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣−𝑢

Acceleration, 𝑎 [𝑚𝑠 ] 𝑎= =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡

𝑣−𝑢 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡

𝑎= 𝑡 𝑣+𝑢
= × 𝑡
𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣 − 𝑢 2
1
𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑢 —---- (1) 𝑠= 2
(𝑢 + 𝑣)(𝑡) —----- (2)

Sub (1) into (2) Square (1)

1 2 2
𝑠 = 2 (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑢)(𝑡) 𝑣 = (𝑎𝑡 + 𝑢)
1 2 2 2
= (2𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)(𝑡) = 𝑢 + 2𝑢𝑎𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡
2 2
2 1
1 2 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎(𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 ) ←–(3)
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2
𝑎𝑡 —-------- (3) 2
2 2
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠
 Ticker tape ( 1 tick = 0.02s)
- Hammer in ticker timer vibrates 50 times in 1s

Calculating Velocity 𝑠
𝑣= 𝑡
𝑠 = 10𝑐𝑚
𝑡 = 6 × 0. 02 10
= 0.12
= 0. 12𝑠
−1
= 500 𝑐𝑚 𝑠

Calculating Acceleration 𝑣−𝑢

2 −1
𝑎= 𝑡
𝑢= 0.02
= 100 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 300−100
6 −1 = 0.1
𝑣= 0.02
= 300 𝑐𝑚 𝑠
−1
𝑡 = (6 − 1)(0. 02) = 2000 𝑐𝑚 𝑠
= 5 × 0. 02
= 0. 1𝑠

5 25 25 5
𝑢= 5(0.02)
𝑣= 5(0.02)
𝑢= 5(0.02)
𝑣= 5(0.02)
−1 −1 −1 −1
= 50 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 = 250 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 = 250 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 = 50 𝑐𝑚 𝑠

𝑣−𝑢 𝑣−𝑢
𝑡 = (5 − 1)(5 × 0. 02) 𝑎= 𝑡
𝑡 = (5 − 1)(5 × 0. 02) 𝑎= 𝑡
250−50 50−250
= 0. 4𝑠 = 0.4
= 0. 4𝑠 = 0.4
−1 −1
= 500 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 = − 500 𝑐𝑚 𝑠

2.2 Linear motion graphs

s-t graph v-t graph a-t graph

At rest Uniform velocity No acceleration

 Uniform velocity Uniform Acceleration Uniform Acceleration

Acceleration Uniform Deceleration Increasing Acceleration

s-t graph v-t graph

Gradient = Velocity Gradient = acceleration

Area = displacement

Distance travelled= y2 + y3 + y1 Distance travelled= L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5

Displacement travelled = y2 + y3 - y1 Displacement travelled = L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 - L5

2.3 Free fall motion

* - Object moves down at gravitational acceleration without any other forces such as air resistance or friction.

1. Only affected by gravitational force

2. Does not experience the action of other forces such as air resistance or friction.

Gravitational acceleration

* - Acceleration of an object free falling towards the Earth’s surface

 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡 1 2 2 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2
𝑔𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑔𝑠

2.4 Inertia

* - Tendency of an object to remain at rest or, if moving, to continue its motion in a straight line at uniform
velocity.

- The larger the mass, the bigger the inertia

s When, ( _______ ). The inertia of ( _________ ) resists changing its state from motion to stationary / stationary to
motion. Thus, ( _______ ) maintained in the state of motion / stationary causes it ( ______ ).

−1
2.5 Momentum, 𝑝 [𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑠 ]or [𝑁𝑠]

* - Product of mass and velocity 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

- Shown in Newton’s Third Law of Motion For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.

Type of collision - The total momentum before collision is equal to the total
momentum after collision if no external force acts on the
system
- Total momentum is conserved
- A ​closed system which does not involve external forces.

- Both move at different velocity - Collision between air

- 𝑚1𝑢1 + 𝑚2𝑢2 = 𝑚 𝑣1 + 𝑚2𝑣2 particles
1
- Kinetic energy is conserved - Hitting a ball

- Both move at common velocity - Catching a ball

- 𝑚1𝑢1 + 𝑚2𝑢2 = 𝑣(𝑚 + 𝑚2)
1 - Force into a trolley
- Kinetic energy is not conserved
- Lost in form of SE

Explosion - Total momentum is conserved - Throwing a ball

- Both move at the opposite - Jet engine
direction with different velocity - Launching rocket
- 0 = 𝑚1𝑣1 + 𝑚2𝑣2 - Squid
- Kinetic energy is not conserved - Firefighters
- A ​closed system which does not
involve external forces.
- Lost in form of HE &
SE
s Application of the principle of conservation of momentum
Jet engine of an aeroplane Launching of a rocket
1. Combustion of kerosene and compressed air in 1. Combustion of liquid oxygen and hydrogen in the
the combustion chamber produces a large combustion chamber produces a large velocity of
velocity of hot exhaust gases ejected backward. hot exhaust gases ejected downward.
2. As such, a large backward momentum is 2. As such, a large downward momentum is
produced. produced.
3. Hence, an equal but opposite large forward 3. Hence, an equal but opposite large upward
momentum is produced to move the aeroplane momentum is produced to move the rocket
forward. upward.

2.6 Force, 𝐹 [𝑁]

* - Rate of change of momentum acting on an object in the direction of change of momentum of the object
- Product of mass and acceleration

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑣−𝑢 𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢 𝑝
𝐹 = 𝑚( 𝑡
) 𝐹= 𝑡
𝐹= 𝑡

- Newton’s Second Law of Motion

- The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the net force and acts in the direction of
applied force.
- Acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the
mass of the object.

s ( ____________ ) has a greater mass. It requires greater energy to produce a greater acceleration.

2.7 Impulse, 𝐼 [𝑁𝑠] Impulsive Force,𝐹 [𝑁]

* - Change of momentum - Rate of change of momentum

𝐼 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢
= 𝐹𝑡
𝐹= 𝑡
𝐼
= 𝑡

s Increasing the magnitude of impulse by follow through action Reducing impulsive force by extending impact time
( Thicker / longer )

( Run / move faster / higher) Increasing impulsive force by reducing impact time.
( Stop immediately when collided )
e Safety features for car
Crumple Zone Longer Increase impact time
Airbag Soft Increase time of impact to reduce impulsive force
Seat belt Strong To hold passenger body back to his/her seating during front collision

Anti-shatter screen (wind screen) Durable Does not crack to be splints

Head rest Soft To prevent neck injury during near collision
Passenger safety cell Strong Does not break easily upon strong impact
 Anti-lock braking system To prevent skidding when car stops suddenly
Tyre Bigger Larger surface allows the car to be more stable
Tyre’s tread-line Deeper Increase fraction

e Safety Features / Attire / Technique for Athlete ( Based on athlete )

Wear / Soft glove Reduce painful when catching ball with big impulsive force
Move his hand backward when catching ball Lengthen impact time, reduce impulsive force
Move his hand backward when throwing ball Increasing the magnitude of impulse
Sprint before jump Increase kinetic energy and momentum
Body push forward while jumping Increase the elastic potential energy and distance of jumping
Bend the body during fall
Increase impact time, reduce impulsive force, less injured
Bend the knee after jumping
Ball with enough air pressure Shorten impact time, increase impulsive force to travel far
Light and tight suit Reduce air friction
Spike shoes / Shoes with stud Better grip support when running and prevent slippery

2.8 Weight, W [N]

* - Product of mass and gravitational field strength / force
- Force acting on a unit mass in a gravitational field.
Gravitational field

- A region / space around the earth when force of gravity acts on every object that is placed in it.
- Gravitational field strength, 𝑔 is the force acting per unit mass caused by gravitational pull.

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑊 −1
↓ ↓ 𝑔= 𝑚
[𝑁 𝑘𝑔 ]
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔

s Factors affecting the value of gravitational field

Altitude ( Height above the sea level ) Latitude ( Radius of the Earth )

1. B is higher than A. ℎ𝐵 > ℎ𝐴 1. Radius of A is longer than B. 𝑟𝐴 > 𝑟𝐵

2. Thus, the gravitational force 𝑔𝐵 < 𝑔𝐴 2. Thus, the gravitational force
𝑔𝐴 < 𝑔𝐵
experienced at B is smaller than A. experienced at A is smaller than B.
3. As weight is directly proportional to 3. As weight is directly proportional to
gravitational force, weight at B is 𝑊∝𝑔 gravitational force, weight at A is 𝑊∝𝑔
greater than weight at A. 𝑊𝐵 < 𝑊𝐴 greater than weight at B. 𝑊𝐴 < 𝑊𝐵

Chapter 3: Gravitation
3.1 Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation

* - Gravitational force between two bodies is directly proportional to the 𝐹 ∝ 𝑀𝑚

1
product of the masses of both bodies and inversely proportional to the 𝐹∝ 2
square of the distance between the centres of the two bodies. 𝑟
 - Known as universal force
- Gravitational force, 𝐹 exists between two bodies.
- Both bodies experience gravitational force of the
same magnitude.

𝐺𝑀𝑚 −11 2 −2
𝐹= 2
𝐺 = 6. 67 × 10 𝑁 𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝑟

𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
𝑔= 2 𝑔= 2
𝑟 (𝑅+ℎ)

s Factor Low Gravity High Gravity

Density Lower Higher
Bone fragility Higher Lower
Size of lungs Bigger Smaller
Blood circulatory system Slow Faster
Blood pressure Lower Higher

2
𝑚𝑣
Centripetal Force, 𝐹 =
𝑐 𝑟
[N]

* - A force acts on the body in a direction towards the

centre of the circle for a body in circular motion.

2
𝑣
Centripetal Acceleration, 𝑎 = 𝑟 [ms-2]

2 3
4π 𝑟 𝑟 = radius between 𝑚 and 𝑀
Calculating Mass 𝑀= 2 𝑇 = revolution period of 𝑚 to 𝑀
𝐺𝑇 𝑣 = linear speed of 𝑚
 3.2 Kelper’s Law

* Kelper’s First Law - Law of Orbits

- All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus

- Major axis > Minor axis

- Most planets in Solar system have almost the same length
of axis
- Thus, the shape of the elliptical orbit is almost round.
- Planets can be assumed to make circular motion around
the Sun.

* Kelper’s Second Law - Law of Areas

- A line that connects a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times

- If 𝑡𝐴𝐵 = 𝑡𝐶𝐷, then 𝐴𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶𝐷

- If 𝐴𝐵 > 𝐶𝐷, then the planet is moving at

a higher linear speed from A to B than
from C to D.

* Kelper’s Third Law - Law of Period (𝑇 ∝ 𝑟 )

2 3

- The square of the orbital period of any planet is 2

2 3
4π 𝑟 𝑇1
2
𝑇2
2

directly proportional to the cube of the radius of its 𝑇 = 𝐺𝑀 =

3 3
orbit 𝑟1 𝑟2

3.3 Man-made satellites

𝐺𝑀
Linear speed of satellite, 𝑣= 𝑟

- If smaller than linear speed, the satellite will fall to a lower orbit and continue to revolve towards the Earth
until it enters the atmosphere.
- High speed movement against air resistance will produce heat, and the satellite will burn.

e Factors Geostationary satellite Non-geostationary satellite

Lower or higher than geostationary Earth orbit

Location On Geostationary Earth orbit Lower: Higher:

- Low Earth orbit - High Earth orbit
- Medium Earth orbit

Altitude (km) 36000 LEO: < 2000 HEO: > 36000

MEO: 2000 - 36000

Direction & Same direction and speed as Earth’s Different direction and speed as Earth’s rotation
Speed rotation

Period 24 hours shorter longer

Uses Communication satellite Earth imaging / GPS / Weather forecast

Examples MEASAT LEO: TiungSAT MEO: GPS HEO: Molniya

 Escape velocity, v

* - Minimum velocity needed by an object on the surface of the Earth to overcome the gravitational force and
escape to outer space.
- Can be achieved when minimum kinetic energy of an object is able to overcome its gravitational potential
energy.

2𝐺𝑀 min 𝐾𝐸 + 𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 0

𝑣= 𝑟 min 𝐾𝐸 = − 𝐺𝑃𝐸

s Benefits and Implications of Escape Velocity

1. Couldn’t escape from Earth ( lower than v ) 2. Used to escape from Earth ( higher than v )
- Earth’s atmosphere layer ( molecules ) - Rockets
- Plane and jets - Uses a lot of fuels to produce large thrust

e Materials of Rocket
Metal High / Hard The shape will not change even under high pressure
Density of metal of frame
of rocket Low Lighter, can increase acceleration

Carry a tank of oxygen Enable combustion of fuel in space

Colour Bright colour Reflect light efficiently so the temperature will not rise easily

Cover of body of rocket Heat insulator Reduce heat conductivity when friction occurs between air and
rocket

Rocket’s shape Aerodynamic Reduce air friction, move faster

e Water Rocket

Shape Aerodynamic / Reduce air friction, move faster

Nose cone or bullet shape
Material Though Do not break easily when high pressure when landing
Mass Smaller Lighter, can increase acceleration
Angle of launching 45o Can travel maximum distance
Volume of water ⅓ Increase momentum and impulsive force
Number of fins 3 or 4 attached equally Move smooth and stable
Chapter 4：Heat
4.1 Thermal Equilibrium

- Net heat transfer between the two objects becomes zero

- Higher rate of heat transfer from - Heat is continuously transferred - P and Q are in a state of thermal
Q to P. until net heat transfer between P equilibrium.
- Lower rate of heat transfer from and Q is 0. - They have the same temperature.
P to Q.
- P and Q are in thermal contact.

Application of thermal equilibrium

Thermometer & body temperature Refrigerator & food

Food & oven Ice & drink

e Choosing Thermometer

Aspect Characteristics Reason

Colour Coloured and opaque (Mercury) Able to see clearly

Boiling point High ( Mercury -39°C - 380°C ) Will not vapour easily

Freezing point Low ( Alcohol -112°C - 78°C ) Will not freeze easily

Glass walled bulb Thin To increase the rate of heat transfer

Diameter of capillary tube Small To increase its sensitivity

Glass bore-stem Thick and curved Not easily broken and acts as a magnifying glass

Cross-section Circular shape More uniform heat transfer

−1
4.2 Heat Capacity, 𝐶 [J °𝐶 ]

* - The quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of the object by 1°C. 𝑄
𝐶= ∆θ
- Increases when the mass of the object increases.

s Application of Heat Capacity

( _______ ) contain greater / more heat capacity. It has a smaller amount of Q. ( effect )

Cooling down of food Temperature between road and grass

−1 −1
Specific Heat Capacity, 𝑐 [J 𝑘𝑔 °𝐶 ]

* - The quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg mass of the 𝑄

substance by 1°C.
𝑐= 𝑚∆θ
𝑚1𝑐1∆θ1 = 𝑚2𝑐2∆θ2

s Applications of Specific Heat Capacity

( ________ ) is/are made by / has/had smaller specific heat capacity. It can heat up quickly. ( effects ) .

Building materials - Larger , Heats slowly → warm region / Good insulator → cold region

Cooking utensils - Smaller, Heats quickly → Food cooks faster / Large → handled safely

Car radiator system Out layer of a space capsule

- Heat produced by car engine need to be cooled down - High air resistance when entering Earth’s atmosphere
- Water in engine block can absorb large amount of heat → temperature increase
→ Large c - Large → high melting point
- Hot water is then cooled through cooling fin

- Land has a lower specific heat capacity than sea. - Sea has a higher specific heat capacity than land.
- During the day, land heats up faster than sea. - At night, sea water cools down slower than land.
- Warm air above land rises. - Warm air above the sea rises.
- Cooler air flows from sea to land. - Cold air flows from land to sea.
 Material of food container
Aspects Characteristics Reason
Density of material Low Light to carry
Melting point High Prevent container from melting when hot food is stored
Specific heat capacity High Will not get hot easily. Safe to carry.
Thermal conductivity Low Good heat insulator.
Number of wall More Prevent heat loss
Colour of wall container Bright Avoid absorption of heat from surrounding

Thermal flask
Stopper Heat insulator Less heat loss
Between the wall Vacuum space Prevent heat loss through conduction or convection
Number of wall More Heat is not easy to pass through
Paint coated the wall Shiny Shiny surface reflect heat back to water
Material of glass Poor heat conductor Less heat loss to the surrounding

4.3 Latent Heat, Q [J]

* - Heat that is absorbed during melting and boiling without change in temperature
- Heat that is released during condensation and freezing without change in temperature
−1
Specific Latent Heat, Lf or Lv [J 𝑘𝑔 ]
* - The quantity of heat, Q that is absorbed or released during a change of phase of 1 kg of the substance without
any change in its temperature.
* Specific latent heat of fusion, Lf
- The quantity of heat, Q that is absorbed during melting or the quantity of heat Solid ↔ Liquid
released during freezing of 1 kg of the substance without any change in
temperature.
* Specific latent heat of vaporisation, Lv
- The quantity of heat, Q that is absorbed during boiling or the quantity of heat Liquid ↔ Gas
released during condensation of 1 kg of the substance without any change in
temperature.

PQ - Solid is heated until melting point

QR - Lf is absorbed to weaken the bond between
molecules
RS - Liquid is heated until boiling point
ST - Lv is absorbed to break the bond between
molecules
TU - Gas is heated

Q1 = mc1∆θ Q4 = mLv
Q2 = mLf Q5 = mc3∆θ
Q3 = mc2∆θ
Total Q = Q1 +Q2 +Q3+Q4 +Q5
 PQ - Gas cools to boiling point
QR - Lv is released and molecular bond is formed
RS - Liquid is cools to freezing point
ST - Lf is released so that bond between molecules is
strengthened
TU - Gas is heated

Q1 = mc1∆θ Q4 = mLf
Q2 = mLv Q5 = mc3∆θ
Q3 = mc2∆θ

Total Q = Q1 +Q2 +Q3+Q4 +Q5

Applications of Specific Latent Heat in Daily Life

Evaporation of sweat Steaming a food

When our body temperature increases, sweat is produced. When water boils, steam is produced.Steam rises above
When sweat evaporates, heat is reduced from the body and the lid, specific latent heat of vaporisation is released
produces a cooling effect.Rate of evaporation increases from the steam to the food and produces a heating effect.
when there is air circulation. Steam condenses on the inner wall of the lid.

Cooling system in refrigerator

4.4 Gas Laws - using Kinetic Theory of Gas

- Laws that relate absolute temperature, pressure and volume of a fixed mass of gas
Characteristic of gas Description

Pressure, P [Pa] - Move randomly

- When gas molecules collide with the wall of the container and rebound, a force is
exerted on the wall of the container.
- Force per unit area is the pressure of the gas.

Temperature, T [K] - Average kinetic energy of gas molecules increases with temperature

Volume, V [m3] - Move freely and fill the entire space of the container.
- Volume of gas is the same as the volume of its container.
* Boyle’s Law - pressure is inversely proportional to volume for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature.

1
𝑃 = 𝑘( 𝑉 ) 𝑘 = constant - When gas particles are compressed, distance between
gas particles becomes shorter.
∴ 𝑃1𝑉1 = 𝑃2𝑉2
- Volume of gas decreases.
- Rate of collision between gas and wall increases.

- Thus, gas pressure increases.

Applications: 1.Breathing using lungs

2.Pumping air into tyre

Absolute zero - gas molecules no longer move and Absolute temperature - temperature measured using the Kelvin
are unable to fill the space. scale where zero is absolute zero.
-273 °C or 0 K

* Charles' Law - volume is directly proportional to absolute temperature (K) for a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure.

𝑉 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑘 = constant - When gas particles are heated, gas particles gain higher
𝑉1 𝑉2 ∆KE
∴ 𝑇1
= 𝑇2
* T must be in Kelvin
- Distance between gas particles increases.
- Volume of gas increases.

- Rate of collision between particles and the wall is

constant.

Applications: 1.Hot air balloon 3.Dough rising

2.Tyre after long journey

* Gay-Lussac’s Law - pressure is directly proportional to absolute temperature of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume.

𝑃 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑘 = constant - When gas particles are heated, gas particles gain higher
𝑃1 𝑃2 ∆KE
∴ 𝑇1
= 𝑇2
* T must be in Kelvin - Rate of collision between particles and the wall is
increased.
- Volume is constant.
- Force per unit area on the wall of the container
increases.
- So, gas pressure increases.

Applications: 1.Tyre burst due to overheating

2.Difficult to breath in high altitude /Hypoxia
3.High pressure cooker

e Hot Air Balloon

Aspects Characteristics Reason

Size of balloon Large Increase the volume of air

Number of hot air burner Many Heat up the gas inside faster

Material of balloon Waterproof / strong (Synthetic nylon) Does not spoil easily

Total mass Low Moves faster

Material of basket Soft / Malleable (Rattan) Reduce impulsive force when landing

Time to fly early morning or late afternoon Temperature is cooler than inside the balloon, it
will rise higher
Chapter 5：Waves
5.1 Fundamentals of Waves

* Wave: A travelling disturbances produced by a vibrating system that transfers energy without transferring
matter of the medium.

* Stationary Wave
- Wave where the profile of the wave does not
change with time.
- Example:
- Guitar
- Flute

* Progressive Wave
- Wave where the profile of the wave change with time
- Wave that travels continuously in a medium of the same direction without the change in its amplitude.
- Two types, Transverse wave and Longitudinal wave

* Transverse Wave Longitudinal Wave

- Wave in which the direction of vibration of - Wave in which the direction of vibration of particles is
particles is perpendicular to the direction of parallel to the direction of wave propagation.
wave propagation - Example: Sound wave(M)
- Example: Radio wave/Light wave(EM) ,
Water(M)

Mechanical wave Electromagnetic wave

- Requires a medium to transfer energy - Does not require a medium to transfer energy
- Cannot travel in vacuum - Can travel in vacuum
- Made up of vibrating particles of a medium - Made up of oscillating electric and magnetic fields
- Examples: Water wave and sound wave perpendicular to one another
- Examples: Radio wave, Light wave, Gamma wave

Characteristics of wave Definition

Amplitude, 𝑎 [𝑚] Maximum displacement of particles from its equilibrium.

𝑡 1
Period, 𝑇 [𝑠] 𝑇= 𝑁
𝑇= 𝑓
Time taken for a wave to travel in one complete cycle.

𝑁 1
Frequency, [Hz] 𝑓= 𝑡
𝑓= 𝑇
Number of complete cycle done in 1s

Distance travelled by wave in one complete cycle / between two successive

Wavelength, λ [𝑚]
points

Wave speed, λ
−1 𝑉= 𝑇
𝑉 = 𝑓λ Rate of change of distance travelled by move in one complete cycle.
𝑉 [𝑚𝑠 ]
 Displacement-time graph Displacement-distance graph

5.2 Damping and Resonance

Natural Frequency
- Frequency of a self-oscillating system without action of an external force

x Free Oscillation Forced Oscillation

- Amplitude is constant and oscillation - Amplitude is constant and the oscillating system vibrates
will never stop continuously by an external force
- No energy lost - Energy is continuously supplied by an external force

* Damping
- A phenomenon occurs when a system
oscillates at reduction in amplitude with
time due to loss of energy.

- Amplitude decreases with time

( constant frequency ) until it become 0

External Damping Internal Damping

- Loses energy due to overcoming - Loses energy due to the stretching and compression of the
friction or air resistance. vibrating particles in the system.

- Damping can be overcome by applying periodic external force on the oscillating system.
- The periodic external force transfers energy into the oscillating system to replace the energy lost.

Resonance
* - A phenomenon occurs when a system oscillates at its maximum amplitude under its natural frequency.

Tuning Fork Kit 1. When P is hit, energy is transferring to Q causing it to

oscillate.
2. Q oscillates in resonance with P because
a. It oscillates at its maximum amplitude.
b. It has the same frequency as the frequency of P.
c. It prongs has the same length and thickness as P
3. Q vibrates with maximum amplitude and produces sound that
can be detected.

Barton’s Pendulum 1. When X oscillates, energy is transferring to all other

pendulums causing them to oscillate.
2. Pendulum B oscillates in resonance with X because

a. It oscillates at its maximum amplitude.

b. It has the same frequency as the frequency of X.
c. It has the same height/length as X.

- Mass and shape will not affect the result.

- Shorter height oscillates faster due to displacement decreases
thus energy loss decreases.
s Example of Resonance

External force is applied to ( _______ ) to vibrate. ( Starter ) produces ( _______ ) .

( Receiver ) self-oscillating at its maximum amplitude while its natural frequency is the same as frequency of
( _______ ). ( Result )

Tacoma bridge 1940 Voice & Glass Microwave Radio

1. Air particles 1. Voice chord 1. Magnetron 1. Oscillator
2. Bridge 2. Glass 2. Microwave 2. Radiowave
3. Collapse 3. Break 3. Water molecule 3. Radio tuner
4. Heat generated and 4. Clearest and loudest sound
released to food

5.3 Reflection of wave

Wavefronts
- Direction of propagation of the wave is
perpendicular to the wavefront.
- Wavelength, λ is the same as the distance
between two consecutive wavefronts.

Ripple tank

1. The surface of water acts as a series of concave

and convex lenses.
4. Water waves appear as alternating dark and bright
2. Troughs of water waves diverge light rays fringes on screen.
causing the formation of dark regions on the
screen.

3. Crest of water waves converge light rays and

cause the formation of a bright region on the
screen.

- Wave undergoes a change in direction of propagation when hit on a hard surface.

 Characteristics Effects after reflection

Angle θr = θi

Wavelength Remains / Unchanged

Frequency (source) Remains

Wave speed (depth) Remains

Direction of propagation Changes

Wave velocity (vector) Changes

𝑑 2𝐷 𝑣𝑡
𝑣= 𝑡
= 𝑡
𝐷= 2 Amplitude Decreases (energy losses)

Applications of Reflection of Waves

Ultrasonic waves: To examine foetus and internal organs Radio waves: Communication satellites reflected by the
parabolic dish and focussed onto the antenna.

SONAR: Helps to detect areas which have a lot of fish. Sound waves: Different shape reflected due to different
( transducer ) rocks enable the location, depth and structure of
the seabed which contain sources of natural gas.

Fishing Boat Equipment

To detect and measurement crowd of fish
Attach radar system
𝑣𝑡
- To measure the depth, 𝐷 = 2
, while 𝑣 = velocity, 𝑡 = time
Use ultrasonic wave Does not produce noise
High frequency, more energy, can travel further
Use high energy wave The penetrating power is high

e Astro Disc / Parabolic radar system to detect signal from satellite

Aspects Characteristics Reason

Parabolic Convex curve Signals come can focus at one point

Focus point of signal Less Better reception

Surface of disc Smooth Better reflection

Location of disc High / Face satellite No obstacle, better signal

Size of disc Larger Able to receive more signal

5.4 Refraction of Wave

- Change in direction of propagation of waves caused by the change in the velocity of waves when the waves
propagate from one medium to another.

Wave Influenced by In this condition, 𝑓 = constant due to the source of vibration is the

same. 𝑓1 = 𝑓2
Water Depth of water
𝑣 = 𝑓λ
𝑣
Sound Density of air 𝑓= λ
𝑣1 𝑣2
λ1
= λ2
Light Optical density of medium
 Water Waves

Characteristics Deep → Shallow Shallow → Deep

Angle θi > θr θi < θr

Wavelength Decreases Increase

Frequency Remains Remains

Wave speed Decreases Increase

Direction of Refracted towards Refracted away

propagation normal normal

Phenomenon of Refraction of Wave

Sound Wave

- Layer of air right above ground is warmer - Layer of air right above ground is cooler
- Sound move faster in warm air - Sound move slower in cold air
- Sound is refracted upward - Sound is refracted downward
- Sound is not clear to listen - Sound clearer to listen

* Water Wave

- The cape is the shallow water region

while the bay is the deep water region.

- Wavefront of the water propagates to

the cape, the speed of the water waves
decreases causing the wavelength to be
shorter.

- Wavefront of water approaching the bay

moves at a higher speed and the
wavelength is longer.
 1. In the open sea, the wavefronts of water waves are straight and have uniform wavelength.
2. Water waves undergo refraction when they approach the shallow water near the beach.
3. The velocity of water waves decreases and thus their wavelength decreases.
4. This causes the wavefronts to become closer to each other and follow the shape of the beach.
5. The wave fronts converge at the cape and spread out widely at the bay.
6. The convergence wavefronts cause the amplitude of water to increase at the cape.
7. Therefore, water near a cape is turbulent.
8. Conversely, the spreading of waterfronts causes the amplitude of water waves to decrease.
9. Therefore, water near the bay is calmer.

e Design retaining wall for ship harbour

Retaining wall Hard / Strong Can withstand impact of wave, difficult to crack

Surface of wall Curve and uneven (not smooth) Prevent reflection of wave to ship

Located Front of the bay Wave is calmer at bay region

Size of gap narrow / smaller than wavelength Amplitude after passing the gap will be smaller.

Slop at the bottom of retaining wall Wavelength is smaller at shallow region, velocity of wave decreases

Builded height High Avoid wave spill over

5.5 Diffraction of Wave

* - Spreading of waves when the waves propagate through a slit or side of a barrier.

Characteristics Changes

Frequency Remains

Speed Remains

Wavelength Remains

Amplitude Decreases

Direction Changes

Pattern Changes

Diffraction passes through Drawing Effects

Slit / Gap / Aperture

The smaller the size of
( ____ ) , the more obvious
the diffraction effect.

The longer the size of

wavelength, the more
Side of a barrier / Obstacle
obvious the diffraction effect.
 Light waves

Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Purple

—---------------------------------------------------→
Longest to Shortest wavelength

Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Purple

—---------------------------------------------------→
Increasing frequency

Narrow Size of hole Wide

Application of diffraction

Protection of Port Transmission and reception of radio waves

1. When a sea wave hits the wall, some waves are 1. When a radio signal hits an obstacle, part of the
reflected but some pass through the gap causing signal is reflected but part of it passes over the
diffraction to occur. obstacle causing diffraction to occur.

2. Amplitude of waves decreases due to energy per 2. The radio signals are spread to areas around
unit area of the waves decreases. obstacles enabling users to receive the radio
broadcast.
3. This creates a calmer and minimum oscillation at
the port.

5.6 Interference of Waves

* - Superposition of two or more waves from a coherent source of waves.

In phase
Principle of superposition: ∆ 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 0°
- Overlapping of two waves at a Interference
point.
Out of phase
Coherent wave: ∆ 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = θ°
- Wave that have same 𝑓, λ, 𝑎 and Not an interference
are in phase / anti-phase
Anti-phase
∆ 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 180°
Interference

Superposition between Type of Interference

Superposition

Constructive Interference
 Superposition

Constructive Interference

Superposition
Destructive Interference

Superposition

Not an Interference

Superposition

Not an Interference

- Superposition of waves from the double-slit produces a pattern made up of bright fringes and dark fringes.
- Constructive interference produces bright fringes while destructive interference produces dark fringes.

𝑎 = distance between two sources 𝑎𝑥 𝑣

𝑥 = Distance of separation between two consecutives bright of dark
λ= 𝐷
λ= 𝑓
fringes λ𝐷
𝑥=
𝐷 = Perpendicular distance from the coherent sources to the point of 𝑎
measurement of 𝑥
𝑉𝐷
𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 = Two sources of coherent wave 𝑥= 𝑎𝑓

Interference of water waves

Applications:

Ship

- Bulbous bow generates water

waves which interfere
destructively with the water waves
around the hull.

- Water around the ship becomes

calmer and reduces water drag.

Interference of light waves

- Diffracted light waves that appear from the double-slit are coherent.
 Young’s double-slit experiment Application:

- Spectacles

Coating on the surface of

an anti-reflection lens
causes reflected light to
interfere destructively.

This helps to improve

vision.

Interference of sound waves

- Sound waves cannot be seen.

- Observers can only hear loud sounds in constructive interference regions and soft sound in destructive
interference regions.

- Produce sound wave which is anti-phase to overlap with sound wave detected and produce destructive
interference to cancel noise
- Applications:
Microphone and transmitter system in headphones

e Design for Concert Hall

Surface of wall Soft ( cover with ) Soft surface can absorb and reduce reflection of
sound

Design of wall With holes/egg carton design Reduce reflection of sound / echo, sound is clearer

Number of loudspeaker More (2) Acts as coherent source for constructive interference

Location of loudspeaker High To prevent sound reflection by obstacle in the

surrounding

Distance between 2 loudspeakers Wide To produce more loud sound ( 𝑎 ↑ 𝑥 ↓ )

Arrange seat at antinodal place Strong sound can be heard

Type of glass or mirror used is not easily broken Sound with high frequency can break the glass

Use special computer to generate sound wave which produce Audience can enjoy better performance without
destructive interference disturbance

Microphone behind loudspeaker To avoid noises / humming sound

* Transmitter ( Radiowave )

Frequency of signals Low Longer wavelength / Diffracted easily

Location of transmitter High No blocking

Number of transmitter More Reduce energy loss during transmission

Strength of signals Strong / High Have more energy / Can move faster

Distance between 2 transmitter Closer Increase the strength/energy of signal

 Drawing Patterns of Wave Interference

5.7 Electromagnetic Waves

* - Made up of an electric field and a magnetic field that oscillate perpendicularly to one another

[1801] Thomas Young - experiment of interference of light → [1862] James Maxwell - light is EM wave
[1887] Heinrich Hertz - generated radio wave → [Early 20th century] 7 type of EM wave

- Transverse waves
- Do not need medium for propagation / Can propagate through vacuum
- Have speed in vacuum, 𝑐 = 3.00 × 108 m s-1, and move with lower speed in any medium.
- Show phenomena of reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference under suitable conditions

Type of wave Application

Radio wave • Long distance radio communication or wireless communication

• Local radio and TV broadcasting
( Longest λ ) • Millimetre-wave machine to scan body of passengers at airport

Microwave • International communication through satellite or communication between electronic devices

• Detection of plane radar and speed trap
• Cooking using microwave oven

Infrared ray • For cooking (oven, grill and toaster) • For night vision
• Drying paint on car • Treatment of muscle pain
• Remote control device for television and DVD player

Visible light • To see • Photosynthesis in green plants

( 7 colours ) • Laser light used in cutting of metal, measurement of land and sending of information through optical
(Red→Purple) fibres

Ultraviolet ray • Hardens tooth filling material • Determines authenticity of currency notes
• Treatment of jaundice in babies • Purification of drinking water
• Sterilising surgical instruments and food • Insect traps

X-ray • Detects fractures or broken bones and examines internal organs

• Checking of welding connections • Baggage scanning at airport
• Determines authenticity of paintings

Gamma ray • Kills cancer cells in radiotherapy • Sterilisation of surgical and medical equipment
( Shortest ) • Used in food processing industry so that food can last longer
Chapter 6: Light and Optics
6.1 Refraction of Light
* - occur due to the change in velocity of light when travelling through mediums of different optical densities

Characteri Low → High High → Low

stics

Angle θ𝑖 > θ𝑟 θ𝑖 < θ𝑟

Velocity Decreases Increases

Direction Bends toward Bends away

normal normal

Refractive Index, 𝑛

* 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝑛≥1 - determines the degree to which light bends when travelling from
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 vacuum to a medium.

Law of refraction of light

* - When light travels from one medium to another, the incident ray, refracted ray and normal meet at one point and
are in the same plane.

Snell’s Law n1 = refractive index of medium 1 θ1 = angle of incidence in medium 1

𝑛1𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ1 = 𝑛2𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ2 n2 = refractive index of medium 2 θ2 = angle of refraction in medium 2

𝑛=
𝐷 𝐷 = Real depth 𝑛=
𝑑
if 𝑑 is bigger than D
𝑑 𝑑 = Apparent Depth 𝐷

Real Depth, 𝐷 and Apparent Depth, 𝑑

Objects in water can be seen because light enters the Objects in air can be seen because light enters the eyes where
eyes where the light travels from water to air. The the light travels from air to water. The density of water is
density of air is lower than water. The light will be higher than air. The light will be refracted towards normal.
refracted away from normal. This effect of refraction of This effect of refraction of light causes the image of the (
light causes the image of the ( object ) to be closer to object ) to be further to the water surface as seen by an
the water surface as seen by an observer. observer.

6.2 ​ Total Internal Reflection

- A reflected image of the object can be seen on the boundary of two mediums.
- Only occurs when light travels from a medium of high optical density to a medium of low optical density.
 Critical angle, 𝑐 1
- Angle of incidence in the medium of high optical density when the angle of
𝑛= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐
refraction in the medium of lower optical density is equal to 90o.

Angle 𝑖<𝑐 𝑖=𝑐 𝑖>𝑐

Direction Refracted away normal Refracted along boundary Reflected

Reflected ray Weak Bright Totally reflected

Diagram

Phenomena involving total internal reflection

Mirage Rainbow

- The layers of air near the ground are hotter and less dense. - When white light from the Sun enters water
- The upper layers are cooler and denser. droplets, the light experiences disperses into
- When light rays from the upper layer to lower layer, the different colours and refraction.
light rays are refracted away from the normal due to - All these different colours experience total
decreasing air density. internal reflection on the surface of the water
- The angle of incidence increases as the light rays enter the droplets.
next layer of air. - Light rays reflected experience refraction and
- The light rays are reflected when the angle of incidence dispersion again when moving from water to air.
exceeds the critical angle of air in that layer. - Colours of the rainbow are seen by the observer.
- The observer will see the image of a cloud as a puddle of
water on the road surface.
Applications of Total Internal Reflection

1. Prism periscope 2. Cat’s eye reflector

- Used to see objects behind a barrier. - Used for the purpose of safety for road users
at night.
- Made up of two right angle prisms - Light rays from car headlights enter the
fitted at both ends of a long tube. reflector and
experience
- Light rays from an object total internal
experience total internal reflection / reflection on
reflected two times. the back
surface of the
- The image formed is upright and of reflector.
the same size as the object.
 3. Optical fibre

- Widely used in the fields of telecommunication and medicine.

- Made from pure glass or plastic fibres.
- Inner core which has a high refractive index is surrounded by a layer of cladding
with a low refractive index.
- Light signals experience total internal reflection continuously in the inner core until
they reach the other end.
- As such, signals can be sent rapidly without disturbances from electric signals.

6.3 Image Formation by Lenses

Lens is a piece of transparent material such as glass, perspex or plastic which has two surfaces with at least one surface curved.
Convex lenses ( just draw two line of light ray )

Concave lenses

Linear magnification, 𝑚

- Comparison between image size and object size is made based 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, ℎ𝑖 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑣
on the ratio of image height to object height. 𝑚= 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, ℎ𝑜
= 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑢
 6.4 Thin Lens Formula
1 1 1 𝑓 = focal length 𝑢 = object distance
𝑓
= 𝑢
+ 𝑣 𝑣 = image distance

Positive ( + ) Negative ( - )

Focal length, 𝑓 Converging lens or convex lens Diverging lens or concave lens

Image distance, 𝑣 - Real image - Virtual image

- On the opposite side of the object - On the same side as the object

6.5 Optical Instruments

Use of Lenses in Optical Instruments

Instruments Occupation Uses

Gemologist To identify and evaluate gemstones

Magnifying glass
Ophthalmologist To examine eyes.

Microbiologist To examine various microorganisms

Microscope
Geologist To study and identify specimens of rocks and minerals

Telescope Astronomer To study celestial objects

Applications of Small Lenses in Optical Instrument Technology

- Widely used in smartphone cameras and closed circuit television (CCTV)

- To capture pictures and record videos clearly.

- Form an image that is real, diminished and inverted at the sensor.
- Minimum distance between the sensor and the centre of the lens has to be the same as the focal length of the
camera lens

e Astronomical Telescope ( 4:4:3:3 )

1. Eyepiece lens is thick while the objective lens is thin.

2. Ensure that the focal length of the objective lens is longer than the focal length of the eyepiece lens.
3. Parallel light ray incident towards the objective lens to produce a real image.
4. The first image formed is a real, inverted and diminished image.
5. Eyepiece lenses act as a magnifying lens.
6. Thus, the second image is a virtual, inverted and magnified image.
7. The distance between two lenses equals the sum of focal length of objective lens and eyepiece lens.
 Compound Microscope ( 2:2:2:3:3 )

1. Eyepiece lens is thin while the objective lens is thick.

2. Ensure that the focal length of the objective lens is shorter than the focal length of the eyepiece lens.
3. Place the object between F and 2F to obtain a real image.
4. The first image formed is a real, inverted and magnified image.
5. Eyepiece lens act as a magnifying lens.
6. Thus, the second image is a virtual, upright and magnified image from the first image.

6.6 Image Formation by Spherical Mirrors

Inner surface = concave mirror
 Outer surface = convex mirror

Applications of Concave Mirrors in Daily Life

Type of Mirror Applications Uses

Cosmetic mirror Produce a magnified image for applying make up.

Concave mirror Dental mirror To examine the teeth.

Reflector in car headlight To maintain light intensity even at a distance.

Blind spot mirror To widen the field of vision of the driver.

Convex mirror Security mirror in buildings For surveillance purposes

Vehicle rear mirror Provide a wide field of vision to enable the driver to see
vehicles coming from behind.

e Lens for Magnifying Glass

Lens Convex Image will magnify

Clarity of lens Excellent Image is clearer

Focal length Shorter Able to focus nearer

Size of diameter of lens Medium Able to hold by hand

Object’s place Less distance than focal point ( 𝑢 < 𝑓 ) Image form is virtual, magnified and upright

e Mirror to Watch Customers / Safety Mirror at Road

Mirror Convex Wider field of view

Reflectivity of material Greater Image is clearer

Size Bigger Enable wider view and sharper image

Place of mirror Higher / corner Easier to look and will not disturb the pathway

Density Low Lighter to hang up