Interference

Interference of light is the phenomena of multiple light waves interfering with one another under
certain circumstances, causing the combined amplitudes of the waves to either increase or
decrease. The phenomenon of interference of light has proved the validity of the wave theory of
light. This principle was explained by Huygens in 1678.
When two or more wave trains act simultaneously on any point in a medium, the displacement
of the particle at any instant is due to the superposition of all the wave trains. The resulting wave
“displacement” at any point and time is the vector sum of the “displacements” of the individual
waves. The most common example of interference of light is the soap bubble which reflects
wide colors when illuminated by a light source.

What is Superposition of Waves?

The principle of superposition may be applied to waves whenever two (or more) waves
travelling through the same medium at the same time. It states that when two or more waves of
the same type are incident on the same point, the resultant amplitude at that point is equal to the
vector sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves.
If the crest of a wave meets the crest of another wave of the same frequency at the same point,
then the resultant amplitude is the sum of individual amplitudes – this is known as constructive
interference. Similarly, if the crest of a wave meets the trough of another wave, then the
resultant amplitude is equal to the difference in the individual amplitudes – this is known as
destructive interference.

What is Interference of light?

Interference of light is defined as: “When two or more light waves having the same frequency,
same wavelength and same amplitude meet together in a medium at a point, they cancel or
enhance the effect of each other at that point. This phenomenon is called interference of light
waves.”

Types of Interference
There are two types of interference of light:
(i) Constructive interference
(ii) Destructive interference

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Constructive Interference
If two waves superimpose with each other in the same phase, the amplitude of the resultant is
equal to the sum of the amplitudes of individual waves resulting in the maximum intensity of
light, this is known as constructive interference.

Some of its effects are:

 In constructive interference, two waves of light reinforce each other.
 In constructive interference, a bright fringe is obtained on the screen.

Destructive Interference
If two waves superimpose with each other in opposite phase, the amplitude of the resultant is
equal to the difference in amplitude of individual waves, resulting in the minimum intensity of
light, this is known as destructive interference.

Some of its effects are:

 Two waves cancel the effects of each other.
 Due to a dark fringe is obtained on the screen.

Conditions for interference

In order to observe the interference of light waves, the following conditions must be met.
 The two light sources must be coherent, that is, they must maintain a constant phase with
respect to each other.
 The two light sources should be monochromatic, that is, of a single wavelength.
 The principle of superposition must apply.

Coherent Sources
Coherent sources are those sources of light that emit continuous light waves of the same
wavelength, same frequency, and are in the same phase or have a constant phase difference.
For light waves emitted by two sources of light, to remain coherent the initial phase difference
between waves should remain constant in time. If the phase difference changes continuously or
randomly with time then the sources are incoherent.
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In actual practice it is not possible to have two independent sources which are coherent. But for
experimental purposes, two virtual sources formed from a single source can act as coherent
sources.
The coherent sources can be obtained either by the source and obtaining its virtual image or by
obtaining two virtual images of the same source. This is because any change of phase in the real
source will cause a simultaneous and equal change in its image. Generally, coherence in
interference is obtained by two methods:
Division of wavefront
Here, in this case, the wavefront is divided into two parts by reflection, refraction, or
diffraction and those two parts reunite at a small angle to produce interference as done in the
case of Young’s double-slit experiment and Fresnel’s biprism experiment.
Division of amplitude
Here in this case the amplitude of a section of the wavefront is divided into two parts and
reunited later to produce interference such as in case of thin films.
Laser light is almost monochromatic light with little spreading and two independent sources of
laser light can produce an observable interference pattern.

Young's Double Slit Experiment

Thomas Young was an early 19th century physicist who demonstrated interference by showing
that light is a wave phenomenon, and he also postulated that different colors of light were made
from waves with different lengths. This was contrary to common opinion at the time.
In 1802, Young conducted his classic experiment, often termed "The Double-Slit Experiment,"
originally used sunlight that had first been diffracted through a single slit as a light source.

Fig. (a) Fig. (b)

He allowed sunlight to fall on a pinhole S and then at some distance away on two pinholes A
and B. A and B are equidistant from S and are close to each other. Spherical waves also spread
out from A and B. These waves are of the same amplitude and wavelength. On the screen
interference bands are produced which are alternatively dark and bright. The points such as E are
bright because the crest due to one wave coincides with the crest due to the other and therefore
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 poin such as F are dark because the crest of one falls on the
they reinforce with each other. The points
trough of the other and they neutralize the effect of each other. Points,, similar to E, where the
trough of one falls on the trough of the other, are also bright because the two waves reinforce.

Phase
se Difference and Path Difference
Path difference and phase difference between the waves of same frequency is used to determine
constructive and destructive interference in waves.
Path difference (measured in terms of wavelength): It is the actual measur
measurable difference
between lengths of path travelled by two waves. Usually it is represented using l.
Phase difference (measured in radians): It is the difference in phase of two waves of same
frequency. It is represented by f or .

Let us consider path difference between two waves is x and Phase difference is .
For a path difference l phase difference is 2.
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So for path difference x,, phase difference is = 1, l

Analytical Treatment of Interference (Condition of maximum and minimum

inimum interference)

Fig. 3
We shall derive an expression for the resultant intensity at any point P of the screen due to the
superposition of two waves of light. Let S be a narrow slit illuminated by a monochromatic light
of wavelength, (Figure 3), and A and B two narrow slits close together and equidistant from S.
The wave of light from S arriving at A and B will always be in phase. Let a1 and a2 be the
amplitudes of the two waves from A and B respectively.
Then the displacement Y1 due to one wave, from A, at any instant t is represented as
= (1)
The displacement Y2 due to other wave from S2, at the same instant t is represented as
= sin ( + ) (2)
where  is the phase difference between the two waves reaching at P, at an instant t.
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According to the principle of superposition, the resultant displacement Y at P is merely the
algebraic sum of the individual displacement Y1 and Y2, that is
= +
= + sin( + )
= + sin + sin
= ( + ) + ( sin )
Consider + = f (3)
and sin = f (4)
= . f + f.
= . ( + f) (5)
which represents the equation of simple harmonic vibration of amplitude A and phase
difference .
Squaring equation (3) and (4) and adding
f+ f=( + ) + sin
Let = =
We get = sin + (1 + +2 )
= sin + + +2
=2 +2 = 2 (1 + )
=2 .2 =4
The intensity (I) at a point given by the square law of amplitude
=
=4 (6)

Special case:
(i) Maximum Intensity: When phase difference  =0, 2, 2(2),….n(2), or path
difference x = 0, l, 2l, 3…nl, then from Eq. (6) =4
Intensity is maximum when phase difference is a whole number multiple of 2 or the
path difference is a whole number multiple of wavelength.

(ii) Minimum Intensity: When the phase difference  =, 3, 5,….(2n – 1), or the path
l l l l
difference = , , , … (2 − 1) I=0
Intensity is minimum when the path difference is an odd number multiple of half
wavelength.

(iii) Energy distribution: From equation (6), it is found

that the intensity at bright points is 4a2 and at dark
points it is 0. According to the law of conservation of
energy, energy is it only transferred from the points
of minimum intensity to the points of maximum
intensity. As shown in Fig. 4 the intensity varies
from 0 to 4a2, and the average is 2a2.. Therefore, the Fig. 4
formation of interference fringes is in accordance
with the law of conservation of energy.

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Interference Fringe
The alternating bright and the dark band formed due to interference is called fringe. When
two light waves superimpose it forms constructive interference and destructive interference. The
bright band is due to constructive interference and the dark band is due to destructive
interference.

Theory of Interference Fringes

Let us consider a monochromatic source S and two pinhole A and B, equidistance from S. A and
B are two coherent source separated by a distance d. The screen is ‘D’ distance away from the
slit or source of light. The point C on the screen is equidistant from A and B. Therefore, the path
difference between the two waves is zero. Thus the point C has maximum intensity.

Let us consider a point P is at a distance x from C. The waves reach at point P from A and B.
d d
Here PQ  x  , and PR  x 
2 2
2 2
2 2
 2  d   2  d 
( BP)  ( AP)   D   x      D   x   
  2     2  
( BP) 2  ( AP) 2  2 xd
2 xd
BP  AP 
BP  AP
But BP  AP  D (approximately)
2 xd xd
 Path difference  BP  AP   (1)
2D D
2  xd 
and Phase difference    (2)
l D
(i) Bright fringes/ Constructive Interference: If the path difference is a whole number
multiple of wavelength l, the point P is bright
xd When n = 1 x1= lD/d
 nl where n  1, 2, 3....
D n = 2 x2= 2lD/d
nl D n = 3 x3= 3lD/d
or x 
d …… … ..
nl D
or generally xn  (3) Therefore the distance between any two
d consecutive bright fringes xn – xn-1 = (lD)/d

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 (ii) Dark fringes/ Destructive Interference: If the path difference is an odd number
multiple of half wavelength l, the point P is dark.
xd l
 (2n  1) where n  0, 1, 2, 3....
D 2
(2n  1)lD (2n  1)lD
or x  or generally xn  (4)
2d 2d
When n = 0 x0=lD/2dD/2d
n = 1 x1= 3lD/2d
D/2d
n = 2 x3= 5lD/2d
D/2d and so on
Therefore the distance between any two consecutive bright fringes xn – xn-1 = (lD)/d

(iii) Fringe Width: The distance between any two consecutive bright or dark fringes is
known as fringe width. Therefore, alternately bright and dark parallel fringes are
formed. The fringes are formed on both sides of C.. Moreover, from equations (3) and
(4),, it is clear that the width of the bright fringe is equal to the width of the dark fringe.
All the fringes are equal in width and are independent of the order of the fringe. The
breadth of a bright or a dark fringe is,is, however, equal to half the fringe width and is
equal to lD)/2d.
lD
The fringe width   .
d
Therefore,
(i) The
he width of the fringe is directly proportional to the wavelength of light,  l.
(ii) The width of the fringe is directly proportional to the distance between the two
sources,  1/d.
Thus, the width of the fringe increases
(a) with increase in wavelength
(b) with increase in the distance D and
(c) by bringing the two sources A and B close to each other.

Fresnel’s Biprism
What is Fresnel Biprism?
A Fresnel Biprism is a thin double prism placed
base to base and have very small refracting
angle (0.50). This is equivalent to a single prism
with one of its angle nearly 1790 and other two
of 0.50 each.
Monochromatic light passes through a small slit
S and is split into two components by biprism.
One of these components seems to originate
from A and is refracted from the upper section
of the biprism, while the other appears to
t come
from B and is refracted from the bottom portion.

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Thus A and B act as two virtual coherent sources formed from the original source. Light waves
arising from A and B interfere in the shaded region and interference fringes are formed which
can be observed on the screen.

Applications of Fresnel's Biprism

Fresnel biprism can be used to determine the wavelength of a light source (monochromatic),
thickness of a thin transparent sheet/ thin film, refractive index of medium etc.

Determination of wave length of light

Using Fresnel’s biprism we can determine the wavelength of monochromatic light.

A fine vertical slit S is adjusted just close to a source of light and the refracting edge is also set
parallel to the slit S such that bc is horizontal. They are adjusted on an optical bench. A
micrometer eyepiece is placed on the optical bench at some distance from the prism, to view the
fringes in its focal plane (at its cross wires).
Suppose the distance between the source and the eyepiece = D
and the distance between the two virtual sources A and B = d.
The eyepiece is moved horizontally (perpendicular to the length of the bench) to determine the
fringe width. Suppose, for crossing n bright fringes from the field of view, the ey
eyepiece has
moved through a distance l.
Then the fringe width,  = l/n
But the fringe width,  = λD/d
∴ λ =βd/D

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Q. What is Thin Film Interference?
A. Thin-film interference is the phenomenon that is a result of light wave being reflected off two
surfaces that are at a distance comparable to its wavelength. When light waves that reflect off
the top and bottom surfaces interfere with one another, we see different colored patterns. During
this, the light reaches the boundary between two media and part of it gets reflected, and some
part gets transmitted.
When the second medium is a thin film, there are two reflections occurring close together at
the top and bottom boundary surfaces of the thin film. Thus, there are two waves emerging
from a thin film – one wave reflected off the top surface of the film, and the other reflected
off the bottom surface.

Q: What affects thin-film interference?

A: The thin-film interference depends on the thickness of the film, light wavelength and
refractive indices.

Interference in thin films by reflection

The formation of colors in thin films can explained as due to the phenomenon of interference. In
this example, the formation of interference pattern is by the division of amplitude. Consider a
thin film of uniform thickness ’ ’ and refractive index ‘μ’. Let a monochromatic light ray AB is
incident is on the upper surface of the film at point ‘A’ with an angle ‘ ’. The incidence light ray
AB is divided into two light rays ray 1 (BC) and ray 2 (EF) by the division of amplitude
principle. These two light rays BC and EF are parallel and superimpose and produce
interference. The intensity of interference fringe depends up on the path difference between the
ray 1 and ray 2.

The path difference between the light rays (1) and (2) is
ℎ = ( + ) − (1)
From ∆ = = or =

Similarly from ∆ E = = or =
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 = = (2)

From ∆BEH = =
∴ = ( + )
From ∆ ∆ = = tan
= (2 tan ). sin
From Snell’s law at point B sin = sin
∴ =2 tan . sin (3)
Substituting the equations (2) and (3) in equation (1), we get
ℎ = −2 . .

= −2 . = (1 − )=
…….= 2 cos
At point B the light ray (1) is reflected at the surface of thin film (denser medium). So the light
ray (1) undergoes a phase change π or an additional path difference λ/2.
λ
ℎ =2 −

Constructive interference (or Bright fridge)

General condition; ℎ =
λ
2 − = λ
λ
2 = λ+
( )λ
2 =

Destructive interference (or Dark fridge)

( )λ
General condition; ℎ =
λ ( )λ λ
2 − = = λ−
2 = λ

Interference in thin films due to transmitted light

Consider a thin transparent film of thickness “t” and refractive index “μ”. Here μ is greater than
one. It means denser than air. A monochromatic light source of wavelength is “ λ” is incident at
angle “i” made. by the incident light from the source to the thin film. Incident light ray will
partially reflected and refracted (because medium is transparent).
The incident ray refracted at the point A and strike at the point B. Where it again partially
reflected BC and transmitted BR. Again at the point C it will partially reflect and partially
transmitted. Hence, the CD reflected light ray transmitted DQ. The second transmitted light ray
travel more as compared to the first one. Here at B and C reflection takes place at the rarer
medium. Therefore, no phase change occurs.

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Let draw a normal BM to the CDC and DN normal on the line BR. The time taken by this ray to
travel the distance BN is same as the second ray travel the distance BC +CD. So, starting points
are DN beyond that they will travel together. The optical path difference between these two
transmitted rays DQ and BR is given by
path difference (x)) = Optical path BCD – optical path BN
x   ( BC  CD)  BN
sin i BN
Also    or BN  MD
sin r MD
In fig. BPC  r and CP  BC  CD
 BC  CD  PD
 x   ( PD)   ( MD)   ( PD  MD)   ( PM )
PM
In BPM , cos r  or PM  BP cos r
BP
But BP  2t  PM  2t cos r
 x  PM  2 t cos r (i)
(i) For Bright fringes, the path differences x = nl
 2µtcosrr = nl where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,….
l
(ii) For Dark fringes, the path differences x  (2n  1)
2
(2n  1)l
 2t cos r  where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,….
2
Conclusion: We observe that the results of brightness and darkness for both the cases are
opposite to each other.
Interference by Reflected Light Interference by Transmitted Light
Rays Rays
Condition for (2n  1)l 2µtcosr = nl
maxima 2t cos r 
2
Condition for 2µtcosrr = nl (2n  1)l
minima 2t cos r 
2

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Newton Rings
Newton's rings are interference patterns formed by light incident on the thin film of air between
a convex lens and a flat (or between two suitable lenses).
When a plano-convex lens of long focal length is placed on a plane glass plate, a thin film of air
is enclosed between the lower surface of the lens and the upper surface of the plate. The
thickness of the air film is very small at the point of contact and gradually increases from the
centre outwards. The fringes produced with monochromatic light are circular. The fringes are
concentric circles, uniform in thickness and with the point of contact as the centre. With
monochromatic light, bright and dark circular fringes are produced in the air film.

Experimental arrangement of the Newton’s Ring apparatus

S is a source of monochromatic light at the focus of the lens L1. A horizontal beam of light falls
in the glass plate B at 450. The glass plate B reflects a part of the incident light towards the air
film enclosed by the lens L and the plane glass plate G. The reflected beam from the air film is
viewed with the microscope. Interference takes place and dark and bright circular fringes are
produced. This is due to the interference between the light reflected from the lower surface of
the lens and the upper surface of the glass plate of G.

Principle of Newton’s Rings Formation

The phenomenon of the formation of Newton’s rings can be explained based on the wave theory
of light.
 An air film of varying thickness is formed between the lens and the glass sheet.
 When a ray falls on the surface of the lens, it is reflected as well as refracted.
 When the refracted ray strikes the glass sheet, it undergoes a phase change of 180° on
reflection.
 Interference occurs between two waves that interfere constructively if the path difference
between them is (m+1/2)λ and destructively if the path difference between them is mλ,
thereby producing alternate bright and dark rings.

Applications of Newton’s Rings

Newton’s rings are a phenomenon that can be viewed daily. Some of its applications are as
follows.
 Determination of Wavelength of Monochromatic Light (l)
 Determination of Refractive Index of the Liquid (µ)

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(Q: Find the conditions for Bright and Dark rings of Newton Rings)
Theory: (i) Newton’s rings by reflected light: Suppose the radius of curvature of the lens is R
and the air film of thickness t is at a distance of OQ = r, from the point of contact O.

Here, interference is due to reflected light. Therefore, for the bright ring
2µt cos θ = (2n – 1) λ/2 (i) [Interference in thin films by reflection]
where n = 1, 2, 3 ……
Since, θ is very small then cos θ = 1. For air µ = 1
2t = (2n – 1) λ/2 (ii)
For the dark ring, 2µt cos θ = nλ/2 [Interference in thin films by reflection]
or 2t = nλ/2 (iii)
where n = 1, 2, 3 ……
From above figure EP×HE = OE×(2R-OE)
But EP=HE=r and OE=PQ=t
and 2R – t = 2R (approximately)
r2 = 2Rt
or t = r2/2R
Substituting the value of t in equation (ii) and (iii)

( )
For bright rings = (iv)

( )
= (v)

For dark rings = (vi)

=√ (vii)
When n = 0,

the radius of the bright ring is / and

the radius of the dark ring is zero and
Therefore, the centre is dark. Alternately dark and bright rings are produced.
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Result: The radius of the dark ring is proportional to (i) √n (ii) √λ and (iii) √R.
( )
Similarly the radius of the bright ring is proportional to (i) (ii) √λ and (iii) √R

If D is the diameter of the dark ring, D =2r = 2√ (viii)

For the central dark ring n = 0 D = 2√ =0

This corresponds to the centre of the Newton’s rings. While counting the order of the
dark rings 1, 2, 3, etc. the central ring is not counted.
Therefore for the first dark ring. n = 1 D1 = 2√l

For the second dark ring, n = 2 D2 = 2√ l

For the n th dark ring, Dn = 2√ l

Take the case of 16th and 9th rings, D16 = 8√ and D9 = 6√

The difference between the 16th and 9th rings:
D16 - D9 = 8√l - 6√l =2√l
Similarly the difference between the 4th and 1st rings:
D4 – D1 = 4√ - 2√ =2√
Therefore, the fringe width decreases with the order of the fringe and the fringes got
closer with increases in their order.
( )
For bright rings =
( )
or =

= ( − )
( )
= (ix)

In equation (ix) substituting n=1, 2, 3(number of the ring) the radii of the first, second,
third etc. bright rings can be obtained directly.

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