FEATURES OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION (2600-1900BCE)

Town planning
• The mature Harappan culture regarded as urban civilization.
• The majority of sites were in villages.
• The Harappan sites varied a lot in size and function, from large cities to small pastoral camps.
• Mohenjodaro, Harappa,Lurewala,Ganweriwala,Dholavira,and Rakhigarhi are the largest settlements.
• Kalibangan is moderate size settlement.
• The settlements were well planned.
• No correlation is found between the level of planning and the size of a settlement.
• Different types of town plan is existed.
Citadel and lower city
• Citadel is generally built on artificially raised ground.
• It is west of the settlement.
• Citadel are enclosed by a wall with elaborate entrances.
• Mohenjodaro citadel or city was not enclosed by a wall.
• Sometimes the city was also fortified.
• Monumental buildings like granaries, collegiate buildings and ritual centres are found in citadel.
• The citadel is separated from the rest of the habitation.
• Dholavira consisted not two but three parts - the citadel,middle town,and lower town.
Arrangement of streets and lands
• Mohenjodaro had long broad roads with lanes meeting them at right angles.
• The roads were marked before the houses were built.
• The streets and houses of Harappan cities were earlier regarded as laid on a grid pattern.
• Mohenjodaro does not have perfect grid system.
• Roads in Harappan cities were not always straight.
• It did not always cut across right angles.
Uniformity of house construction
• The Harappan houses impress with their general uniformity.
• People lived in houses of different size.
• It consisting of rooms arranged around a central courtyard.
• Doors and windows faced the side lanes
• It is not opened into the main streets.
Drainage system
• A well- planned drainage system is another notable feature of Harappan settlements.
• The smaller towns and villages had impressive drainage system.
• The drains are meant to carry off the waste household water
• When drains are public and collect waste from several houses, they have to be straight.
• The grid pattern and street drainage systems are functionally interrelated.
• The drainage system was extensive at Lothal and Mohrnjodaro.
• No street drainage existed at Kalibangan,Mitathal,Banawali.
Wells and Tanks
•A large number of Wells and tanks are another feature of Harappan sites.
• It provides water to the town dwellers.
• In many of sites,large water reservoirs were built within the citadel itself .
• The Harappan masons used wedge -shaped bricks to make the wells circular.
• At Mohrnjodaro one of every three houses had a burnt bricks- lined wells and about 700wells are found.
• Dholavira 16 large and deep -water reservoirs preserved the rainwater in the citadel and lower town.
Granaries
• Granaries are found at Harappa,Mohrnjodaro,Lothal and Rakhigarhi.
• The granaries are evidence for a distinctive economy.
• The granaries at Mohrnjodaro is the largest building near Great bath.
• Granary is nearest to the river grains could easily be supplied by river transport.
• But no grains were reported from the building.
• Its interpretation as granary was mainly based on comparisons with structures found in Rome.
• Shereen Ratnagar says that three structures were storage facilities,but only the building at Harappa can with
certainty called a granary.
Bricks and potteries
• Harappan cities show that sun dried mudbricks and burnt bricks are used for building construction.
• The burnt bricks generally used for Wells, bathing pavement,the foundation of house and drains.
• The standard size of the Harappan burnt bricks is made generally with sides in ratio of 1:2:4.
• The ratios are very convenient for laying the bricks,the method now known as ‘English bond’.
• The large size of the bricks imparts a very modern apperance to Harappan brickwork
• Mud was usually used whereas mortar and gypsum used in special cases.
• The Harappan wheel made pottery shows mass production.
• Geometrical patterns,figures of animals,birds,snakes and fish are the main picture motifs in the
Harappan pottery.
• Pottery ware includes dishes,basins,flasks,vases, cylindrical bottles,tumblers and big storage jars.
• Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character.
Weights and Measures
• Harappans used weights and measures for commercial and for buliding purposes.
• Articles used as weights discovered.
• Binary in smaller weights, decimal in higher weights.
• Sticks with measure marks discovered.
• Shell scale found in mohenjodaro,ivory scale at lothal.
• Shell object in surashtra used to measure angles.
Seals and Harappan script
• Seal making - Important Harappan craft.
• shapes of seals -square, rectangular, few cylindrical,also round ones.
• Most Seals made of steatite.
• Pictorial motifs on seals such as - tiger, crocodile, elephant, buffalo, rhinoceros,also human figures,
plants, mythical animal unicorn, composite animals.
• More seals are found than sealings from Harappan sites.
• Seals have tokens for buying and selling of goods.
• Seals were also used as identification markers by elites or worn as amulets.
• Most Seals have short inscription.
• Haparappan script in these seals is not deciphered.
Absence of religious shrines
• Absence of religious buildings and elaborate burial structures.
• Difficult to find shrines due to the lack of iron or decorated structures.
• Ancestral rituals are not found.
• People migrated from cities when they declined.
• Cities were not the focus of religious worship.
• Female figurines considered as icons of goddess cult.
Terracotta figurines
• Harappan sites produced more terracotta.
• Figurines of bulls, buffaloes, monkeys and dogs are found.
• Toy carts with solid wheels where found.
• Terracotta bangles and masks where found.
• Terracotta human figurines found at Harappa.
• Female figurines found at mohenjodaro.
• They are decided into mother goddess figurines.
Unicorn
• A mythical animal.
• It'ssymbol occurs on 66 percent of all seals and sealings.
• It has only one horn.
• Unicorn is the most frequent seal symbol.
• Shereen Ratnagar says that Unicorn was the emblem of Harappan ruling elite.
• Unicorn is interpreted as a 'Sacred brazier' an 'Incense burner' or 'Soma filter'.

HARAPPA
• After the partition of India in 1947 Mohenjodaro and Harappa in Pakistan.
• The Archaeological survey of India discovered many sites in Gujarat, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, and Maharashtra.one of the most important site of Harappan
civilization is Harappa.
• Harappa is in the Punjab province of Pakistan on the old river bed of Ravi. Harappa is considered as
the first type site discovered and excavated in 1920 by Dayaram Sahini. Indus civilization is also known
as Harappan site because of the name of this site Harappa.
• Harappa is again excavated in 1920s and 1930s under M S Vats, Mortimer wheeler, George dales,
Richard meadow, and J M Kenoyer. Harappa is the most excavated site with 36 seasons of excavation.
• Harappa is slightly smaller than Mohenjodaro. The mound of the city of Harappa was much damaged
by the contractors of Lahore-Multan railway for bricks and nothing can be said definitely about its
structure.
• The citadel of Harappa was set upon a massive platform and surrounded by a brick wall. The citadel
had two gateways in the north and west. The western gateway was later blocked. Outside the citadel in
the north lay ‘several workmen’s quarters’ similar to the ‘coolie lines’ at Mohenjodaro’.
• Shereen Ratnagar says that over 200 pottery urns were partially buried along the sides of some of
streets as dustbin. Two cemeteries, R-37, and H, are founded at Harappa. Cemetery R-37 belongs to
the mature Harappan period and cemetery H belong to the post-urban period.
• The later excavations in the 1990s confirmed that the lower town was also planned. Harappa had only
an around 30 wells. The lower town is surrounded by the wall of mud bricks.
MOHENJODARO
• Mohenjodaro is in the Sindh province of Pakistan 5km away from the Indus river. One of the largest
Harappan sites. The site consists of two mounds, a smaller but higher western mound and a large but
lower eastern mound.
• Citadel is in the western part. It is the most impressive and best-preserved Bronze Age cities in the
world.
• Gregory Possehl says that Mohenjodaro is the epitome of all mature Harappan settlement. The city was
constructed of baked bricks and no widespread destruction took place there. the present name of the
city on Mohenjodaro in the Sindhi language means ‘mound of the dead’
• Great bath, important place founded in the center of the citadel. The floor of the bathing pool is made
of burnt bricks set in gypsum and mortar. Two staircases from opposite sides descend to the bottom of
the tank. There is well on the east side of the bath. A building called ‘college of priest’ by E.J.H Mackay
is on the east of great bath.
• According to German researchers, the great bath was later completely abandoned of its primary
function due to the destruction of the great bath complex.it was filled during the later mature Harappan
periods and used as a craft production center.
• In the lower town there is a very house with 20 rooms, which archaeologists call a ‘palace’. The house
varied in size suggesting differences in the wealth and status.
 • Mohenjodaro was a place of wealth. This wealth in the terms of the continuity of civic planning and
investment in urban facilities. High quality of architecture, extensive use of baked bricks and rich
assemblage of artefacts are found in Mohenjodaro
• Important sculpture such as the bronze ‘dancing girl ’and stone busts portraying men including the
‘priest king’ re found at Mohenjodaro
• Dancing girl is a bronze female figurine found at mohenjodaro durimg 1926-27 excavations. The height
of the sculpture is only about 11 cm. john Marshall named the sculpture as dancing girls as he thought
she represents a semi-impudent ‘nautch girl’ placing her hand on hip.
• The scholars at present says that the dancing girl may not have been dancing at all, and even if she was
dancing ,she may not represent a professional dancer.
• The greatest variety of seal motifs depicting animals and aspects of religious thought are found in
Mohenjodaro
DEBATE ON NATURE OF SOCIETY
• Harappan culture urban culture
• Archaeologists relate Harappan culture to Mesopotamian civilisation
• Led to debate: who were the OG people of Harappa
• John Marshall- Harappans= Dravidians
• Mortimer Wheeler – migration of ideas
• DNA of woman found @ Rakhigarhi & profile was created
• Woman’s ancestors were ancient Iranian hunter gatherers
• Women wore short skirts, braided hair, wore necklaces & bangles
• Dogs were used as pets
• Men were bearded & bare headed, wore dhoti & shawl
• Height- men =1.67m, women=1.55m
• Avg life exp=30yrs
• Most people suffered from malaria and arthritis
• Matrilineal system existed-evident from figures of Mother goddess in houses
• Absence of deciphered written evidence is a handicap for analysis
• Society included different classes -carpenters, architects, sailors
• Absence of caste system
• Class differences based on occupation,wealth
• Harappa was a Well developed society
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
• Worship of mother goddess as fertility cult
• Alexandra Ardeleanu-Jansen underlined varieties of female figurines
• Two types slim& pot bellied(maternal figure)
• Female figures found at Harappa,Mohenjodaro,Banawali..
• John Marshall says about worship of male god Pasupathi and called it Proto Siva
• M K Dhavalikar & Shubangana suggest it as a goddess Lady of Beasts
• Horned deity in Kalibangan
• Animals depicted in seals have cultic significance
• It also depict animal sacrifices
• Style of burial-head towards north,with tools and ornaments
• Fractional & Urn burials were also present
 DEBATE ON HARAPPAN STATE
• 1. Earliest hypothesis by Stuart Piggott. That Harappa was highly centralised empire ruled by autocratic
priest kings.
• 2. Mohenjodaro and Harappa twin capitals. Based on the level of uniformity in material traits, use of
common script and standardised weights and measures.
• 3. Mortimer Wheeler supported. Piggott considered the uniformity of culture through the survival of a
tradition enforced by religious sanctions. State was highly theocratic.
• 4. B B Lal speculated on a priest dominated society.
• 5. E J H Mackay thought that large buildings in Mohenjodaro Citadel was a residence of a very high
official possibly the high priest himself.
• 6. W A Fairservis, criticised Piggott and put forward that it was not even a state. Mohenjodaro was a
ceremonial centre and not an administrative centre.
• 7. Control executed through elaborate village administeation.
• 8. Harappan culture spread because of their advanced organisation and technology superior compared
to their neighbours. Later he further edited that there might have been some element of state.
• 9. S C Malik, not a full state but an example of chiefdom stage, transitional between kinship society
and state society.
• 10. Lack of imposing monuments and supreme Gods, denies the idea of a strong centralised state. Many
archaeologists have pointed out the absence of clearly identifiable temples, palaces and royal burials.
• 11. Absence of palace type structure has to been taken as absence of kingship.
• 12. R S Sharma states that rulers might had given prominence to commerce rather than conquest. So
Harappa might had been ruled by a class of merchants.
• 13. Two trend: return to the idea of a Harappan empire and A complete rejection of a centralised
Harappan state.
• 14. Empire: Shereen Ratnagar, analysing cross cultural parallels with other early state societies and
archaeological evidences states that there existed a state.
• 15. rejects idea of theocratic state. Religion and politics were combined during the time. Also suggests
full-fledged urbanism.
• 16. Political organisation only reached to the level of chiefdom. The Seven occupational levels indicate
long duration of the civilisation and only a stable political organisation like the state would be able to
control large region by one centre for several centuries.
• 17. Pottery was under state direction and organisation. Strong similarities in mature Harappan sites'
tools and artefacts of everyday as a result of state direction.
• 18. Citadels mark of rule based on military domination, which were political administrative and
ceremonial centres and location of elite residence.
• 19. State society functions with use of legitimate force and threat. Many of the Harappan cities were
fortified.
• 20. Early states do not have standing armies and troops can be quartered in tents. So evidence of military
barracks not necessary to establish the state structure.
• 21. She following Diakonoff thinks 'state sector' as essential, thus the granaries prove their existence.
• 22. Unicorn symbol as symbol of the ruling elite.
• 23. Irfan Habib through stating the existence of town planning, citadels roads and drainage system show
a remarkable degree of administrative control emphasises the relevance of strong centralised state.
• 24. Upinder Singh by stating the communication system, standardisation in artefacts, site specialisation,
mobilisation of labour for public works and the establishment of the trading outposts of Shortughai
substantiates on the existence of an economic complexity and the of a state.
 • 25. Jerome Jacobson suggests Harappan state as an early state. Points out the three characteristics:
• a) a benevolent sovereign or sovereign closely linked to a mythical character
• b) absence of military and
• c) weak economic stratification.
• 26. Jim Shaffer rejects the idea of a centralised state and questions the level of homogeneity. Any sort
of uniformity due to the well-developed network of internal trade rather than a strong centralised
government.
• 27. absence of huge royal tombs, palaces and temples and the absence of marked social differentiation.
• 28. Greogry Possehl, formulates that Harappan state was highly disciplined and had a strong corporate
element. Thus they may have been ruled by councils.
• 29. J M Kenoyer stresses on the rule by urban elite class like merchants, ritual specialists, landholders
and cattle owners.
• 30. Debate still alive.
DEBATE ON HARAPPAN SCRIPT
• Harappan script-One of the four earliest known script and biggest mystery about Harappa.
• 400-450 basic signs ,logo syllabic.
• Mainly inseals-also in copper tablets,copper and bronze.
• 87%-inscribed objects -Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
• Longer inscription-Boustrophedon style.
• Frequently used symbols-‘jar’ and ‘marker’ sign.
• Dholavira signboard-Civic use of writing- Complete disappearence-1700 BCE.
• Hunter-Reliable eye copies.
• Alexander Cunningham-19th century-connection to Brahmi script.
• SR Rao-Indo-Aryan ,Clain to have deciphered Indus script.
• Subhash C Kak,Natwar Jha and Rajaram -Sanskrit.
• Jha-Phoenician-assigned sound values-striking similarities with phoenician letters.
• Henry Heras,W A Fairservis,Asko Parpola and Iravatham Mahadevan-Proto Dravidian.
• Brahui-Factor in indentifying Harappan script as Dravidian.
• Computer-aided study-1960s-Soviet union team led by Y N Knorozov-Direction of wroting ,word
division,syntactical patterns.
• Asko Parpola,Fonnish scholars-Independent computer-
• Finnish team-aided investigations.-use of computational.linguistic techniques- attempt to linguistic
decipherment.
• W A Fairservis-Manuallu arranged Indus sign sequece in ‘grid’.
• Asko Parpola and Iravatham Mahadevan-Noteworthy attempt to decipher.
IRAVATHAM MAHADEVAN
• Structural analytical approach-emplying rebus principle.
• Supported Dravidian hypothesis.
• 2014-imporrant clues-sign sequence proving Dravidian character.
• Identifies grammatical signs-musculine singular suffix and non- musculine singular suffix.
• Identifies ‘arrow’ and ‘jar’sign-in Kannada Tamil.and Telugu inscriptions.
• ‘Arrow’ sign as ‘ampu’- muscular singular suffix- appears at the end of female names.
• ‘Jar’ sign-musculine singular suffix- ‘anru’-at the end of male names.
• A stone celt – Mayiladumthurai ,Tamil Nadu-same marking as symbols of Indus script.
• Evidence of same language being used by Neolithic people of south India and Late Harappans.
• Used Harappan city structure to decipher meaning.
ASKO PARPOLA
• Brahui-Remnants of Dravidian language.
• Presence of Dravidian words on Rigveda.
• Rigveda-borrowed phonologocal and syntactical features from Rigveda.
• Points out place names-northwestern region-nagara ,palli,partana,kotta.
• Used astronomy to find meaning.
• Fish sign:’meen’,the Dravidian word for both fish and star.-Frequency of fish- reference to star not fish.
• Six vertical strokes and fish sign-‘aarumeen’ -syar constellation, ,pleides,’ezhumeen’-ursa major..Major role in
Indian mythology,Indian calendrical.astronomy.
• Ancient DNA found recently-West Adian and Indus periphery-Iraninan agricultural population-
significant contribution to population in India.
• Genetic,archeological,linguistic studies-herders from South or central Zagros region-proto-elamite language-
migrated to South Asia-mixed with first Indians- -create Harappan civilisation.
• Proto -elamite-songnificant mark on Linguistic history-Brahui-proven link to elamite-Linguistic
research-India and elamite very close.
CONCLUSION
Despite several claims -Indus script still a mystery.
Difficulties-unknown script ,unknown language,very small text,no clue on personal.names and places,no avalilable
bilingual inscriptions.
INTRODUCTION TO SATAVAHANA DYNASTY
• First monarchial polity of Deccan in the postmaurya period .
• They ruled from 50 BCE to 225 BCE and include 15 satavahana rulers .
• The strong hold of the satavahana was in the western and central Deccan
• The original rule started in Telungana, which is in Central Deccan
• The satavahana capital was at prathistana or paithan in maharashtra
• The satavahana dynasty can be learned through sources such as inscriptions ,coins and the Puranas
• Puranas called satavahana as andhras and Andhrabhrithyas
About Rulers
• SIMUKA is the founder of satavahana kindom
• KRISHNA I was the ruler after simuka and mentioned in his inscriptions from nasik
• SATAKARNI I know from the two inscriptions in nasik. -Extended kingdom to Eastern malwa and
Northern konkan (upto to Kalyan)
• Performed vedic sacrifices including asvamedha sacrifice and distributed gift to brahmin priest
• Performed accompained by his wife Nagnika -Started rivalry with sakas and nahapana was the powerful
ruler
• HALA - Famous as the author of Sattasai, a work in Prakrit
• Coins provide information about his reign
• GAUTAMIPUTRA SATAKARNI (106-130 CE) - Greatest ruler of the Satavahana family
• Achievements recorded in the Nasik prasasti by his mother , Gautami balasri
• Defeated Saka ruler Nahapana- Re-established glory of Satavahana family
• Donated land to Buddhist monastery near Nasik
• Nasik inscription refers him as "ekabamhanasa" (only Brahman or protector of Brahmans)
• VASISHTIPUTRA PULUMAVI - Continued conflict with Sakas
• Praised as ruler of entire eastern and western Deccan
• Controlled Amaravati region (evident from inscriptions)
• Issued coins with ship motif Ruler
• YAJNASHRI SATAKARNI- Last of the powerful- Satavahana monarchs Ruler
 • PULUMAVI IV -Last satavahana ruler
• After his death , Satavhana rule displaced by Ikshvanku in the east, and by Sakas in the west
The Satavahana Dynasty: Rise, Growth, and Legacy
• The Satavahana dynasty: a powerful empire in ancient India
• Established a vast state covering the Deccanregion
• Grew through trade, expansion, and cultural exchange
EXPANSION AND TRADE
• Subordinated pre-Satavahana tribal chiefdoms
• Growth depended on trade
• Issued portrait coins in silver with bilingual legends (Prakrit and Tamil)
RELIGIOUS PATRONAGE
• Patronized Buddhism and Hinduism
• Inscriptions in Buddhist caves at Nasik,
Kanheri, and Karle
• Influenced by Vedic ideals and Dharmasastra
MATERIAL CULTURE
• Fusion of local and northern elements
• Megalith builders used iron and agriculture
• Exploited iron ores in Karimnagar and Warangal
ECONOMY AND TECHNOLOGY
• People of Deccan knew paddy transplantation and cotton production
• Learnt use of coins, burnt bricks, ring wells,and art of writing from northern contacts
• Regular use of fire-baked bricks and brick wells in Peddabankurn in karimnagar district of Telungana
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
• The Satavahanas, originally a Deccan tribe,became Brahmanised and claimed Brahman status.
• They were the first rulers to make land grants to Brahmans and Buddhist monks.
• Artisans and merchants, particularly the 'gandhikas, (perfumers), were notable donors to Buddhism.
MATRILINEAL AND PATRIARCHY
• Some traces of matrilineal social structure were evident, with kings named after their mothers
(e.g.,Gautamiputra, Vasishtiputra).
• Inscriptions were sometimes issued under the authority of both the king and his mother.
• Despite these matrilineal traces, succession remained patriarchal, passing to male heirs
• Administration and Land Grants under the Satavahanas
• The Satavahanas were an ancient Indian dynasty known for their strong administration and land grant
policies. -
• The king was represented as the upholder of dharma and was attributed with divinity.
ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE
• The Satavahanas retained the administrative units from the Mauryan Empire, such as Ahara (districts).
• Officials included Amatyas and Mahamatras, with Amatyas overseeing large territorial units.
• Administrative divisions were called Rashtra,and high officials were styled as Maharashtrikas
TAXATION POLICIES
• -Kaarukara: -A tax (kara) imposed on craftsmen and artisans (kaaru). -
• *Deya-meya:- Meya: A tax paid in kind. - Deya: A levy paid in cash.
MILITARY ADMINISTRATION
• Military traits were prominent in the administration. -
• Senapati: -Appointed as provincial governor.
• -Gaulmika:- Head of military regiments, responsible
• for rural administration. -
 • Military Terminology Use of terms like kataka (military camps) and skandhavara, (military settlements)
in inscriptions.
LAND GRANTS
• Satavahanas initiated the practice of granting tax-free villages to Brahmans and Buddhist monks. -
• These grants created small independent regions within the kingdom, free from official intervention.
• Feudatories in the Satavahana Kingdom*
• The kingdom had three grades of feudatories
• : 1. Raja (King):- The highest grade
• . 2. Mahabhoja:- The second grade.
• 3. Senapati: -The third grade. -
• These feudatories and land beneficiaries heldlocal authority. ---
THE BHAKTHI MOVEMENT
• The concept of Bhakthi or devotion is found in Upanishads & Bhagavadgita in Mahabharata.
• Devolepement of concept – related to Bhagavata sect worshipping Vasudeva krishna.
• The position of devotee in Vaishnavism was placed at bottom in early period.
• The ruling class of gupta period show their devotion to gods with service attitudes called Dasyabhava
or Selfless service.
• Relationship between god and devotee is master – servant relationship.
• Many inscription describe rulers as dasas or servants of deities.
• Rituals and practices of temple deity and king is same
• There is resemblance between lord-serf relationship in fuedal society and diety -devotee relationship
idealised & celebrated in bhakthi literature.
• Cult of devotion or bhakti movement was practiced in Gupta state in North India.
• In south India during Pallava period it organised a form.
• Tamizhakam from 6th -9th CE, developed as religious movement called Bhakti movement.
• Tamizhakam local deities continued to be worshipped during early historic and pallava period.
• Situation changed in 5th 6th CE with introduction of Brahmanism.
• Brahmanism transformed into Hinduism through temple centred bhakthi in North India &repeated in
south india.
• New Hindu deities Siva and Vishnu was connected to traditional deities pf Tamizhakam
• Mayon- cowherd diety of Mullai tinai equated with Krishna, incarnation of vishnu.
• Murugan – god of love and war in kurichi tinai, identified as Skanda or Subramanya, son of siva.
• Kottavai- goddess of victory in palai tinai, mother of murugan identified with consort of siva in 7th CE.
• Temple were constructed or renovated at sites sacred to traditional deities.
• Story of conversion of Mahendravarman I (580-630CE), pallava ruler, from jainism to Saivism by
Bhakthi saint Appar, first evidence of its influence in political sphere.
• Pandyan king Nedumaran converted from Jainism to Saivism by Bhakthi saint Sambandar.

Nayanars and Azhvars

• Nayanars & Azhvars played important role in bhakthi movement.
• Saiva saints called Nayanars.
• Vaishnava saints called Azhvars.
• Nayanars include Appar, Sambandar, Sundardar & Manikkavasagar.
• Periyapuranam of Sekkilar narrated hagiology of 63 Nayanars.
• Anthologies of Saiva Bhakthi poems called Devaram & Tirumurai.
• 12 Azhvars include Periyazhvar, Andal, Tirumangai Azhvar & Nammazhvar.
• Vaishnava Bhakthi poetry compiled in Nalayira Divyaprabhandham by Nathamuni, who was priest
at srirangam temple.
Temples
• Development of early temple movement, especially the rock -cut and structural temples of wetSaiva
and Vaishnava deities are closely related to. Bhakti movement
• Karthikeya temple at Nagarajunakonda constructed during rule of Ikshavaku rulers pf Andhra is earliest
archaeological attested temple
• Cult of Murugan is very old and shrines were situated in hillocks at Tirupparankunram, Azhagarmalai,
Tuttukudi, Palani, Tiruttani, Tiruveragam.
• Hunderds of inscription from 7th -10th CE show evidence to brisk activity of temple construction.
• Palava ruler Mahendravarman I introduced rock -cut temple in pallava territory.
• Rock cut cukture later abandoned & structural temple became dominant feature.
• Earliest structural temple- Shore temple at Mamallapuram.
• Finesy temple of pallava architecture – Vaikuntaperumal temple at Kanchipuram by Nandivarman
II
• Other Temples acted as centres of Bhakthi:
7thCE-Chidambaram, Tirunallur,Tiruvarur, Srirangam.
8th CE- temples in pandya kingdom like Madurai, Tirunelveli, Kumbakonam
9th CE- spread to temples of kerala
• Bhakti saints affiliated to temples like Tirupati, Kanchi, Srirangam Kumbhakonam, Chidhambaram.
• M G S Narayanan & Kesavan Veluthat argue Bhakti not only started from temple but also connected
one temple with another through pilgrimage.
• It led to spread of temples
• Impact of bhakthi movement was encouragement it gave to Devdasis. They played important role in
popular appeal of temple.
Perspectives of Bhakti Movement
• Bhakti Movement – Process of Aryanisation of South India
• Zvelbil says that the tradition of Akam Poetry transferred North Indian Bhakti into a cultin south India
• Scholars defined Bhakti as social protest or social reform
• R Champakalakshmi’s study shows that Bhakti movement was not a means of socialprotest
• M.G.S Narayanan and Kesavan considered the Bhakti ideology as the force bringingtogether kings,
priest and common people
• Bhakti provided an illusion of equality among the people in a cast based society
• Anti ritualism and anti caste protest of Bhakti Movement came to an end in the 10thcentury
• The position of Alvars and Nayanars were taken up by Brahman Acharyas
• The temples became the custodians of power and wealth
• The Tamil language was replaced by Sanskirt