Unit Operations-I 7.

14 Flow of Fluids

Feed enters into the decanter at one end, two immiscible liquids flow slowly, separate
into two layers based on the density difference, and then finally the separated layers leave the
decanter through the overflow lines at the other end.
Let the densities of the heavy and light liquids be ρA and ρB respectively. Let the
interface between two liquids is at a height HA1 from the bottom of the vessel. The total
depth of the liquid in the vessel is HT and the depth of the layer of the light liquid is HB. The
overflow of the light liquid is at a height HA2 and that of the heavy liquid is at a height
HA2 from the bottom of the vessel.

Assume that the frictional losses in the overflow discharge lines are negligible, and the
overflow lines and the vessel itself are open to the atmosphere through a vent line.
A hydrostatic balance gives
HB.ρB + HA1 .ρA = HA2 .ρA …(7.35)
ρB
HA1 = HA2 – HB . … (7.36)
ρA
HT = HB + HA1 … (7.37)
HB = HT – HA1 …(7.38)
Substituting for HB from Equation (7.38) into Equation (7.36), we get
ρB
HA1 = HA2 – (HT – HA1 ) . … (7.39)
ρA
Collecting the terms, we get
HA1 (1 – ρB/ρA) = HA2 – HT (ρA/ρB) … (7.40)
HA2 – HT (ρA/ρB)
HA1 = … (7.41)
(1 – ρB/ρA)
The above equation shows that the position of the interface between the layers in the
separator depends on the elevation of the overflow lines and on the ratio of the densities of
the two liquids.
EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
It is a mathematical expression for the law of conservation of mass. According to the
law of conservation of mass for a steady flow system, the rate of mass entering the flow
system is equal to that leaving as accumulation is either constant or nil in the flow system
under steady conditions.
[In a steady state system the values of the quantity and variables of the system do not
change with time].
Unit Operations-I 7.15 Flow of Fluids

Consider a flow system (a stream tube of varying cross-section) as shown in Fig. 7.9.
Direction of flow

Velocity = u1 Velocity = u2
Area = A1 Density = r2
Density = r1 Area = A2

Stream tube
Fig. 7.9 : Continuity
As the flow cannot take place across the walls of the stream tube, the rate of mass
entering the stream tube must be equal to that leaving. Let u1, ρ1 and A1 be the average
velocity of the fluid, the density of the fluid and cross-section area of the tube at the entrance,
and let u2, ρ2 and A2 be the corresponding quantities at the exit of the tube. Assume that the
flow to be potential flow and the density to be constant in a single cross-section.
Rate of mass entering the flow system = ρ1 u1 A1
Rate of mass leaving the flow system = ρ2 u2 A2
·
Let m be the rate of flow in mass per unit time (mass flow rate of the flowing fluid).

Under steady flow conditions, according to the law of conservation of mass, the mass of
fluid entering the tube in unit time is the same as that leaving the tube. Therefore,
·
m = ρ1 u1 A1 = ρ2 u2 A2 … (7.42)
From Equation (7.33), it follows for a stream tube,
·
m = ρ uA = constant … (7.43)
Equation (7.43) is known as the equation of continuity. It is applicable to compressible
as well as to incompressible fluids. In the case of incompressible fluids, ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ.
The equation of continuity is useful for calculating the velocity of a fluid flowing
through pipes of different diameters.
Assume that we know the velocity (u1) of a fluid through a pipe of diameter D1 and we
have to obtain the velocity of the fluid (u2) through a pipe of diameter D2 which is connected
to the pipe of diameter D1. Then, from the equation of continuity
·
m = ρ1 u1 A1 = ρ2 u2 A2 … (7.44)
but ρ1 = ρ2
·
∴ m = u1 A1 = u2 A2 … (7.45)
2
where A1 = cross-section area of the pipe of diameter D1 = π/4 D1
2
A2 = cross-section area of the pipe of diameter D2 = π/4 D2
Unit Operations-I 7.16 Flow of Fluids

Substituting for A1 and A2, Equation (7.45) becomes

2 2
u1 (π/4.D1 ) = u2 (π/4.D2 ) … (7.46)
2 2
u2 = u1 (D / D )
1 2 … (7.47)
If D2 > D1, then u2 < u1
and if D2 < D1, then u2 > u1
When A is expressed in m2, density in kg/m3 and velocity in m/s, the unit of mass flow
rate is kg/s.
·
m = ρuA … (7.48)
= ρ (kg/m ) u (m/s) A (m )
3 2 … (7.49)
·
m = ρuA, kg/s … (7.50)
Average Velocity
When the flow is not potential flow, the local velocity of fluid will vary from point to
point within a given single cross-section of the conduit (tube/pipe). Hence, for all practical
purposes, it is very convenient to express the average velocity.
The average velocity (u) of the entire fluid stream flowing through the cross-sectional
area A is defined by
·
m
u = … (7.51)
ρ.A
·
If m is expressed in kg/s, ρ in kg/m3 and A in m2, then u will be having the units of m/s.
The average velocity is also equal to the ratio of the volumetric flow rate to the cross-
sectional area of the conduit.
Q
u = A … (7.52)
where Q is the volumetric flow rate. If Q is expressed in m3/s and A in m2, then u will have
the units of m/s.
The flow rate may be expressed in terms of volume or mass of flowing fluid.
The mass flow rate through the conduit is related to the volumetric flow rate by the
relation
·
m = Q.ρ … (7.53)
where ρ is the density of the flowing fluid.
Mass Velocity
In the case of flow of compressible fluids, it is a usual practice to use the mass velocity.
The mass velocity does not depend upon temperature and pressure when the flow is steady.
The mass velocity of a fluid is the ratio of the mass flow rate of the fluid to the cross-
sectional area of the conduit.

m
.
Mass velocity = G = A … (7.54)
·
If m is expressed in kg/s and A in m2, then G will have the units of kg/(m.s).
Unit Operations-I 7.17 Flow of Fluids

Steady and Unsteady Flow

The flow is said to be steady if it does not vary with time, i.e., the mass flow rate is
constant and the quantities, such as temperature, pressure, etc. are independent of time,
i.e., do not vary with time. If the mass flow rate and/or other quantities such as temperature,
pressure, etc. vary with time, the flow is said to be unsteady.
Stream Line and Stream Tube
A stream tube is a tube of small or large cross-section which is entirely bounded by
stream lines. It may be of any convenient cross-sectional shape and no net flow occurs
through the walls of the stream tube.
LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW
• When a fluid flows steadily through a conduit, either of two different types of flow
may occur according to the conditions of flow.
• The flow in which the streamlines remain distinct/separated from one another over
their entire length of flow is termed as laminar flow. This flow is also called as
stream line flow or viscous flow. It is characterised by the absence of lateral mixing,
cross currents and eddies.
• The flow in which the fluid flows in parallel, straight lines is called laminar flow.
This occurs at low fluid velocities.
Laminar flow

Turbulent flow

Fig. 7.10 : Type of fluid flow

• The flow in which the fluid instead of flowing in an orderly manner, moves
erratically in the form of cross currents and eddies is called turbulent flow.
• This occurs at high fluid velocities and there is a lateral mixing in this type of flow.
Potential Flow
The flow of incompressible fluids without the presence of shear is referred to as
potential flow. In potential flow, eddies and cross currents cannot form within the stream and
friction cannot develop.
Fully Developed Flow
The flow with unchanging velocity distribution is called fully developed flow.
BERNOULLI EQUATION
An important relation, called the Bernoulli equation without friction can be derived on
the basis of Newton's second law of motion (force is equal to the rate of change of
momentum) for potential flow. It is simply an energy balance. The variation of velocity
across a given cross-section, effect of frictional forces are neglected at first and corrections
for the same are then made in the equation. Thus, the relation that will be obtained is strictly
applicable to an inviscid (frictionless) fluid.
Let us consider an element of length ∆L of a stream tube of constant cross-sectional area
as shown in Fig. 7.11.
Unit Operations-I 7.18 Flow of Fluids

Let us assume that the cross-sectional area of element be A and the density of the fluid
be ρ. Let u and P be the velocity and pressure at the entrance (upstream), and u + ∆u, P + ∆P
are the corresponding quantities at the exit (downstream).
The forces acting on the element (treating the element as a free body) are
1. The force from the upstream pressure = PA
(i.e., the force acting in the direction of flow, taken as positive)
2. The force from the downstream pressure normal to the cross-section of the tube
= (P + ∆P) A
(i.e., the force opposing the flow, taken as negative)
3. The force from the weight of fluid [i.e., the force of gravity acting downward
(taken as negative)] = ρA ∆L.g
The component of this force acting opposite to the direction of flow is ρ A∆L g cos θ.
Of the three forces cited above, the first one helps the flow while the remaining two
forces oppose the flow.
Rate of change of momentum of the fluid along the fluid element
ow A ·
of fl DP) = m [u + ∆u – u]
ct i o n (P +
Dire DL
·
= m ∆u
q
Z + DZ
= ρ u A ∆u
.
P.A
Z rA DLg

Fig. 7.11 : Force balance for potential flow

According to the Newton's second law of motion,
Sum of all forces Rate of change of
acting in the direction of flow = momentum of a fluid … (7.55)

PA – (P + ∆P) A – ρ A ∆L g cos θ = ρ . u.A ∆u … (7.56)

– ∆P.A – ρ A ∆L g cos θ = ρ . u.A ∆u … (7.57)
∴ ∆P.A + ρA ∆L g cos θ + ρ.u.A ∆u = 0 … (7.58)
Dividing each term of Equation (7.58) by A.∆L.ρ, we get
∆P u.∆u
+ g cos θ + = 0 … (7.59)
ρ∆L ∆L
But cos θ = ∆Z/∆L … (7.60)
Putting the value of cos θ in Equation (7.59) gives
1 ∆P ∆Z ∆u
+ g + u = 0 … (7.61)
ρ ∆L ∆L ∆L
Unit Operations-I 7.19 Flow of Fluids

If we express the changes in the pressure, velocity, height, etc. in the differential form,
then Equation (7.61) becomes
1 dP dZ d (u2/2)
+ g +
ρ dL dL dL
which can be rewritten as
dP
+ g dZ + d (u2/2) = 0 … (7.62)
ρ
Equation (7.63) is known as the Bernoulli equation. It is the differential form of the
Bernoulli equation. For incompressible fluids, density is independent of pressure and hence,
the integrated form of Equation (7.63) is
P u2
+ g Z + 2 = constant … (7.63)
ρ
Thus, the Bernoulli equation, Equation (7.63), relates the pressure at a point in the fluid
to its position and velocity.
Each term in the Bernoulli equation [Equation (7.63)] represents energy per unit mass of
the fluid and has the units of J/kg in the SI system.
Let us check the unit of each term.
P N 1 N.m
The unit of is : m2 × (kg/m3) = kg = J/kg
ρ
m kg m kg.m m
The unit of g Z is : s2 (m) = kg s2 (m) = s2 kg
N.m
= kg = J/kg

m2 kg m2 kg.m m N.m
The unit of u2/2 is : s2 = kg s2 = s2 kg = kg = J/kg
[As 1 N = 1 (kg.m)/s2]
(i) Pressure Energy :
It is the work which must be done in order to introduce a fluid into a system without
change in the volume. It is the energy of the fluid due to pressure acting on it.
Pressure energy (flow energy) = work done on a fluid
= force × displacement
force
= area × area × displacement

= pressure × volume
pressure × volume pressure
Pressure energy per unit mass of fluid = mass = mass/volume
P
= , J/kg in the SI system.
ρ
Unit Operations-I 7.20 Flow of Fluids

(ii) Kinetic Energy

It is the energy of a fluid by virtue of its motion with reference to some arbitrarily fixed
body.
The kinetic energy of a fluid of mass m moving with velocity u is given by
1
Kinetic energy = 2 mu2
1
Kinetic energy per unit mass of fluid = 2 u2, J/kg in the S.I. system

(iii) Potential Energy

It is the energy of a fluid due to its position in the earth's gravitational field. It is equal
to the work that must be done on the fluid in order to raise it to a certain position from some
arbitrarily chosen datum level.
At a datum level, the potential energy is taken as zero.
The potential energy of a fluid of mass m situated at a height Z above a datum level is
given by
Potential energy = mgZ
Potential energy per unit mass = g Z, J/kg in the S.I. system
Equation (7.63) can be written in an alternate form as
P u2
+ Z + 2 g = constant … (7.64)
ρg
Equation (7.64) is obtained by dividing each term in Equation (7.63) by g.
Equation (7.64) is the alternate form of the Bernoulli equation and each term in this
equation represents energy per unit weight of the fluid and has the dimensions of length.
Hence, each term of Equation (7.65) is regarded as the head that is contributing to the total
fluid head.
P N 1 1 N.s2 kg.m s2
The unit of is m2 kg m/s2 kg s2 × kg = m
ρg
m3
1
The unit of u2/2g is (m/s)2 × (m/s2)Ă m

P
Therefore, is the pressure head / static head, Z is the potential head and u2/2g is the
ρg
velocity head/kinetic head.
Weight density (w) = mass density (ρ) × g
Kinetic energy per unit weight = kinetic head / velocity head
1/2 . mu2
= mg = u2/2g, m
Unit Operations-I 7.21 Flow of Fluids

Potential energy per unit weight = Potential head

mg Z
= mg = Z , m
Pressure energy per unit weight = Pressure head
pressure × volume
= weight
pressure P
= weight/volume = weight density
P
= , m
ρg
The sum of the pressure head, velocity head, and potential head is known as the total
head or the total energy per unit weight of the fluid. The Bernoulli equation states that in a
steady irrotational flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at any point is constant.
The sum of the pressure head and potential head, i.e., P/ρg + Z is termed as the
piezometric head.
Equation (7.63) when applied between stations 1 and 2 in the direction of flow becomes
2 2
P1 u1 P2 u2
+ g Z1 + 2 = + g Z2 + 2 … (7.65)
ρ ρ
Kinetic Energy Correction
In the previous discussion, it is assumed that the velocity u to be constant over the area
A. But in actual practice, the velocity varies over a single cross section and we have a
velocity profile over the cross section. The velocity of the fluid is zero at the wall surface and
maximum at the centre of the pipe. Hence, allowance must be made for the velocity profile
in the kinetic energy term. This can be done by introducing a correction factor α into the
αu2
kinetic energy term. The kinetic energy term would be written as 2 . For the flow of a
fluid through a circular cross-section, α = 2 for laminar flow and α = 1 for turbulent flow.
Correction for Fluid Friction
The Bernoulli equation is derived for the frictionless fluid. Therefore, it must be
corrected for the existence of the fluid friction whenever boundary layer forms. Fluid friction
is an irreversible conversion of mechanical energy into heat. Thus, the quantity P/ρ + u2/2 +
gZ is not constant but always decreases in the direction of flow.
The Bernoulli equation for incompressible fluids is corrected for friction by adding a
friction term on the R.H.S. of Equation (7.65).
The Bernoulli equation between stations 1 and 2, after making necessary corrections,
in terms of energy per unit mass (J/kg) is
2 2
P1 α1 u1 P2 α2 u2
+ g Z1 + 2 = + g Z2 + 2 + hf … (7.66)
ρ ρ
Unit Operations-I 7.22 Flow of Fluids

The Bernoulli equation is a special form of a mechanical energy balance.

where P1, P2 are the pressures at stations 1 and 2, respectively in N/m2,
α1 and α2 are the kinetic energy conversion factors,
Z1 and Z2 are the heights of stations 1 and 2 from some arbitrarily chosen datum level
respectively in m,
u1 and u2 are the average velocities at stations 1 and 2, respectively in m/s,
hf is the total frictional loss of energy due to friction between stations 1 and 2 in J/kg.
The term hf indicates the friction generated per unit mass of fluid that occurs in the fluid
between stations 1 and 2.
Each term involved in the Bernoulli equation [Equation (7.66)] has the units of J/kg.
PUMP WORK IN BERNOULLI EQUATION
A pump is installed in a flow system for increasing the mechanical energy of the fluid to
maintain its flow.
Assume that a pump is installed in the flow system between the stations 1 and 2 as
shown in Fig. 7.12.
Let Wp be the work done by the pump per unit mass of fluid.
Let hfp be the total friction in the pump per unit mass of fluid (friction in bearings, seals
or stuffing box.).

Z2

1
Z1

Fig. 7.12 : Pump work in Bernoulli equation

The net mechanical energy delivered to the flowing fluid is the difference between the
mechanical energy supplied to the pump and frictional losses within the pump. i.e., Wp – hfp .
But to obtain the net mechanical energy (net work) delivered to the fluid, instead of using hfp,
a pump efficiency designated by the symbol η is used. It is defined as
Wp – hfp = η Wp … (7.67)
Wp – hfp
η = Wp … (7.68)