UNIT 1 - WORDS AND WORLDS

VOCABULARY
LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION
accent (n) → acento
argument (n) → discusión
bilingual (adj) → bilingüe
cognate (n) → similar
comment on (V) → opinar / comentar
dialogue (n) → diálogo
discussion (n) → debate
expression (n) → expresión
false friend (n) → falso cognate
fluently (adv) → fluidamente
idiom (n) → expresión / dialecto
meaning (n) → significado
mother tongue (n) → lengua materna
proverb (n) → refrán
second language (n) → segunda lengua
slang (n) → jerga / lenguaje coloquial, informal
synonym (n) → sinónimo
translation (n) → traducción

FEELINGS
affection (n) → afecto / cariño
affectionate (adj) → cariñoso / afectuoso
annoyance (n) → enfado
annoyed (adj) → enfadado / molesto
boredom (n) → aburrimiento
bored (adj) → aburrido
confusion (n) → confusión
confused (adj) → confundido
delight (n) → placer
delighted (adj) → encantado
empathy (n) → empatía
empathetic (adj)→ empático
embarrassment (n) → vergüenza
embarrassed (adj) → avergonzado
enthusiasm (n) → entusiasmo
enthusiastic (adj) → entusiasta
frustration (n) → frustación
frustrated (adj) → frustado
hope (n) → esperar / desear
hopeful (adj) → optimista
isolation (n) → aislamiento
isolated (adj) → aislado / apartado
jealousy (n) → envidia
jealous (adj) → envidioso / celoso
relief (n) → alivio
relieved (adj) → aliviado / tranquilo
sadness (n) → tristeza
sad (adj) → triste
PHONE LIFE
charger (n) → cargador
cut off (phr v) → repudiar a alguien / distanciarse de alguien / apartarse de alguien
emoji (n) → emoticono
follow (v) → seguir
function (n) → uso
get through (phr v) → salir adelante / superar / terminar
instant messaging (n) → mensajería instantánea
lose signal (V) → perdida de señal
offline (adj) → sin conexión
on speakerphone → en manos libres
plug in (phr v) → conectar / enchufar
predictive texting (n) → mensaje automático
ringtone (n) → tono de llamada
run out of battery → estar sin batería
spam (n) → correo basura
stream (v) → streaming / ver algo en directo
swipe (V) → arrastrar el dedo por la pantalla / pasar la tarjeta
tag somebody (V) → etiquetar a alguien

FALSE FRIENDS AND COGNATES

express (adj) → rápido
diverse (adj) → variado / distinto
influence (v) → influenciar
realize (v) → darse cuenta de
suffer (V) → sufrir

GRAMMAR
REPORTED SPEECH
We use reported speech to express what another person has said without using their exact words. In
formal language, we use that to begin the reported speech clause, but we often omit it in informal
speech.

● TENSE CHANGES
EXAMPLES

“I have a headache,” said the woman.

→ The woman said (that) she had a headache.
“I will buy it.”
→ She said that she would buy it.
“Our house is quite big,” she said.
→ She said that their house was quite big.
“You could help him.”
→ She said that I could help him.

● REPORTING VERBS AND STRUCTURES

Reporting verbs take a variety of different structures and some verbs can take more than one
structure.

1. With the verbs offer, promise, agree, tell (+ object), ask (+ object), advise (+ object), order (+
object), warn (+ object) and remind (+ object), we use verb + to + infinitive.
For negative sentences, we use verb + not + to + infinitive.
“Shall I drive you?” → He offered to drive us.
“Stay for dinner?” → She asked me to stay for dinner.
"Wouldn't drive if I were you.” → He advised me not to drive.
“Don't do it.” → He ordered me not to do it.

2. With the verbs tell (+ object), promise (+ object), say, announce, deny and admit, we use verb
+ that.
“I'll call you.” → She told me that she would call me.
"I like it.” → He said that he liked it.

3. With the verbs apologize for, accuse (+ object) of, suggest, admit and congratulate (+ object)
on, we use verb + -ing.
“I'm sorry I broke it.” → He apologized for breaking it.
“You stole it.” → He accused me of stealing it.

● REPORTED QUESTIONS
1. Reported questions have a different word order from direct questions (the same as an
affirmative sentence).

• Verb + subject (direct question)

“Where are you from?” she asked.

• Subject + verb (reported question)

She asked me where I was from.

2. If a direct question uses a question word, we repeat the question word in the reported
question.
“What's the time?” → She asked me what the time was.

3. If a direct question doesn't use a question word, we use if or whether in the reported
question instead.
“Are you happy?” he asked her. → He asked her if / whether she was happy.
 UNIT 2 - MIND AND BODY

VOCABULARY
SPORT
active (adi)
aerobics (n)
badminton (n)
balanced (adj)
championship (n)
cheer (v)
competitive (adi)
drop out (of a race) (phr v) → abandonar
event (n)
get through (to the final) (phr v)
medal (n) → medalla
moderate (adi)
motivate (V)
participant (n)
physiotherapist (n)
sedentary (adi)
semi-final (n)
sign up (phr v)
spectator (n)
sporty (adj)
substitute (n)
take part in (phr v)
teammate (n)
trophy (n)
wellbeing (n)

PHRASAL VERBS
come up with (phr v) → conseguir, elaborar
end up (phr v) → terminar
go ahead (phr v) → llevar a cabo, seguir adelante
keep track of (phr v) → mantenerse al tanto de algo
take over (phr v) → encargarse de
work out (phr v) → solucionar

HEALTH AND WELLBEING

be mindful (v) → ser consciente
cut out (phr v) → sacar
enrol (in a class) (v) → inscribirse
gain perspective (exp)
get your heart rate up (exp) → aumenta tu ritmo cardíaco
get in shape (exp)
hydrated (adj)
immunity (n)
keep fit (V)
positive focus (n)
rested (adi)
set a goal (v)
stretch (v) → estirar
take a nap (v)
take care of (somebody/something) (phr v)
take up (phr v) → empezar
train (v) → entrenar

LINKERS
although
as well as
because of this
even though
for this reason
furthermore
in addition
in addition to

GRAMMAR
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS
We use relative pronouns and adverbs to add a new relative clause to a sentence.
➢ We use WHO or THAT to refer to people.
➢ We us WHOSE to express possession.
➢ We use WHICH or THAT to refer to things.
➢ We use WHERE to refer to places.
➢ We use THAT or WHEN to refer to time.

DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

1. Defining relatives clauses give essential information about the noun they follow. Without the
relative clause, the sentence would be incomplete and would not make sense.
2. We can omit WHO, WHEN, WHERE, WHICH or THAT if it is the object of a defining relative
clause, but we cannot omit WHOSE.
3. Non-defining relative clauses give extra, non-essential information about the noun they follow.
If we remove the relative clause, the sentence still makes sense.
4. We always use COMMAS to separate a non-defining clause from the rest of the sentence.
We cannot omit WHO, WHICH, WHEN or WHERE from a non-defining relative clause, nor
can we start one with that.

THAT, WHAT AND WHICH

1. THAT is used:
➢ to refer a noun / nouns that come before it.
➢ after all, everything, nothing, something and superlatives.
➢ in informal style instead of WHEN, WHO or WHICH.
➢ in informal style instead of WHERE, if we add a place proposition at the end of the clause.
2. WHICH is used to refer to:
➢ a noun / nouns that come before it.
➢ the whole of the clause that comes before it.
3. WHAT does not refer to a noun that comes before it. It acts as a noun and relative pronoun
and means “the thing that”.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL STRUCTURES

1. In informal style, prepositions in relative clauses go after the verb.
2. In formal style, prepositions in relative clauses go before WHICH and WHOM.
 UNIT 3 - A WORLD OF CONSUMERS

VOCABULARY
SHOPPING
bargain (n) → ganga
boutique (n) → boutique
brand (n) → marca
browse (v) → navegar
cashier (n) → cajero
changing room (n) → vestuario
charity shop (n) → tienda benéfica
exchange (v) → intercambio
high street (n) → calle principal
influencer (n) → influencer
online store (n) → tienda en línea
order (v) → pedido
pay in cash / by credit card (v) → pagar en efectivo / con tarjeta de crédito
purchase (v) → comprar
refund (v) → reembolso
review (v) → opinión
sales (n) → ventas
sales assistant (n) → asistente de ventas
second-hand (adj) → segunda mano
sweatshop (n) → fábrica de explotación
try on (phr v) → probarte
try out (phr v) → probar

IDIOMS
be in safe hands → estar en buenas manos
give something the time of day → no darle ni la hora
go on a spending spree → ir a gastar mucho
judge a book by its cover → juzgar un libro por su portada
keep an eye out for something → estar atento/a a algo
live from hand to mouth → vivir precariamente
rule of thumb → regla general
shop on a shoestring → comprar con poco dinero
shop around → comparar precios
tighten your belt → “ajustarse el cinturón”
tip of the iceberg → la punta del iceberg

WASTE
biodegradable (adj) → biodegradable
break down (phr v) → descomponerse
carbon footprint (n) → huella de carbono
clean-up (n) → limpieza
compost (n) → abono
compostable (adj) → compostable
contaminate (v) → contaminar
dispose of (phr v) → deshacerse de
disposable (adj) → desechable
dump (v) → volcar
environmental (adj) → ambiental
incinerate (v) → incinerar
landfill sites (n) → vertederos
packaging (n) → embalaje
recyclable (adj) → recicable
recycling (n) → reciclaje
renewable (adj) → renovable
reusable (adj) → reutilizable
reuse (v) → reutilizar
sustainable (adj) → sostenible
toxic (adj) → tóxico
wasteful (adj) → derrochador
zero-waste (adj) → desperdicio cero

FAKE REVIEWS
falsity (v) → falsedad
genuine (adj) → genuino
made up (adj) → inventado
scam (n) → estafa
spot (v) → punto, sitio, spot publicitario

GRAMMAR
ACTIVE & PASSIVE FORMS
1. We form the passive voice with be + past participle. We use be in the same tense that we would
use in the active sentence.
EX.
(active) Consumers buy many products online.
(passive) Many products are bought online by consumers.

2. The present simple passive is formed as follows:

Affirmative
SUBJ. + V. TO BE + PAST PARTICIPLE
Negative
SUBJ. + V. TO BE + NOT + PAST PARTICIPLE
Question
V. TO BE + SUBJ. + PAST PARTICIPLE + ?

3. When we form the passive in other tenses, we use be in the same tense as we would in the active
sentence.

4. Some irregular verbs have very different past participles.

5. Some verbs don’t have a passive form. This includes intransitive verbs (which don’t take an object)
such as die, sleep and swim.

We use the passive to emphasize the action (the verb) rather than who or what (the agent) did the
action. Compare:
(active → It is important to say who bought it.)
I bought a new phone last week.
(passive → It isn’t important to say who buys them.)
Thousands of new phones are bought every day.
6. In active sentences, the subject of the verb is also the agent (the person doing the action). When
we change an active sentence into the passive, the object of the active sentence into the passive, the
object of the active sentence becomes the subject. We add by + agent to the end of the passive
sentence to show who is doing the action.

EX.
(active) Dior designed this coat.
(passive) This coat was designed by Dior.

We can omit by + agent from a passive sentence:

➢ When the agent is unknown.

My bag has been taken. (I don’t know who took it.)

➢ When the agent is very obvious, or not important.

The thief was arrested. (The agent - the police - is obvious.)

➢ If we do not want to name the agent.

The mirror was broken while we were moving it. (We don’t want to say who broke it.)
It’s not always possible to omit by + agent.
Some sentences need an agent because it gives important information.
The book was written by Charles Dickens.

THE PASSIVE WITH TWO OBJECTS

When the active sentence has two objects, there are two possible passive sentences. To rewrite this
kind of sentence in the passive, one of the objects becomes the subject and the other remains the
object. The object that is changed into the subject is emphasized.

(active) They gave Sophia the present.

(passive 1) The present was given to Sophia.
(passive 2) Sophia was given the present.

IMPERSONAL & INFINITIVE FORMS

1. News reports often use the following passive construction with the verbs believe, think, rumour and
report:
It + (be) + past participle + that.
They believe that the thief got away. → It is believed that the thief got away.
They spread a rumour that the shop will close. → It is rumoured that the shop will close.

2. Passive infinitives in the present and perfect are also possible.

The thief is believed to have got away.
Sales are thought to be going up.

THE CAUSATIVE
1. We use have or get + object + past participle when a person does a task for us.
I have / get my grocery shopping delivered.

2. We use have + object + past participle when a person does something bad to us.
I’ve had my Facebook account hacked.
 UNIT 4 - HUMANITY

VOCABULARY
SOCIETY
animal rights (n) → derechos de los animales
authorities (n) → autoridades
child poverty (n) → pobreza infantil
citizen (n) → ciudadano
disability-rights activist (n) → activista por los derechos de las personas con discapacidad
employment (n) → discapacidad
gender discrimination (n) → discriminación de género
healthcare system (n) → sistema de salud
mental health (n) → salud mental
minority group (n) → grupo minoritario
neighborhood (n) → barrio
racial discrimination (n) → discriminación racial
segregation (n) → segregación
tolerance (n) → tolerancia
wealth (n) → riqueza
welfare state (n) → estado de bienestar

NOUN SUFFIXES
appearance (n) → apariencia
arrival (n) → llegada
bravery (n) → valentía
commitment (n) → compromiso
charge sb (with) (v) → cargar a alguien con algo
community (n) → comunidad
education (n) → educación
entertainment (n) → entretenimiento
fairness (n) → equidad
friendship (n) → amistad
kindness (n) → bondad
maturity (n) → madurez
ownership (n) → propiedad
supervision (n) → supervisión
survival (n) → supervivencia
scenery (n) → paisaje
treatment (n) → tratamiento

CRIME & JUSTICE

accuse sb of (v) → acusar a alguien de
arrest sb (for) (v) → arrestar a alguien por
burglary (n) → robo
charge sb (with) (v) → cargar
community service (n) → servicio comunitario
criminal (n) → criminal
criminal record (n) → antecedentes penales
defendant (n) → demandado
dismiss a case (v) → desestimar un caso
judge (n) → juez
jury (n) → jurado
life sentence (n) → cadena perpetua
mugging (n) → atraco
on trial → en juicio
pay a fine (v) → pagar una multa
prosecutor → fiscal
reach a verdict (v) → llegar a un veredicto
send sb to prison (v) → enviar a alguien a prisión
sentence sb to (v) → sentenciar
shoplifting (n) → hurto
suspect (n) → sospechoso
theft (n) → robo
therapy program (n) → programa de terapia
vandalism (n) → vandalismo
victim (n) → víctima
witness (n) → testigo
young offender (n) → joven delincuente

PHRASAL VERBS
bring back (phr v) → traer de vuelta
calm down (phr v) → calmarse
come across (phr v) → cruzarse
deal with (phr v) → lidiar con
run away (phr v) → huir
set off (phr v) → poner en marcha
set up (phr v) → configurar
stick together (phr v) → permanecer juntos

GRAMMAR
AS LONG AS, EVEN IF, PROVIDED THAT, UNLESS
1. Conditional clauses usually start with if. In some situations we can replace if with unless, provided
that or as long as.

2. We can use unless to mean if... not in negative conditional sentences. Compare:
We'll be late if we don't leave now.
We'll be late unless we leave now.

3. We can use even if instead of if to show that the result will not be affected by the condition.
Compare:
The workers won't strike if their wages are increased. (The workers will strike. But if their wages are
increased, they won't strike.)
The workers will strike even if their wages are increased. (The workers will strike if their wages are
increased and if their wages are not increased.)

4. We can use provided that or as long as (usually in first conditional sentences) to mean but only if.
Compare:
Crime levels will continue to fall but only if we keep the same number of police officers.
Crime levels will continue to fall as long as we keep the same number of police officers.
Crime levels will continue to fall provided that we keep the same number of police officers.
CONDITIONALS & MODALS
1. Conditional sentences contain two clauses: a conditional clause (which starts with if) and a result
clause.

2. We can change the order of the two clauses, but when the conditional clause comes first, we follow
it with a comma.
(conditional clause, result clause)
If the train times change, I’ll text you.
(result clause, conditional clause)
I’ll text you if the train times change.

3. There are several types of conditionals, which vary according to the degree of probability they
express.

ZERO CONDITIONAL
If + present simple, present simple
If it rains, the ground gets wet.
Present simple, if + present simple
The ground gets wet if it rains.

We use the zero conditional when a result always happens.

If people eat unhealthy food, they become overweight.

FIRST CONDITIONAL
If + present simple, will + infinitive
If you do the race, I’ll sponsor you.
Will + infinitive, if + present simple
I’ll sponsor you if you do the race.

We use the first conditional:

- To discuss possible or probable future events.
If we all take part in the protest, we’ll make a difference.
- To make promises and give warnings.
You won’t make a difference if you don’t take part in the protest.

We can’t use will in the conditional clause.

We can use modals instead of will in the result clause of a first conditional sentence:
• To show possibility.
If you vote for him, he may / might win the election.
• To show permission.
If you've filled out the form, you can vote immediately.
• To show obligation.
If you agree with his policies, you must vote for him.
• To make a suggestion.
If you're interested in politics, you should vote.

We can use modals in the conditional clause of a first conditional sentence.

If you can't walk, I'll give you a lift.
SECOND CONDITIONAL
If + past simple would + infinitive
If I had a lot of money, I'd set up a commune.
Would + infinitive if + past simple
I'd set up a commune if I had a lot of money.

We use the second conditional:

• To discuss imaginary situations in the present.
If I was the president, / would change all the government policies.
• To discuss imaginary or improbable events in the future.
I'd study economics if I went to Harvard University.
We can use were instead of was with I, he, she and it in the conditional clause. We use this
expression to give advice.
I wouldn't do that if I were you.

We can use modals instead of would in the result clause of a second conditional sentence:
• To show ability.
If he had time, he could help in the community.
• To show possibility.
If he won El million, he might give it all to charity.

We can use could in the conditional clause of a second conditional sentence:

• To show ability.
If I could speak Mandarin, I would help at the community center.
• To show possibility.
If you could have any job, what would you do?
• To give permission.
If we could wear our own clothes, then we would be happy to come to school.

THIRD CONDITIONAL
If + past perfect, would have + past participle
If you had applied, you would have got an interview.
Would have + past participle, if + past perfect
You would have got an interview if you had applied.

We use the third conditional to discuss hypothetical past events (which didn't happen).
We wouldn't have missed the bus if we'd got up early. (We didn't get up early, so we missed the bus.)

We can use modals in the result clause of a third conditional sentence:

• To show ability.
If I had posted my form in time, I could have voted in the election.
• To show possibility.
If they had known about the election, they might have voted.

We can use could + perfect infinitive in the conditional clause of a third conditional sentence to show
ability.
If he could have voted, he would have done.
MIXED CONDITIONALS
We can use mixed conditionals:
• To imagine how a change in the past would have a result in the present.
Form: if + past perfect, would + infinitive
If I had finished all of my homework last night, I would be able to go to the cinema now.
• To imagine how a different situation in the present would mean that the past was different too.
Form: if + past simple, would have + past participle
If I didn’t like pizza, I wouldn’t have gone to the Italian restaurant yesterday.

WISHES & REGRETS

We can use wish in a number of ways:
• To express regret about the past.
Form: wish + past perfect
I wish I hadn't voted for him. (I voted for him. Now I regret it.)
• To express a desire for the present.
Form: wish + could
I wish I could stand for election. (I want to, but I can't.)
• To express a dissatisfaction with what somebody is doing in the present. We don't use this when
talking about ourselves.
Form: wish + would
I wish he would stop making that noise. (He's making a noise. I want him to stop.)
 UNIT 5 - APPEARANCE

VOCABULARY
CLOTHES & ACCESSORIES
accessory (n) → accesorio
casual (adj) → informal
chunky (adj) → grueso
elegant (adj) → elegante
fitted (adj) → equipado
high heels (n) → tacones altos
loose-fitting (adj) → holgados
low-waisted (adi) → cintura baja
patterned (adj) → estampado
piercing (n) → perforación
plain (adj) → simple
sportswear (n) → ropa deportiva
striped (adj) → rayado
stylish (adj) → elegante
tattoo (n) → tatuaje
trend (n) → tendencia
vintage (adj) → vintage

COLLOCATIONS
do business → hacer negocios
do damage → hacer daño
do research → investigar
do someone a favour → hacer un favor a alguien
give priority → dar prioridad
give someone a chance → darle una oportunidad a alguien
give something a go → probar algo
give the impression → dar la impresión
have a feeling → tener un sentimiento
have a look → echar un vistazo
have a terrible temple → tener un terrible temperamento
have an opportunity → tener una oportunidad
make an exception → hacer una excepción
make fun of someone → burlarse de alguien
make no difference → hacer no diferencia
make sense → tener sentido
reach a compromise → llegar a un acuerdo
reach a decision → tomar una decisión
reach the point → llegar al punto
reach your destination → llegar a tu destino
take advantage → coger ventaja, aprovechar
take something for granted → dar algo por sentido
take something seriously → tomar algo en serio
take your time → tomarte tu tiempo
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
average-sized (adj) → tamaño promedio
badly dressed (adj) → mal vestido
brightly coloured (adj) → de colores brillantes
clean-shaven (adj) → bien afeitado
dark-haired (adj) → moreno
fast-thinking (adj) → de pensamiento rápido
friendly looking (adj) → mirada amigable
full-length (adj) → de larga duración
knee-length (adj) → hasta la rodilla
heavily built (adj) → muy construido
loose-fitting (adj) → holgado
middle-aged (adj) → mediana edad
natural-looking (adj) → de aspecto natural
scruffy-looking (adj) → de aspecto descuidado
shoulder-length (adj) → hasta los hombros
smartly dressed (adj) → elegante vestido
sporty-looking (adj) → de aspecto deportivo
time-saving (adj) → ahorro de tiempo
well-dressed (adj) → bien vestido
widely recognized (adj) → ampliamente conocido

VERB SUFFIXES: -IZE, -EN AND -IFY

classify (v) → clasificar
lighten (v) → aligerar
simplify (v) → simplificar
specialize (v) → especializarse
symbolize (v) → simbolizar

GRAMMAR
FUNCTIONS OF MODAL VERBS
1. Modal verbs work with a main verb to add extra meaning, e.g. prohibition, permission, ability,
obligation and lack of obligation, advice, possible and logical deduction.

2. Modal verbs share the following characteristics:

• We put an infinitive without to after most modal verbs.
She should learn Greek.
• Modals do not take -s in the third person.
I can play the drums. He can play the drums too.
• Modals do not use the auxiliary do / does to form negatives, questions or short answers.
She shouldn't wear that skirt.
Can I speak now?
• Modals can form contractions when used in the negative.
They should not visit. → They shouldn't visit.

SUBJ. + MODAL VERB + INFINITIVE

3. Semi-modals, such as ought to, are verbs that have some of the characteristics of modal verbs.
Some verbs, such as have to, function in a similar way to modal verbs, but don't share any of the
common modal characteristics.

SUBJ. + HAVE (DON’T HAVE) + TO + INFINITIVE

ABILITY, PERMISSION & PROHIBITION
1. We use can and be able to to talk about general ability. The negatives are can't and not be able to /
be unable to.
I can ride a bike. / I can't ride a bike.
I'm able to attend the fashion show. / I'm not able to attend the fashion show.

2. We use could to talk about general ability in the past.

I could ride a bike when I was a child.

3. We use was able to and managed to to refer to a particular effort in a specific situation in the past.
The negatives are wasn't able to and didn't manage to.
He was finally able to get to the next level. / He wasn't able to get to the next level.
I managed to get hold of the new bag by Dior. I I didn't manage to get hold of the new bag by Dior.

4. We use couldn't in general and specific situations in the past.

I couldn't ride a bike when I was younger.
I couldn't get hold of the new handbag by Dior.

5. We use can and be allowed to to talk about permission.

We can wear whatever we like to the party.
The children are allowed to eat chocolate today.

6. We use mustn't or can't to talk about prohibition.

You mustn't wear trainers in this restaurant.
Students can't borrow more than four books at a time.

OBLIGATIONS & LACK OF OBLIGATION

1. In affirmative sentences, we can use must. need to and have to to discuss obligations.
We must take our passports.
You need to have this vaccination.
We have to wear smart clothes.
2. In negative sentences, we use needn't and don't have to when there is no obligation.
We needn't buy a ticket.
You don't have to wear trainers.

ADVICE
1. We use should, ought to and had better to give advice and make recommendations.
You should go to that meeting.
You shouldn't wear that dress.

2. Ought to is more formal than should.

He ought to think about retiring.
They ought not to behave like that.

3. Had better implies negative consequences if the advice is not followed.

They'd better wear a coat or they'll be cold.
You'd better not be late or you'll miss your exam.
POSSIBILITY & MODAL PERFECTS
1. We can use may, might or could to show possibility.
I may wear that purple dress.
He might study fashion.
It could be fun.

2. We can use may not or might not in the negative.

I may not wear that purple dress.
He might not study fashion.

3. We use must and can't when we make a logical deduction. We use must when we are certain
something is true and can't when we are certain something is impossible.
It must be time for dinner because I'm hungry.
That can't be the end already!

4. We can use some modal verbs with have + past participle to talk about past events.
He might have gone to the cinema.
You shouldn't have opened the door.
Should she have told him yesterday?

• We use must have + past participle to express a certainty or make a logical deduction about the
past.
He must have been sad when he heard the news.
• We use can't have + past participle to express an impossibility in the past.
It can't have been John you saw - he's abroad.
• We use might have, may have or could have + past participle to express a possibility in the past.
He might have visited / may have visited / could have visited his friend.
• We also use could have + past participle to suggest an alternative past action, even though it is now
too late.
The shop assistant could have been more helpful.
• We use should have + past participle when we wish something had happened in the past, but it
didn't happen.
He should have studied for that test.
• We use shouldn't have + past participle when we wish something had not happened in the past, but
it did.
I shouldn't have borrowed your jacket without asking.

SUBJ. + MODAL VERB + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE

 UNIT 6 - WORK AND STUDY

VOCABULARY
CAREERS
apply for a place (v) → solicitar plaza
appoint (v) → nombrar
become an apprentice (v) → convertirse en aprendiz
commission someone to do something (v) → encargar a alguien que haga algo
full-time job (n) → trabajo de tiempo completo
graduate from (v) → graduarse de
homeless shelter (n) → refugio para personas sin hogar
internship (n) → pasantía
low paid (adj) → mal pagado
mentor an intern (v) → mentor de un pasante
part-time job (n) → trabajo a tiempo parcial
permanent position (n) → puesto permanente
placement (n) → colocación
supervise someone (v) → supervisar a alguien
take on (a job) (phr v) → aceptar (un trabajo)
temporary job (n) → trabajo temporal
turn down (a job) (phr v) → rechazar (un trabajo)
tutor someone (v) → dar tutoría a alguien
unpaid (adj) → no remunerado
volunteer (v) → voluntario
well-paid (adj) → bien pagado
win a scholarship (v) → ganar una beca
part-time (n) → tiempo parcial
thesis (n) → tesis

COMPOUND NOUNS: JOBS

brain surgeon (n) → neurocirujano
camera operator (n) → operador de cámara
company director (n) → director de la empresa
dog groomer (n) → peluquero canino
drone pilot (n) → piloto de drones
estate agent (n) → agente inmobiliario
flight attendant (n) → asistente de vuelo
software designer (n) → diseñador de software
statistical analyst (n) → analista estadística
tattoo remover (n) → quitador de tatuajes
train driver (n) → conductor de tren
video editor (n) → editor de video
yoga instructor (n) → instructor de yoga

PERSONAL QUALITIES
analytical (adj) → analítico
anxious (adj) → ansioso
(in)articulate (adj) → (poco)elocuente/claro
brainy (adj) → inteligente
carefree (adj) → despreocupado
cautious (adj) → cauteloso
cool-headed (adj) → sereno
critical (adj) → crítico
(in)decisive (adj) → (in)decidido
determined (adj) → determinado
diligent (adj) → diligente
distracted (adj) → distraído
(in)efficient (adj) → (in)eficiente
empathetic (adj) → empático
(un)enthusiastic (adj) → (poco)entusiasta
focused (adj) → enfocado
(un)imaginative (adj) → (in)imaginativo
(im)mature (adj) → (in)maduro
(de)motivated (adj) → (des)motivado
optimistic (adj) → optimista
(dis)organized (adj) → (des)organizado
(im)patient (adj) → (im)paciente
(im)perceptive (adj) → (im)perceptivo
pessimistic (adj) → pesimista
(im)precise (adj) → (im)presivo
(ir)rational (adj) → (ir)racional
(ir)replaceable (adj) → (ir)reemplazable
(ir)responsible (adj) → (ir)responsable
(in)secure (adj) → (in)seguro
insensitive (adj) → insensible
(un)sociable (adj) → (in)sociable
(un)reliable (adj) → (no)confiable

DEPENDENT PREPOSITIONS
confused by (adj) → confundido por
dedicated to (adj) → dedicado a
familiar with (adi) → familiarizado con
fond of (adj) → aficionado a
interested in (adj) → interesado en
necessary for (adj) → necesario para
passionate about (adj) → apasionado por
successful in (adj) → exitoso por

GRAMMAR
INFINITIVES & GERUNDS
VERB + GERUND OR INFINITIVE
1. When we use two verbs together, the second verb will be either a gerund or an infinitive.
They enjoy playing tennis. (verb + gerund)
They want to play tennis. (verb + to infinitive)
These are some common verbs that take the gerund. (We form the negative by adding not to the first
verb.)
| admit advice avoid can't help can't imagine cant stand complete consider discuss dislike don't mind
enjoy finish give up imagine |
I can't help watching this show.
He didn't finish tidying his bedroom.
2. These are some common verbs that take to + infinitive. (We form the negative by putting not before
+ infinitive.)
| afford agree appear arrange ask attempt beg choose dare decide demand deserve expect fail
hesitate hope intend learn manage mean need offer prepare pretend promise refuse seem threaten
wait want wish 'd / would like |
I refuse to give up hope.
She didn't want to leave her job.

3. Some verbs (e.g. begin, hate, like, love, prefer, start) can take the gerund or infinitive with no
change in meaning.
I love playing the violin. / I love to play the violin.

4. However, there are some verbs, such as forget, go on, mean, regret, remember, stop and try, which
can take either the gerund or to + infinitive, but with different meanings. Compare:
remember + to infinitive = not forget
I must remember to buy a card for Harriet.
remember + gerund = have a memory of something
I remember buying a card for Harriet last year.

5. We use a gerund:
• As the subject or object of a verb.
Reading is a great way to relax.
• After prepositions.
Shakespeare is famous for writing plays and poetry.
• After be / get used to.
I'm used to driving long distances.
You'll soon get used to speaking French.

We use to + infinitive:
• After adjectives.
I'm very sad to leave you.
• To give a reason or show purpose.
He went to the shops to buy a coat.

VERBS + OBJECT + INFINITIVE

1. These verbs can take either verb + to infinitive or verb + object + to infinitive:
| ask expect help mean want would hate would like would love would prefer |
Would love to come. / I would love you to come.

2. These verbs can take only verb + object + to infinitive:

| enable force remind invite order persuade tell warn |
He reminded me to pay. / They forced him to go.

PARTICIPLES & PARTICIPIAL PHRASES

1. A present participle is formed with verb + -ing (e.g. walking). A past participle is formed with verb +
-ed (e.g. walked). There are a number of irregular past participle forms (e.g. gone, found, forgotten).

2. A perfect participle is formed with having + past participle: having walked.

A perfect participle can be formed with both active and passive verbs: having been given.
3. We can use present or past participles as adjectives.
She was crying when she left the room. → Crying, she left the room.
He was frightened, so he ran as fast as he could. → Frightened, he ran as fast as he could.

4. When one action happens at the same time as another action, we use the present participle.
While he was walking up the stairs, he tripped. → Walking up the stairs, he tripped.

5. When one action happens before another action, we use the perfect participle:
First he had his breakfast. Then he went out. → Having had his breakfast, he went out.

6. When one short action follows another short action, we can use the present participle instead of the
perfect participle:
He picked up his phone. Then he left the house. → Picking up his phone, he left the house.

7. Participial phrases describe situations using fewer words than other clauses. We often use this type
of clause to explain something or to say why somebody does something. It is more common in written
English.
He had been looking for a job for six months without success, so he started to give up hope. →
Looking for a job for six months without success, he started to give up hope.

8. With sense verbs such as see, watch, hear, feel and notice, a present participle emphasizes the
entire action.
I noticed the people leaving.
When we aren't using sense verbs, the participle and the main clause should have the same subject.
Leaving the house, he shut the door.
 KEY LINKERS

ADDING POINTS
also
as well
as well as
besides
furthermore
in addition
moreover
too
what's more

CONTRASTING POINTS
although
but
despite + -ing
despite the fact that
even though
however
in spite of + -ing
in spite of the fact that
nevertheless
on the other hand

REASON OR CAUSE
as
as a result (of)
because (of)
due to
since

RESULT OR CONSEQUENCE
as a result
consequently
so
therefore

PURPOSE
in order to
so
so as to
so that
to