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Toc 2

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Unit 1: Automata Theory (Theory of Computation)

1. What is Automata Theory?


Automata theory is the study of abstract machines (automata) and the computational
problems that they can solve. It’s a fundamental part of the theory of computation and
deals with the design and analysis of algorithms, formal languages, and automata to
solve decision problems.

a. Strings: A string is a finite sequence of symbols from a given alphabet. Example:


In the alphabet {a, b}, "aab" is a string.

b. Alphabets: A set of symbols used to construct strings. Example: {a, b} is an


alphabet where "a" and "b" are symbols.

c. Symbols: The basic units from which strings are formed. They are elements of an
alphabet.

d. Formal Languages: A formal language is a set of strings formed from an alphabet


according to specific rules or patterns.

e. Regular Languages: These are the simplest class of formal languages. They can be
represented by regular expressions and recognized by finite automata.

2. DFA, NFA, E-NFA (Transition Table and Diagram)


A DFA (Deterministic Finite Automaton) has a single path for each input from any
state.
An NFA (Nondeterministic Finite Automaton) can have multiple transitions for the
same input.
An E-NFA (NFA with epsilon moves) allows transitions without any input symbol.

For all three, you can create a transition table showing the state transitions based on
inputs, and you can draw a transition diagram where states are nodes and edges
represent transitions.

3. Union/Intersection Theorem
Union Theorem: The union of two regular languages is also regular.
Intersection Theorem: The intersection of two regular languages is also regular.
4. Difference Between DFA and NFA
o DFA: Has exactly one transition for each symbol in the alphabet from any state.
o NFA: Can have zero, one, or multiple transitions for each symbol.

5. Conversion of NFA to DFA


The subset construction (or powerset construction) method is used to convert an NFA
to an equivalent DFA. In this process, each DFA state corresponds to a set of NFA
states.
6. Difference Between Mealy and Moore Machines
o Mealy Machine: The output depends on the current state and input.
o Moore Machine: The output depends only on the current state.
7. Conversion of E-NFA to NFA
This involves eliminating epsilon (ε) transitions by connecting the states directly
based on epsilon closure.
8. Steps of Pumping Lemma (for Regular Languages)
The Pumping Lemma helps prove whether a language is regular. Steps include:
o Assume the language is regular.
o Let the string length be greater than a certain pumping length.
o Divide the string into three parts and show that the string can be "pumped"
(repeated) without violating the properties of the language.

9. DFA Representation
A DFA can be represented as a 5-tuple (Q, Σ, δ, q₀, F), where:
o Q: Set of states
o Σ: Input alphabet
o δ: Transition function
o q₀: Start state
o F: Set of accept states

Unit 2: Regular Expressions and Languages

1. What is a Regular Expression?


A regular expression is a notation used to describe a regular language. It is composed
of characters and operators like union (+), concatenation, and Kleene star (*).
Example: The regular expression (a + b)* represents the language of all strings over
{a, b}.
2. Language to Regular Expression
For example, if the language consists of all strings containing "ab", the regular
expression might be (a+b)*ab(a+b)*.
3. Minimization of DFA
Minimizing a DFA involves merging equivalent states to create a DFA with the
fewest possible states.
4. Closure Properties of Regular Languages
Regular languages are closed under operations such as:
o Union: The union of two regular languages is regular.
o Intersection: The intersection of two regular languages is regular.
o Complement: The complement of a regular language is also regular.
o Inverse Homomorphism: If a language is regular, its inverse homomorphism is also
regular.

5. Reversal Property of Regular Languages


The reversal of a regular language is also regular. Reversing means that for every
string in the language, its reverse is in the language as well.
Example: The reversal of the string "abc" is "cba".

Unit 3: Context-Free Grammar (CFG)


1. CFG Defined with Tuples
A Context-Free Grammar is a 4-tuple (V, Σ, P, S), where:
o V: Set of variables (non-terminal symbols)
o Σ: Input alphabet (terminal symbols)
o P: Set of production rules
o S: Start symbol

2. Derivations (Left Types)


Derivations describe how a string can be generated from a grammar. A leftmost
derivation always expands the leftmost non-terminal first.
3. Simplifying Ambiguous Grammar
Ambiguity in grammar means that there is more than one parse tree for a given string.
To simplify it, new production rules may be introduced to resolve ambiguity.
4. Pushdown Automaton (PDA)
A PDA is an automaton that uses a stack to recognize context-free languages. It is a 7-
tuple (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q₀, Z₀, F), where:
o Q: Set of states
o Σ: Input alphabet
o Γ: Stack alphabet
o δ: Transition function
o q₀: Start state
o Z₀: Start stack symbol
o F: Set of accept states

Unit 4: Undecidability

1. Universal Turing Machine (UTM)


A Universal Turing Machine can simulate any other Turing Machine. It takes as input
the description of another Turing Machine and the input for that machine and then
simulates it.
2. Concept of Unsolvability
A problem is unsolvable if no algorithm can be created that always provides a correct
solution. Some decision problems cannot be solved by any Turing Machine, such as
the Halting Problem.
3. Decidability and Undecidability
o Decidable Problems: Problems for which a Turing Machine can provide a yes/no
answer for every input in a finite amount of time.
o Undecidable Problems: Problems for which no such Turing Machine exists, like the
Halting Problem.

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