HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

CASE STUDIES
THEME 1

Resource for IGCSE & AS Level Geography

 CASE STUDY: Densely populated area (Greater London Area, UK)
Background:
• Area: 1,579 square kilometres.
• Population density: 5,000 people per square kilometre, more than ten times that of
any other British region.
• 25th largest city in the world.
• 17th largest metropolitan region in the world.
Reasons
Relief
• This part of the UK is mainly very flat, making it easier to build houses and offices
Accessibility
• Good access to the region - through motorways, via the Thames, by rail or through
one of London's many airports.
o This is partly aided by the flat terrain - meaning there are few obstacles to
overcome when setting up transport links
• Excellent Public Transport systems - mostly part of TFL transport for London
• Good communication infrastructure - e.g. abundant internet access and phone masts
/ coverage
Climate
• Low frequency of extreme weather events
• There aren't many natural disasters in the UK
Water supply
• Near the Thames - a good water supply.
o Historically used for washing, drinking and waste.
o Now also used for transport.
o Aided early development of settlements in the Greater London Area
Employment
• Low crime rates compared to some other MEDCs - e.g. Spain
• Lots of available jobs - especially in banking or trade
Natural resources
• Natural resources available
Facilities
• Good utility provision from the National Grid and the Roman sewer network
• Generous British government - building grants, housing schemes, transport
improvement schemes
• Good public services - Education (for instance, Universities), Transport, Parks and
Amenities
 CASE STUDY: Sparsely Populated (Himalayas)
Background:
Location: It is a mountain range in South and East Asia, between the Plateau of Tibet to the
north and the alluvial plains of the Indian subcontinent to the south.
Population: 52.7 million people ****(2011)
Population Density: 50-250/km² (2020)
Reasons
Relief
• The Himalaya Range is a very mountainous area. It has an average elevation of
more than 6,100 metres.
• Also, the low oxygen levels at higher altitudes make breathing harder, so building
or any real activity is more difficult.
Growing Food
• The land is infertile, as it is mainly snow, ice and rock
• Because of the cold environment at high altitude it is it harder to grow crops, so
food availability becomes an issue. These conditions are consequently hostile to
humans.
Accessibility
• It is also hard to access the Himalayas due to their high altitude and dramatic terrain.
• This prevents road building, which in turn makes it very difficult to build settlements
as materials can't be transported.
o The only reasonable mode of transport is by foot or helicopter
o Also, it will be harder to get food and other resources needed for living to the
area
• There will be resource shortages due to access issues
• Poor communications due to the remote and isolated nature of the Himalayas
Climate
• The Himalayas have an extreme cold, icy, windy and snowy environment which
makes staying warm difficult.
Infrastructure
• Poor utility provision, as it is near impossible to implement utility systems in such a
mountainous area.
Employment
• No public services.
Natural resources
Impact of an extreme event
• There are frequent natural disasters like blizzard storms, avalanches and
earthquakes
o E.g: 2011 Sikkim Earthquake.
 CASE STUDY: Over-population (Bangladesh)
Background
• Population: 161.4 Million
• Population Density: 1,115.62 per km$^2$
• Area: of 147,570 square kilometres
• In 1971, when Bangladesh achieved independence, its population was about 75
million and this has increased by more than double within the past 42 years.
• Population grows every year by 1.75 per cent a year
• Considering an annual average growth rate of 1.75 per cent a year, Bangladesh's
population will be 350 million by 2055
• Bangladesh has the 8th largest population in the world (as of July 2017) - of over 157
million people.
o However, it only has the 92nd largest land area.
o This means it has a high population density of over 1000 people per km2

Reasons

Economic
• Illiteracy and ignorance (people can’t read and write and can’t find out about other
ways of doing things)
• Poverty: The average monthly earning for somebody living in Bangladesh is $150
compared to $3,500 for the people living in the United States.
o Most people cannot afford to move out of the country.
• GDP per capita is very low (US$ 240). Country lacks good medical facilities and
vaccination centers
• IMR is very high (around 46 deaths per 1000 live births)
• No pension, so need children to support when old.

Natural
• Bangladesh has the world’s best agricultural land. People working in the farming
industry profit a lot from it.
• Bangladesh is frequently flooded and affected by tropical storms.
• There are few natural resources.
• The country also relies on farming as an industry - with over 40% of the population
working in this primary industry.
• Minerals, which are domestically available, are used in local manufacturing
industries.

Social
• Early marriage (meaning that girls often don’t go to school to learn)
• Polygamy (mean can marry more than one woman)
• Superstition,
o With a high birth rate of 18.8 per 1000 (2017) and death rate of 5.4 per 1000
(2017) - the resulting population growth rate is 1 .04% - meaning Bangladesh
has more people than its resources can support.

Contraceptives
• Adult literacy rate is 41% so lack of family planning knowledge (condoms and other
contraception methods not available)
• Religion contributes to this large population size. In Bangladesh, Muslims make up
some 89% of the population (2013).
o Some Muslim leaders here don't support the use of contraception. This
means that the birth rate is higher, creating a high population growth rate.
Impact

Inadequate housing/slums
• People forced to live near Bustees located on the edge of Dhaka. It has sub-par
facilities, poor hygiene and sanitation

Pollution

Land
• The farming land is overcultivated and won't be able to support further growth of
farming industries (which are key to Bangladesh's economy)
• There has been deforestation near the Himalayas, increasing the risk of flooding
• Money will be needed to repair damage caused by flooding, which means that less
money is invested into public services
• The capital, Dhaka, is congested, overcrowded and overpopulated

Air

Water

Shortage of food and water

High crime rates

Inadequate health care and education

• For every 1,000 babies born in Bangladesh in 2018, 30 die before their 5th birthday.
• Less than 75% of people in Bangladesh are literate - a result of no real compulsory
or free education system. This means that many people have weak or no
qualifications.
•
Lack of employment
• Many people are under-employed.

Poverty
• The GDP per person is too low to support a good standard of living for each citizen.
• People that are employed often don't work much, earning little money.
• The exports sometimes don't create high profits either.
• 20% of Bangladeshi lives below the povery line.

Solution
• The government introduced birth control solutions in the 1980s, ever since, there is
some slowdown in birth rate.
• The fertility rate dropped from 6.4 In 1980 to 2.10 in 2016.
 CASE STUDY: Under-population (Canada)

Background:
Location: Northern part of North America
Population: 37 Million (2020)
Population Density: 4/km² (2020)
Birth rate: 10.1 births/1,000 population (2020 est.)
Problems of under-population in Canada:
Shortage of workers
• Labour shortage: 32% of Canadian employers are encountering difficulties in hiring
workers due to a lack of applicants.

Low level of production

• In 2012, Canada's level of labour productivity was US$42, much lower than that of
the United States, at US$52. This earned Canada a disappointing 13th place among
its 16 peer countries on the level of labour productivity.
Resources under-used
• Services (e.g. schools, hospitals and transport) close down as there are not enough
customers.
High taxes
• Out of 34 OECD countries, in 2017 Canada had the seventh highest combined tax
rate at 53.53%.
Lack of government income
Small market for goods and services
Low value of exports, etc.
Less innovation and development (Brain Drain)
• Canada lost two thirds of recent software engineering graduates from its top
universities to the United States in 2016
Difficulties in defending the country
• Only 0.3% of the population are military personnel.
Solutions:
• Relaxing immigrant policies and visa requirements to encourage migration
o Canada has tried to promote immigration to maintain the fairly high standard
of living, but in the previous decades less people are migrating to Canada,
than during the 1950’s and 1960’s.
• Pro-natal government support to increase the birth rate e.g. subsidies and parental
leave programs.
• Allow pensioners to continue working
 CASE STUDY: High Population Growth (Niger)
Background
Location: A land locked LEDC in West Africa, with a hot dry climate including desert areas
Population: 24 Million
Population Density: 19/km²
Annual Population Growth: 3.84% (The highest in the World)
Birth rate: 47.5 births/1,000 population (2020 est.)
Central Intelligence Agency

Reasons for Population Growth

High birth rates due to …
Lack/use of Contraception,
• Only 12% of woman use contraceptives (2012)
• Average of 7 children per woman
Education
• Only 19.1% of the total population can read and write
Religious influences;
• 99% of Nigeriens are Muslims.
o Islam encourages having children.
Cultural influences;
• Polygamy is practised.
• In Hausa ethnic tradition, having a large family is viewed as a status symbol.
Women's education,
• 81% of women aged 20-24 with no education are married.
• 75% of girls are married before the age of 18.
• 11% of the women above 15 cannot read or write.
Children sent out to work (on land/in homes/on streets etc);
• The majority of Niger’s population are subsistence farmers.
o This results in a high birth rate because people look to have large families to
increase their economic opportunities.
o Which coupled with the high infant mortality rate means that many families
opt to have more children than they need to ensure that enough survive to
work on the land.
Care in old age,
• Nigeriens in their old age cannot work in the farms, so their children have to look
after them.
Lack of government policy,
Infant mortality;
• 67.7 deaths/1,000 live births, the top 6th country in the world
Migration etc.
• 220,000 total refugees from Nigeria (162,961) and Mali (58,702) in 2020
Declining death rates due to …
Better health care;
Improvements in sanitation;
Improvements in water supply;
• Water supply increased from 36% in 2000 to 50% in 2017
More food supply, etc.
Problems associated with Population Growth
Poverty
• Insufficient employment opportunities, especially for poorly educated.
• 42.8% of Niger Children are subjected to Child Labour
Food supply
• Pressure on resources, especially in urban areas
• 15% of the population don't have a secure source of food
Provision of health care
• Health sector faces human and infrastructural shortages
• Only 0.043 Doctors per 1000 People
Water supply
• Only 56% of the population has access to a source of drinking water
Sanitation
Pressure on service provision,
Provision of education
• Primary education could not be sustained in all areas
Provision of housing/shelter
Traffic congestion
Deforestation & Desertification;
• There is a degradation of soil, forests are getting lost, there is less land, and an
advance of the desert.
Lack of resources,
Crime,
Disease;
• Cholera outbreak in 2018, 4,000 cases.
Solutions to reduce Population Growth
• Widespread availability of contraception
• Universal access to education, jobs and health care and female emancipation
• Promotion of scientific and technical development (tertiary sector)
• Promotion of new modes of production (modernisation and commercialisation of
agriculture)
• Growth with equity/sustainable development
 CASE STUDY: Ageing Population/Population Decline (Japan)
Background
• Location: East Asia.
• Population: 126.5 million (2020)
• Population density: 348 people per Km$^2$
• Birthrate: 7.301 births per 1000 people (2020)
• Japan has the largest proportion of over 65s of any other country (23%) and this is
expected to rise to 30% by 2030. This is causing difficulties as the number of working
people declines.

Reasons

Birth rates remain low

• Less women are having babies - Changing attitudes to child birth (which reduces
Japan's Birth Rate):
Low in death rates/reasons for reduction
• Japan has a good healthcare provision leading to people living longer.
o Potentially due to new medical technological advancements in Japan's tech
industry.
• The population is declining because, even though there are medical improvements,
more people are dying (often of old age) than are being born (because less women
are having babies). This leads to a natural population decrease.
Availability of contraception
• 56.6% of women use contraception
Contraception – affordability
Contraception – education about it
Modern attitudes to family size
• Many women work in high-tech Japanese industries
• Women getting married later causing a lower birth-rate.
Women have careers
• They choose to work, rather than taking time off to care for children
o Their careers may be affected by being a mother
Emancipation of women
• Fewer see the need to have children
o They could get a better standard of living if they have less children to support
Expense of having children
• It is very expensive to bring up children in Japan (e.g. university fees).
• People are delaying having children, or choosing not to.
• Improves life expectancy and reduces death rate
Low infant mortality rates
• Infant mortality rate of 1.9 deaths per 1000 live births.
Government support for old age;
Government anti–natal policy etc.
Impact

High levels of dependent population,

• Higher dependency ratio
o » Less youths to support the retired population
o » A larger elderly population than youthful population
Pressure on working population,
• A reduced working population
o » Because less people will be starting work, leading to a shortage of workers
in the long- term
o » Reduced economic growth
o » Closing or reduction of some services
o » Less technological innovation - as there are less people to innovate in
Japan's exciting technological sector - this reduces industrial development
Increased taxation,
• Increased taxes to pay for pensions and healthcare
Increasing need for provision for health care,
• Healthcare provisions are becoming stressed due to the number of elderly people.
High cost of provision of services eldery
• Difficult to fund people’s pensions.
o Less people to pay taxes, as there is a smaller workforce
Lack of workforce,
• Will not be enough working population to fill all the jobs available.
Difficult to defend country, etc.
• Derelict post-industrial towns because there are not enough workers to support some
industries
Pressure on government revenues
• Only 0.8% annual, GDP growth in 2018, which is low compared to 3%.
Solutions
• The government is considering providing tax incentives to families and providing
more childcare facilities.
• A promotion on social and cultural change to make motherhood more attractive.
• Labour shortage could be solved by migrant workers.
• Japan is investing heavily in robotics to solve its labour shortages.
• Outlook: Japan needs to attract migrants or offer couples incentives for having a child
if it wants to have a strong workforce into the future
 CASE STUDY: One Child Policy (China)

Background of Policy
• After China were invaded and occupied by Japan in the World War II, they wanted to
strengthen their military so that it never happened again. To do this they encouraged
citizens to have more children, because a bigger population potentially meant a
stronger army. This policy would have been fine if China had the resources and
technology to match. However, they did not and coupled with the crippling policies of
the Cultural Revolution, mass famines ensued.
• It is estimated that up to 30 million died during the 1960's and 1970's. This was not a
sustainable policy, so the Chinese government was forced to introduce an anti-
natalist policy.
• In 1979, the population of China was 1 billion. It was estimated that by 2025, the
population will reach 1.8 billion.
• Traditionally in rural China, couples had large numbers of children to help on
farmland and look after them when they are older.
• Worry over the lack of resources to support large population
• As a solution, China introduced the “One Child Policy” in hopes that the population
would be limited to 1.2 billion in 2025 instead of 1.8 billion.
Policy Incentives:
• The government stated that from 1979 all couples were only allowed to have one
child.
• They also increased the marriageable age of men to 22.
• To get married and to have a child, citizens had to apply to the government. If you
applied by these rules you were entitled to free education, healthcare, pensions, and
priority housing.
• Family planning advice and contraceptives were made freely availible.
Penalties:
The policy China decided to introduce was extremely strict and probably not possible in a
non-communist country.
• Benefits would be removed.
• Fines were introduced in the form of cash or cattles.
• Basic rice allowance withdrawn for all extra children.
• Extra children denied the same quality of education and healthcare as the first child.
• Women pregnant for a 2nd time had to get forced abortions.
• Persistent offenders got sterilised.
Exceptions:
• If you had twins or triplets this was fine.
• If your first child had reached marriageable age.
• If your first child was mentally/physically handicapped or died.
• Families in rural areas (farming areas) were often allowed a second.
• 56 ethnic minorities groups were allowed a second.
• It was finally relaxed in 2015. After more than 30 years of the policy, it is now a 2-
child policy.
• This led to the policy allowing couples to try again if their first baby turned out to be a
girl.
Enforcement:
• The government relied on community enforcement.
• Often elderly residents who were trusted within the community were asked to inform,
elderly female informants were nicknamed 'granny police'.
Impact Positive
• The policy has been relatively successful, birth rates have fallen from a peak of 44 in
the 1950's down to just 12.
• China's population is also expected to peak in the next 20 years and then slowly start
to decrease.
• Less pressure on schools
• Less pressure on food
• Less pressure on medical care
Negative
Reduced Birth Rate → Aging Population
• While China’s population is now rising more slowly, it still has a very large total
population (1.3 billion in 2008) and China faces new problems, including: the falling
birth rate – leading to a rise in the relative number of elderly people.
• The Communist party credits the policy with preventing 400m births, thus contributing
to China’s dramatic economic take-off since the 1980s.
• China’s high dependency ratio means that they may struggle to provide adequate
healthcare, pensions and housing for elderly dependents in the future.
Imbalance of sex ratios
• The strict enforcement of the policy led to a problem of female infanticide.
o In 2000, it was reported that 90 per cent of foetuses aborted in China were
female.
o Males ensured the family name was maintained and were able to work
manual jobs, whereas females would be lost after marriage (females normally
went to live with their husband’s family).
o Girls traditionally looked after the elderly. Less girls being born with more girls
going to work means the elderly are sometimes neglected.
• Today it is thought that men outnumber women by more than 60 million.
Human Rights
• Many human rights campaigners have rallied against the policy for years saying that
the Chinese government should not be able to dictate how many children people
have.
• People are demanding greater freedom and choice
• There are large numbers of abandoned children
 CASE STUDY: High dependent population (Japan)
Background
As you can see from the Population pyramid, Japan has many people above the age of 60,
yet very few below 20 in comparison There are lots of elderly dependents above the age of
60 / 70. The number of elderly people is increasing, due to long life expectancy, which
causes the following problems:
• Pressure on the Japanese health services to provide medical care
• Pressure on the Japanese Government to pay pensions
• Pressure on public transport services, as much of the elderly population no longer
drive
However, there is an additional problem that is potentially more important than the large
dependent population. There are very few youths being born in Japan, as you can see from
the tapering out of the population diagram at the base.
This could be because less women are having babies due to lifestyle changes - they may
get a better standard of living without children. Or perhaps they may struggle to handle
children alongside a job in one of Japan's high-tech industries - more Japanese women are
involved in industry than before.
There will soon not be enough of a Japanese working population to support the elderly
population.
This may lead to:
• Higher Taxes to pay for old age pensions and medical care
• A smaller population in the future
• Reduced future economic growth, as less people are of working age.
The population won't be replaced, so Japan is likely to need to look at migration to provide a
sufficiently sized workforce; or, Japan could attempt to increase the fertility rate by offering
incentives to couples to have children. The population won't be replaced because the current
fertility rate is well below the required level to prevent population decline and to maintain the
population size.
An urban area (Manchester)
Background
Industrial town,
• Located at the Rural-Urban Fringe - Manchester is an industrial city
• Residential: Located in the Suburbs
• Commercial: At the Rural-Urban Fringe and in the CBD - e.g. the Trafford Centre and
the Arndale Centre
Change in Land use Question
• Mark Scheme
Levels marking
Note: Urban area. Urban fringe/outer edges of city, such as housing on farmland is fine. If
clearly rural = 0.
Note: If no clear change identified at all, conflict can be credited to top of L1 only for generic
reference to urban areas.
Level 1 (1–3 marks)
Statements including limited detail which describe a change in land use and/or explain why it
has caused conflict.
E.g. build a supermarket = L1.
Level 2 (4–6 marks)
Uses named example.
More developed statements which describe a change in land use and/or explain why it has
caused conflict.
Note: Do not link change and conflict for a L2 statement.
Note: Can gain credit for arguing and developing both sides of an argument for more than
one L2.
E.g. Knocked down houses and built a supermarket = L2 ( so idea of landuse
change)
For conflict accept idea of problems
E.g. Created lots of traffic and so people are late for work = L2
E.g. Loss of habitat and so animals die/people protest = L2
E.g. Expensive to build and money could have been spent on local schools.
(Note: Max 5 if no named or inappropriate example)
Level 3 (7 marks)
Uses named example.
Comprehensive and accurate statements which describe a change in land use and explain
why it has caused conflict, with some place specific reference.
Content Guide:
Content will depend on the change in land use selected and these are likely to be chosen
from:
o Road/railway/metro building,
o Demolition/building of housing,
o Building of a new shop, school, clinic, hotel, etc.
 o New industrial development,
o Building a new airport,
o Construction of buildings on parkland, etc.
o The list is not exhaustive, and all examples used should be credited if valid
o changes in land use in an urban area.
• Most of the retail parks (like the Trafford Centre) are located on the outskirts of
Manchester - away from the CBD - for better accessibility.
• This is also because the land there is cheaper and more readily available.
• There are lots of major roads near the Trafford Centre, meaning that people from all
over the North of the UK can easily drive there.
• They did this so, regionally, people can compare High Order goods at the services
located there, driving up profits.
• However, this means that derelict brownfield sites are being created in the Inner City
and CBD.
• This is a result of commercial services moving to the Rural-Urban fringe, while
building on cheap greenfield land.
Reasons
Place specific reference is likely to consist of:
Locational details,
Specific details of the urban area chosen/change in land use, etc.
Impact

• Unemployment
• Housing/lack of or poor condition
• Traffic
• Crime
• Specified pollution
• Shanty towns
• Natural disasters
• Poor healthcare
• Education
• Water supply
• Sanitation
• Food supplies
• Pattern of Transport Routes
• Location within the urban area,
• Radiating from centre,
• Cost of land,
• Relief,
• Serving different land use zones, etc.
• Migrant in Shanty Housing Problems
 • Poor quality housing,
• Water and air pollution,
• Shortage of food and water,
• High crime rates,
• Not enough health care and education,
• Lack of employment,
• Poverty,
• Lack of qualifications/skills/education/no experience,
• Some cannot speak the language/language barrier,
• Low paid jobs,
• May have to live away from their families,
• Discrimination may occur,
• Exploitation by employers
Problems
• Pollution has been partially deferred by the movement of industry towards
Manchester's Rural-Urban fringe.
• Also, the reduction of congestion and traffic (mentioned below) has meant that less
car fumes and car noises are present in the city centre - reducing noise and air
pollution.
• Inequality has been dealt with by building affordable housing in some areas of the
Greater Manchester region, accommodating people who may not be able to afford
the high prices of housing in the city centre.
• There used to be greater congestion in the Greater Manchester area until recently.
• The reason for the reduction was expansion of the Metrolink Tram service network,
meaning less people needed to commute by car.
• Lower public transport prices encouraged people further to drop the car and hop on
mass transit- achieving the council's target of reducing congestion in the city centre's
narrow streets.
• The movement of services to the rural-urban fringe has been reduced by
regeneration projects, which aim to encourage businesses back into the CBD and
Inner City.
Regeneration
• The centre of Manchester has undergone, and is undergoing, urban regeneration
and urban redevelopment to attract commercial services back into the CBD to
prevent sites from becoming derelict and disused.
• They have done this by performing urban landscaping, making the centre of
Manchester a more pleasant area for consumers and citizens.
• One notable area of improvement is in the Manchester Printworks.
• These were redeveloped in 2000 to reduce the amount of disused spaces and to
provide new commercial services in the city centre- like a cinema and restaurants.
• The effect is that the urban centre is now more attractive for new businesses and
citizens, regaining its commercial status.
 CASE SYUDY: Traffic Congestion (London)
Causes:
Inadequate public transport
• Expensive public transport
High car ownership
Poor road network
• Increased car ownership
Large population
• Population growth and rural-urban migration
Lots of people commuting to work
Most businesses / workplaces / schools in similar location
Most workplaces start / finish at the same time etc.
Effects:
• Social: Increased respiratory problems, more cars on roads increase frequency of
accidents, more traffic jams increase road rage phenomena.
• Environmental: More vehicles on roads increase all sorts of pollution which could
harm the plants and animals around.
• Economic problems: The government has to think and invest in new road plans
which could cost them millions
Solutions:
Congestion charge:
• The government had made a charge for drivers at a fixed rate of £11.50 when driving
into Central London which can slow and limit the number of cars travelling across
cities / areas
Barclays bike hire and bike lanes and work showers:
• There is now a bike hire scheme in London sponsored by the bank Barclays.
• People can now borrow bikes for a short period at minimal cost.
• Bike lanes are being create to make using a bike cheaper and workplaces have been
encouraged to install showers, so people can cycle to work and wash when they get
there.
Reintroduction of trams:
• Trams which are like buses that run on train tracks in the road have been
reintroduced to South London. Trams were an early form of public transport common
in most British cities. Unfortunately most were removed as car ownership increased.
• They are environmentally good because they run on electricity and don't release
greenhouse gases.
Extension of the underground:
• New lines have been recently built or upgraded. The Jubilee Line was the latest big
extension which goes from Central London out to East London (near the site of the
2012 Olympic Games).
Pedestrianisation:
• Pedestrianisation means removing cars from the roads and making them walking
only areas.
• Some areas of London including the north side of Trafalgar Square, Leicester Square
and much of Covent Garden have been pedestrianised to make it safer for people
walking and to discourage car use.
Improved rail links (Crossrail and East London Overground and Docklands Light
Railway):
• London is currently undertaking one of the biggest engineering projects in Europe by
building a railway from east to west London under the city.
• This railway will decrease travel times and is called Crossrail. London is also
improving or extending railways in the East of London near the site of the Olympics.
Bus lanes and priority traffic lights:
• The amount of buses have been increased and old ones renewed. Also some bus
lanes have been created to avoid the traffic lights and also bus lanes are given
priority at lights.
• This should hopefully make buses quicker than cars and encourage more people to
use public transport.
Car sharing (pooling) and car sharing lanes:
• Websites have been created to encourage people to share cars who travel on similar
routes.
• Also road lanes have also been dedicated to people with more than one person in
them.
Working from home and Flextime:
• Flexitime is people have to work a set number of hours a week, but aren't given
specific start and finish times. This allows people to start early or finish late, or do
both and then earn days off.
• Improved technology has allowed more people to work from home and also flexitime
has meant people can travel at different times reducing the traffic peaks.
Reurbanisation:
• This means the movement of people back in the centre of urban areas (near the
CBD). By encouraging people back into the centre then commuter times and traffic
jams should decrease.
Increased car tax and petrol duty.
Possible carbon tax and car park tax:
• Already the government has increased petrol tax and increased car tax on big cars to
encourage people to drive smaller cars. In the future it has been proposed to
introduce further carbon taxes and possibly a tax on car parking spaces.
Park and ride:
• This is not used widely at the moment but will be used a lot during the Olympics. Car
parks will be built on the edge of London next to train stations and bus routes.
• People will then park their cars on the edge and transfer to public transport to reduce
traffic.
 CASE STUDY: Settlement and Service Provision in an area (Isle of Mann)
Background:
Place specific reference is likely to consist of:
• Locational details,
• Named parts of settlement etc.
• Population statistics,
• Details of transport/communication network,
• Named shops and services, etc.
Describe and Explain its Functions
Capital city / Service Centre
• The Isle of Man is a small is/and located halfway between England and Ireland
Douglas, the capital of the island, provides services for much of the Isle of Man.
Reasons for Growth
• Accessibility,
• Relief,
• Water supply,
• Historical factors,
• Trade,
• Industrial growth,
• Natural resources,
• Defence
• Located on an island, which provides protection from armies.
Description
High Order Settlements
Specific service types e.g. shops, schools, health care etc.
• Douglas has several High Order Services that sell High Order goods.
o An example is Currys and Pc World, a popular shop amongst Manx
consumers for purchasing technology and household appliances.
Order of services,
• It is a high-order settlement, containing a high street, numerous retail parks, sport
facilities, 2 cinemas and other High Order services.
Amounts of services,
Quality of services – so poor/good fine, only here.
• People travel from all over the island to shop here, as the High Order goods aren't
available as cheaply, or with as much variety anywhere else on the island.
Competing settlements/services,
• They can compare goods by looking for products at alternative retailers - including
Manx Telecom and Tesco.
Spheres of influence,
• Many people travel a fair distance to Douglas to purchase a Television, Phone or
other High Order goods - as this is where they are available.
• This means that these High Order services - some available in the Spring Valley
Industrial Estate or Eden Park (mixed-use commercial, business and industrial parks
located in the suburbs of Douglas) - have large ranges and spheres of influences.
Low Order Settlement
Specific service types e.g. shops, schools, health care etc.
• These are often meals out (for instance, the wide selection of restaurants in
Castletown), or perhaps cosmetics (available in many pharmacists in Peel,
Castletown, Port Erin and Ramsey - all Middle Order Settlements).
• They travel to their local Convenience Store (e.g.a Spar or Co-Op) or Post Office
(Low Order services) to stock up on milk, tea, eggs and bread (all Low Order
Products).
Order of services,
Amounts of services,
• 38 Middle Order goods are available in Middle Order services across the island.
Quality of services – so poor/good fine, only here.
Competing settlements/services,
Spheres of influence,
• There are more Middle Order Settlements - like Castletown - than High Order
settlements (there is only 1, Douglas).
o So Middle Order goods and services have smaller ranges than High Order
goods and services.
o There are lots of Low Order Settlements on the Isle of Man, much more than
higher order settlements - which follows the Settlement Hierarchy Model.
• People don't like to travel far to get basic, low value goods - and are unlikely to want
to compare them.
Threshold Population
Frequency of use,
• Low Order goods are readily available across the island in Low-Order settlements
(especially in hamlets, villages and towns).
Change in landuse (Chesterfield, UK)
Background
• Chesterfield is a market town and a borough of Derbyshire, United Kingdom. It lies
24 miles (39 km) north of Derby and has a population of 103,800 (2011), making it
the largest town in Derbyshire.
• Chesterfield received its market charter in 1204 (as it sits on the confluence of
between the rivers Rother and Hipper) and has a moderate sized market on three
days a week.
• The town sits on a large coalfield which formed a major part of the area's economy
until the 1980s. Now the area’s economy relies on the retail and tourism service
industry.
Reasons
Why have these changes occurred?
1. Houses now have refrigerators which means that they can purchase a lot more food
in one go, rather than shopping daily as they now have a way to keep it fresh.
2. More and more people have cars which means that they can buy more in one go
(whereas historically, people had to carry their shopping home on foot).
3. More often, both parents of a family are working full time which means that they
cannot go to the shops as regularly, and when they do, it has to be later on in the
evenings or on Saturdays or Sundays which is why 24-hour supermarkets are great.
4. Due to less time, it is more convenient if all their needs can be catered for under one
roof, clothes, electrical items, white goods, food, leisure etc. Tesco’s Extra sells
everything, both convenience and consumer goods.
5. Less time also means that people want to get places quicker and with more ease so
big superstores are located on the edge of towns, with easy access from main roads
so less time is spend sitting in traffic to get to cramped city centres. Tesco Extra is
located just off the A61, off the M1.
6. Free parking for your vehicle and plenty of space (995 spaced), unlike in Chesterfield
town centre where you have to pay and spend time searching for somewhere to park.
7. Land is also expensive to rent or buy in the CBD area, which means that
developments are searching for cheap brownfield sites on the edge of urban areas.
Types of Changes
• Construction of a new service/hospital/school,
• New housing development
• Building of a new industry
• Road building
• Building of a new shop/supermarket
• Closing industry
• Urban fringe development
• Shanty towns
Impacts
How has the retail service provision changed?
1. In the early 20th century Chesterfield at last became industrialized and a heavy
engineering industry grew up and prospered which meant that more people migrated
to the area for employment.
2. In the late 20th century manufacturing industry declined in Chesterfield as it did in
other towns and service industries such as tourism and retail became more important
to provide jobs for all of the people that had moved to the area.
3. Smaller local convenience shops were located in the town centre such as butchers,
baker, greengrocers etc., providing the needs of the population, along with the
famous market.
4. Vicar Lane Shopping Centre opened in 2000 to host new chain stores to upgrade the
town centre and increase its catchment area.
5. Then, in 2009, the old Deema Glass factory site was developed to hold a new retail
park on the edge of Chesterfield housing the new ProAct Stadium, Tesco Extra and a
number of other large food and drink outlets. This is the second big development on
the outskirts of Chesterfield.
6. There is currently a proposed retail development called the Chesterfield Waterside.
7. Shops are now closing in Chesterfield’s city centre
CASE STUDY: A rapidly growing urban area in a developing country and migration to
it (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil)
Background
• Location: Is in the south-east coast of Brazil.
• Rio was formerly the capital of Brazil until the government decided to locate the
capital inland in Brasilia.
• It had a population of 6.9 million in 1960 but it now stands at 13.4 million in 2019
• It is a city of contrasts with rich people living in luxury around Copacabana beach and
the vast majority living in poor conditions around the edge of the city.
• Problems in the city include housing, crime, traffic and pollution
Reasons
• Education,
• Health care,
• Water supply,
• Electricity,
• Employment
• Migration
• Transport and communications
• Food & Water supply
• Tourism
• Political factors
• Rural-to-urban migration – people moving from the countryside to the city
• Natural increase – people having more babies. As more people live in towns and
cities there will be an increase in births
Benefits of Urban Growth
Social
• Sick children can get treated.
• Anti-biotics are available in the hospitals for babies
• Children can go to school and get qualifications for the future
• Water is cleaner in the city
• Satellite TV and good electricity supply
• Access to good schools and university
Economic
• Easier to get permits for travel and business
• Lots of people in the city to sell goods to
• Consistent electricity supply so machines always run making it easier to make money
• New industrial areas (Santa Cruz) – this has attracted lots businesses and industry
such as sawmills
• New businesses like sawmills cause new businesses to set up such as paper shop
and a machine repair business
Problems
Natural Environment
• Loss of vegetation
• Loss of habitats
• Commercial fishing has decreased by 90% in the last 20 years
• Extinction of species
• Land Pollution
 • Problems
o Biggest problems in the favelas
o Built on steep slopes with few proper roads – difficult for waster collection
trucks to access
o Dumped in the streets and water sources – causes diseases like cholera and
encourages rats
• Solutions
o Power plant set up to make methane from rotting rubbish – 30 tonnes of
rubbish a day makes enough electricity for 1000 homes
Water pollution
• A vast amount of rubbish is produced and in favelas this is not collected. Along with
open sewerage drains it results in the spread of diseases.
• Problems
o Ends up on the beaches – could put of tourists and the country loses vital
income
o 55 rivers heavily polluted
o 200 tonnes of raw sewage enters the bay every day
• Solutions
o 12 new sewage works have been built since 2004 at a cost of US$ 68 million
o Ships fined for discharging fuel into the bay illegally
o 5km of new sewage pipes have been installed around badly polluted areas
Air pollution
• Mountains around the city keep the fumes in the city and make the vehicles use a
limited number of routes. This results in congestion and noise
• Problems
o Heavy traffic and congestion on roads causes a build-up of exhaust fumes
o Steep mountains – roads can only be built on coastal lowlands
o Tunnels are need to connect different areas of the city
o 40% increase in the number of cars
• Solutions
o Expansion of the metro system
o New toll roads to reduce congestion
o Make coast roads one-way during rush hours to improve traffic flow
Human Environment
Traffic issues,
• Transport problems – congestion and pollution
• The mountainous relief limits the space for building and makes the development of
an effective transport network more difficult.
Inequality,
• The inequality in wealth in Rio is staggering: the richest 1 per cent of the population
earns 12 per cent of the income and the poorest 50 per cent earns just 13 per cent of
the city's income.
• The southern zone of the city is the richest area.

Housing issues,
• An estimated 0.5 million are homeless.
• Approximately 1 million live in favelas (informal shanty settlements).
Shanty towns
• Two examples are Morro de Alemao and Rocinha. (YOU MUST KNOW THESE
NAMES!!)
• Another million live in poor-quality government housing in the periferia.
• The favela housing lacks basic services like running water, sewerage or electricity.
• The houses are constructed from wood, corrugated iron, broken bricks and tiles or
other materials found lying around.
• Favelas are often found on land that is steep, by the side of roads, railways etc and
flash floods can destroy such houses and take people’s lives.
• At first the government tried to bulldoze such communities but now they remain
because of the community spirit, samba music and football etc.
• Shanty towns are built on unstable land of poor materials – risk of landslides & fires
Conflicts over land use change,
Specified pollution,
Crime,
• Favelas are thought to be associated with drugs, violence etc. Tourists to Rio are
warned not to enter favela areas or take valuables to beaches etc.
• Some wealthy are moving to new towns to avoid crime.
• Social problems (crime: Rio murder capital of the world) [Stats pls]
• Pacifying Police Units (UPPs) were established to reclaim favelas from drug dealers
• Police have taken control of crime-dominated Complexo do Alemao and 30 smaller
favelas
Poverty,
Unemployment.
• Increased demand for services (schools and hospitals)
• Sanitation and Health (sewage, waste disposal, disease)
• Big recession in 2015 – increased unemployment and with high taxes led to riots
• 20% unemployment in the favelas
• Lots people in the informal economy – not regulated & taxed but low paid
Natural disasters
Poor healthcare
• Challenges:
o Only 55% of the city had a local family health clinic
o Services for pregnant women are very poor
• Solutions:
o Many favelas are inaccessible on steep slopes and crowded – doctors took
health kits to each house and tested for 20 diseases and treated them
o Infant mortality decreased
Education
• Only half of children above the age of 14 go to school
• School enrolment is low because
o A shortage of nearby schools
o A lack of money and the need to work
o A shortage of teachers
o Low pay and poor training for teachers
• Solutions
o Encourage local people to volunteer to help in school
o Give grants to poor kids
 o Make money available for free lessons in volleyball & squash in the favelas
Water supply
• Challenges
o 12% of people in Rio do not have access to running water
o 37% of water is lost through leaky pipes
• Solutions
o 7 new treatment plants built between 1998 and 2014
o Over 300km of pipes were laid
o By 2014 95% of population had a mains water supply
Sanitation
Food supplies
Energy
• Challenges
o The whole city suffers frequent blackouts
o Made worse during the world cup and the Olympics
o Many people in the poorest parts get their electricity illegally – this is risky and
unsafe
• Solutions
o Installing 60km of new power lines
o Building a new nuclear generator
o Developing the new Simplicio hydro-electric complex which will increase Rio’s
supply of electricity by 30%
• Health care
o Education
• Challenges
o Water supply
o Energy
Management
Self-help schemes.
SELF HELP HOUSING ROCINHA
• Most of old temporary wooden houses replaced by brick and tile and extended to use
every square centimetre of land.
• Many residents have set up their own shops and small industries in the informal
sector.
• Governments have added electricity, paving, lighting, water pipes but the steep hills
still restrict.
• Within the Favelas, the government has assisted people in improving their homes.
Breeze blocks and other materials were given as long as people updated their
homes.
Site and services schemes.
Building of low-cost local authority housing.

NEW TOWN BARRA DA TIJUCA

• The government also moved a lot of people out of shanty towns into low coast, basic
housing estates with plumbing, electricity and transport links.
• Land outside to South of Rio was uninhabited until motorway was built in 1970s
• Rich moved out of Rio to avoid problems of city
• It has 5km of shops, schools, hospitals, offices, places of entertainment etc
 • Spacious and luxury accommodation in 10-30 floor high rise apartment blocks with
security and facilities or detached houses.
• Both adults in each family chose to work in high paid jobs tp pay for expensive life.
• Families with own cars but also well connected with public transport. These areas
have own favelas as housekeepers, gardeners etc cannot afford accommodation
• Infrastructural improvements – electricity, water, sewage disposal etc.
• Installation of water/electricity supply,
• Sewage treatment,
• Road building
• Improvement of infrastructure or examples
• Creation of employment
• Provision of education/hospitals
• Creation of jobs for people with low skills/or examples etc.
• Increasing police force/security;
• Investment in rural areas;

FAVELA BAIRRO PROJECT

• Often the poorest people in urban areas are the worst affect by the problems of
urban growth. Urban planning schemes can help reduce the impact of these
problems and improve the quality of life for the urban poor.
• The project ran from 1995-2008 and involved 253,000 people in 73 favelas
• Day care centres for children to allow parents to work and earn money
• Adult education classes so that they can learn new skills and earn more money
• Services to help people with drug or alcohol addictions so they get ‘clean’ and
contribute to society
• 1990s government chose 16 favelas to improve using 250 million euros.
• Replaced wood buildings with brick and gave each house a yard.
• Widened the streets so that the emergency services and waste collectors could get
access.
• Improved sanitation, health facilities and sports facilities.
• Used residents for labour to develop their skills and in return residents paid taxes.
• Community policing has been encouraged with greater links between the police and
the local communities and businesses, but drug gangs still pose a huge problem.
• People are given help to get legal ownership of their land and properties – this is
good as they will not get evicted and they will try to improve their land
• Running training schemes to help people find better jobs
• Wooden buildings are being replaced with brick buildings so they can deal with poor
weather
• Streets have been widened and paved and sewers have been plumbed in so the
sewage does not stay in the street and spread disease
• Rubbish collections once a week to remove waste from the streets
 CASE STUDY: International Migration (Syria to Germany)
Background
• Location: Syria is located in Western Asia, north of the Arabian Peninsula, at the
eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Turkey to the north, Lebanon
and Israel to the west and southwest, Iraq to the east, and Jordan to the south.
• 12 million people in Syria need humanitarian assistance due to a violent civil war that
began in 2011.
• 5.6 million Syrians are refugees, and 62 million are displaced within Syria; half of
those affected are children.
• Around 800,000 Syrian refugees and asylum seekers are currently living in
Germany
Place specific reference is likely to consist of: Named parts of the chosen country, Countries
where migrants have arrived from, Population data etc
Reasons
Employment/wealth,
Push Factors
• More than 80% of Syrians live below the poverty line
• 8.4% of Syrians are unemployed
Pull Factors
• Germany is economically stable: low unemployment rate, good job market, good
career chances as a result of an ageing population
• There are 1.6 million vacant jobs, which could be filled by immigrants.
Health care,
Push Factors
• Around half of Syria’s 493 hospitals in 2010 have been seriously damaged in the war
Education,
Pull Factors
• Germany protects and promotes human rights: provides food, shelter, education
• All Syrian children with asylum status are eligible for government-provided schooling.
• Many teenage and adult refugees are currently enrolled in government-run
“integration courses” which focus mainly on German language instruction but also
include modules on the country’s history, law, and cultural norms.
Food supplies,
Push Factors
• 6.5 million people estimated to be food insecure
Vegetation Loss
 • Syrian power lines damaged, so people need to rely on timber for fuel and electricity.
• More houses are built to house refugees, so deforestation occurs for more land.
Loss of Soil Fertility
• Acid rain caused by destruction of oilfields, leading to oil fires that release Nitrogen
Dioxide into the air, causing soil acidification.
• Heavy metals from destroyed oilfields leak into the soil, damaging plants.
Soil Erosion
• Syria is very vulnerable to desertification
• The consistent droughts, relieved by occasional high intensity rain, create ideal
conditions for erosion.
Natural disasters,
• 2015 Dust Storm forced approximately 1.5 million agricultural workers to abandon
their farms and head to urban areas.
To be near friends/family,
Political issues,
Push Factors
• Many face political persecution: government tortures civilians
Pull Factors
• Germany is politically stable
War
Push Factors
• Seeking safty from war and persecution in the Syrian Civil War
• Others are fleeing from religious persecution: radical groups such as IS (which has
trained child soldiers and performed extra-judicial executions)
Impact
Positive:
Labour supply
• ➔ A supply of needed labour helped the economy, especially because some
migrants were willing to undertake jobs the locals would rather not do.
Many immigrants will do dirty/low paid jobs
• ➔ Migrants work and then pay taxes.
Cultural understanding
• ➔ Migrants made available a wealth of cultural experiences in art, music, and
literature, as well as creating a better understanding of different cultures
Provision of services e.g. ethnic restaurants
 • ➔ Their arrival resulted in the provision of services, including a diversity of food in
ethnic restaurants.
Increases size of market for local businesses
• ➔ They created a larger market for local businesses.
Negative:
Racial tension;
• ➔ Most migrants were Muslims and their destination countries were Christian,
causing culture clashes. By 2017 there were nearly six million Muslims in the
German population. As migrants tend to live together and keep to their own ways
instead of integrating into the local community, racial tension can result.
• ➔ A few migrants did not respect the culture and laws of their adopted country. There
was a particular problem if they came from areas where females were not given an
equal standing in society
Pressure on employment
• ➔ The willingness of immigrants to work for lower wages depressed incomes and the
increased competition for jobs resulted in unemployment.
Pressure on services e.g. health care, education
• ➔ There was extreme pressure on housing, health services, and schools. Many
school classes have children speaking numerous languages.
• ➔ Maternity services were severely stretched as the migrants are mainly of
childbearing age (their median age is 27). As their culture is to have more children
than the average EU family, the impact on birth rates and total population size will be
felt for generations.
Need for more housing/creation of ghettoes etc
• ➔ Immediate shelter, food and other necessities had to be provided.
 CASE STUDY: Internal Migration (Brazil)
Background
Many of Brazil’s biggest cities have seen a mass migration of people from rural areas over
the last 30 years. Cities like Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro have seen rapid urbanisation
caused by rural-urban migration, which has created problems for the infrastructure of these
cities
Reasons
Push Factors:
• Rural droughts leading to crop failure.
• Over-cropping and over grazing leading to poor productivity.
• Lack of investment in infrastructure in rural areas.
• Lower average wages in rural areas compared to urban areas.
• Rapid urban growth due to immigration and high birth rate
• High infant mortality due to lack of clean water, electricity, sewerage and medical
care
• Housing in rural areas is even worse than in the city.
• Lack of schools, shops, etc.
Pulls Factors:
• Better job prospects and higher wages in the city.
• More schools, doctors and other services in the city.
• Successful migrants encourage people to join large corporations located in city.
• Well-paid factor work in many manufacturing industries (e.g. car production).
• Better services and facilities in urban areas.
• Advertising campaigns attracting migrants to the cities.
Impact
Positive
Economy
• Migrant workers contribute hugely to the booming manufacturing growth in Brazil’s
economy.
• Many MNCs have located in south-east Brazil to take advantage of the number of
workers available (e.g. Ford and VW).
Social
• Migrants from rural areas have brought new traditions and cultures which make
Brazilian cites very diverse.
Negative
Employment
• Many workers who have been unable to find work live in favela or slum districts of
these cities (e.g. Rocinha in Rio).
Standard of living,
• Trying to improve the infrastructure of these areas is very costly for the Brazilian
government, especially with the coming Olympics and World Cup (these areas are
seen as an embarrassment).
• People living in favelas can become and economic burden on the Brazilian
government for healthcare and benefits.
Food supplies,
• People living in favelas often have no running water in their homes or proper
satiations meaning inhabitants have a lower life expectancy than the Brazilian
average.
• Favelas like Rocinha often have a high crime rate and house drug gangs, making
them dangerous places to live.
Environment,
• Many favelas are built on unsuitable ‘marginal’ land which is steep, dangerous and
prone to landslide.
• Waste and rubbish from open sewers can create an environmental hazard.
 CASE SYUDY: HIV/AIDS (Botswana)
Background
Reasons
• In 2005 an estimated 270,000 people living with HIV (total population below two
million) 24.1% of people have HIV/Aids
• Life expectancy less than 40 years in 2000-2005, a figure about 28 years lower than
it would have been without AIDS.
• An estimated 120,000 children have lost at least one parent to the epidemic.
• First case 1985
Policy
• (1987-89) the screening of blood to eliminate the risk of HIV transmission through
blood transfusion.
• (1989-97) information, education and communication programmes - Botswana
National Policy on AIDS.
• (1997 onwards) education, prevention and comprehensive care including the
provision of antiretroviral treatment for 19,000 people.
HIV prevention programme:
Impact
• Impact on death rates,
• Impact on production,
• Economic loss,
• Social impacts,
Solution/Prevention
Public education & awareness –
1. "ABC" of AIDS: Abstain, Be faithful and, if you have sex, Condomize.
2. Safe-sex billboards and posters everywhere.
3. Radio drama dealing with culturally specific HIV/AIDS-related issues and
encouraging changes in sexual behaviour.
4. Workplace peer counselling.
Education for young people –
• Youth Health Organisation (YOHO) has art festivals, dramas and group discussions.
• School-based learning plays and teachers are given special training.
• Talk show is broadcast twice weekly by Botswana Television.
Condom distribution & education –
Installation of 10,500 condom dispensers in traditional and non-traditional outlets -condoms
have been given out for free distribution. 2. Targeting of highly mobile populations –
especially migrant workers travelling to other sub-Saharan African countries. Concentration
on treatment of sexually transmitted infections, condom promotion and prevention education.
• Improvement of safety for blood transfusion s- the national supply of HIV-free blood
doubled by 2005 because of better screening of donors and counselling.
• Prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV - in 2005 35.4% of women
attending antenatal clinics in Botswana had HIV. Encouraging the use of antiretroviral
treatment and non-breast-feeding practices.
• Voluntary testing-same day results so more people are aware of their status.
• National antiretroviral therapy for 19,000 people