WORDS AND PHRASES

morphological semantic function

Noun -s suffix in plural ‘Naming word’: Nominal function:

person, thing, idea Subject, Object,
Predicative;
complement of
preposition,
premod in NP,
apposition

Verb -sin 3rd p. present ‘Doing word’: Head of verb

tense, past tense state, action, phrase, verbal
in -ed activity, relation

Adjective Can be compared ‘Descriptive word’ Adjectival

with -er/-estor function:
more, most. Predicative;
Typical endings:-y, modifier in noun
-ic, -ish, -ous phrase

Adverb (1) Can be (1)‘descriptive Adverbial function:

compared with - word’ (2) word Adverbial;
er/-estor more, referring to time, modifier in AdjP,
most. place, manner, NP, AdvP
Typical ending: - degree, viewpoint
ly(2) etc. Modifies
No typical form verbs, adjectives,
adverbs, clauses

Pronoun Short Replaces noun, Head of NP

refers back to
noun

Determiner Introduces noun Det in NP

Preposition Establishes a Adverbial, Subject;

relationship mod in NP,
complement in
AdjP

Conjunctions Links
NOUN PHRASE: determiner + premodifier + head+ postmodifier

VERB PHRASE: one or more auxiliary + main verb

ADJECTIVE PHRASE: premodifier + head + complement

ADVERB PHRASE: premodifier + head + postmodifier

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE: preposition +complement

CLAUSE AND CLAUSE ELEMENTS

VERBAL (V): the state/action. Always a verb phrase.

SUBJECT (S): the “doer” of the action. Typically a noun phrase.

DIRECT OBJECT (dO): something/somebody that is affected/produced by the

action.. Typically a noun phrase.

INDIRECT OBJECT(iO): the beneficiary of the action. Typically a noun phrase.

SUBJECT PREDICATIVE(sP): a description/qualification of the subject. Adjective or

noun phrase. Occurs with such verbs as BE, BECOME, etc.

OBJECT PREDICATIVE(oP): a description/qualification of the direct object.

Adjective or noun phrase.

ADVERBIAL (A): time, place, manner etc. Typically adverb (phrase) or

prepositional phrase.

ANTICIPATORY SUBJECT OR OBJECT (aS/aO)

FREE PREDICATIVE (fP)

VOCATIVE & INSERTS (Voc/Ins)

CONNECTOR (c)

VALENCY, TRANSITIVITY AND CLAUSE PATTERNS

VALENCY: the number of constituents that are required in addition to the verb in
order to form a grammatical sentence (one-place verb: verb + one constituent,
two-place verb: verb + two constituents, etc.)

TRANSITIVITY: to do with the kinds of constituents needed by the verb. A

transitive verb requires a direct object to complete the sentence. The opposite is
intransitive. (intransitive, monotransitive, copular, ditransitive, complex transitive)

1. One-place verb
a. Intransitive: SV (e.g. to leave)
2. Two-place verb
a. Monotransitive: SVdO
b. Copular: SVsP (e.g. be, become, seem)
c. Intransitive verb with obligatory adverbial: SVA (e.g. be, live)
3. Three-place verb
a. Ditransitive: SViOdO
b. Complex: SVdOoP
c. Monotransitive verb with obligatory adverbial: SVdOA

NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES

Types of nouns
- Countable
- Uncountable
- Unit noun
- Collective noun: unit vs. distributive
- Group noun
- Proper noun

- Apposition
- ‘s genitive
 - Of genitive

DETERMINERS AND PRONOUNS

Pre-determiner - Central determiner - post-determiner

DETERMINERS

Indefinite article A

Definite article The

Zero article Ø

Demonstrative This, that, these, those

Possessive My, her, his, their, our

Quantifying All, so, many, few

Numerals Cardinal vs. ordinal

Interrogative What, which, whose

Relative Whose, which

Indefinite Whatever, whichever

s-genitive Mary’s

PRONOUNS

Personal I, you, he, she

Reflexive myself

Reciprocal Each other

Possessive Mine, yours

Demonstrative These, those, that

Indefinite Some, any

Interrogative What, whom, who, which

Relative Who, whom, which that

Personal pronouns: Subject vs. object (oblique) forms.
Person: first (I, we), second (you), third (he, she, it, they)
Number: singular, plural (Ivs. we, he/she/itvs. they)
Gender (in the third person): masculine (he), feminine (she), neuter(it)

Possessive pronouns and determiners:

Person, number and gender (like personal pronouns)

Demonstrative pronouns and determiners:

Proximity: close vs. distant
Number

Indefinite pronouns:
Number: singular, plural (e.g. one, each vs. some, many)
Personal vs. non-personal reference (someone vs. something)
Reflexive Pronouns: Person, number and gender

SOME ANY
✦ Limitation ✧ Non-limitation
✦ Particularity ✧ Arbitrariness
✦ Frequently carry implications of ✧ Existence may be denied or left
existence open
✦ Typically used in assertive ✧ Typically used in questions,
contexts. negative contexts and
✦ Can be used in non-assertive conditional clauses
contexts to signal that limitation, ✧ Can be used in assertive
particularity and existence is contexts to signal arbitrariness
assumed. (‘no matter what/who/which’)

Definite noun phrases Personal pronouns: he, she, we,

Noun phrases with the definite they…
article: the door, the old beech tree I
planted Proper nouns: Norway, Samantha,
London
Demonstrative pronouns or noun
phrases with demonstrative Noun phrases with the quantifiers all,
determiners: this, those, that man, both, every and each: every aspect, all
these lovely flowers animals
Indefinite noun phrases
Noun phrases with possessive Noun phrases with the indefinite
determiners: my father, his valiant article: a book, an interesting idea
attempt (singulars)
Noun phrases without a determiner each and every) –unless combined
(zero article): books, water, happiness with a definite determiner: two books,
(plurals and uncountables) some water, any happiness

Noun phrases with quantifying Indefinite pronouns: somebody,

determiners (other than all, both, anything, man

GENERIC REF: A whole kind, or class or species (in general)

DEFINITE: Has one specific thing in mind
INDEFINITE: Does not have one specific thing in mind

VERBS AND VERB PHRASES

LEXICAL VERB

GRAMMATICAL AUXILIARIES Do, be, have

MODAL AUXILIARIES Can, could, may, might, must, shall,

should, will, would

MARGINAL MODALS Need to, dare to

MODAL EQUIVALENTS Paraphrases of proper modals

Able to, willing to
Note: these are not auxiliaries, but
convey the same type of meanings as
modal auxiliaries and are felt to be part
of the same verb phrase as a following
lexical verb.
CATENATIVES a) Modalizing expressions
Seem to, appear to
b) Aspectual verbs
Keep, start, stop
c) Get
d) Others
Happen to, tend to, fail to, come to

PHRASAL VERB Verb + Particle

Can be separated

PREPOSITIONAL VERB Verb + Prep

Cannot be separated

PHRASAL PREPOSITIONAL VERB Verb + Particle + Prep

DELEXICAL VERB Structures that combine noun and give,

have, take, make, do

Other combinations Verb + Noun + Prep

Verb + Verb + Prep
Verb + Adj + Prep

FINITE VERB FORMS: present tense, past tense, modal, imperative

NON-FINITE VERB FORMS: infinitive, -ing form, past participle

TENSE, ASPECT AND VOICE

Aspect: an indicator of how an action is viewed –from the inside or from the
outside –as unfolding or as completed. Important keywords are duration and
completion.

Voice: the distinction between active and passive –whether the subject referent
performs/causes an action (active) or is affected by the action (passive).

Modality: a perspective on the verbal action which adds an element of

- the speaker's beliefs about the verbal action (probability, necessity)
- permission, obligation, ability, possibility

MEANING OF PRESENT TENSE - True/valid at moment of

utterance
- General validity
 - Habitual

MEANING OF PAST TENSE - Distance in time

- Distance in reality
- Tentativeness

PROGRESSIVE ASPECT: Focus on duration & ongoingness → BE + -ing participle

PERFECTIVE ASPECT→HAVE + past participle

PASSIVE VOICE → BE + past participle

MODALITY
a) Root modality
ABILITY(can/could)
PERMISSION(can/could, may/might)
OBLIGATION(must, ought to, shall/should)
VOLITION(will/would)
POSSIBILITY(may/might)
PREDICTION(will/shall)
HABITUAL ACTIVITY(will/would)

b) Epistemic modality: Degree of certainty

This is an important discovery
This must be an important
discovery.
Stronger certainty
This should be an important discovery.
This could be an important discovery.
This may be an important discovery.
This might be an important discovery.

MOOD
The imperative has you as implied subject, which is only sometimes overtly
expressed:
Turn it down! You turn it down! Don’t (you) turn it down!

The subjunctive is visible only in the third person singular (lack of s-form) and
when the verb is BE. It is rare, but used in:

1. certain set expressions

Long live the council tax!
If he had to suffer to keep the dog, so be it.
Come what may.
Well, I have three people I have to message as it were.

2. hypothetical if-clauses (optional)

Would she take the job if she were offered it?
I’d spell it a different way if I were you.

3. that-clauses that express suggestions, recommendations or necessity

(optional)
I find it very important that these research staff be treated as their present
colleagues.
She insisted that the company present themselves at the hotel.
A suggestion was that the students be given tours of the campus.

FUTURE-REFERRING EXPRESSIONS

Will / shall + base form Neutral future prediction

Willingness

Be going to Certainty that something is going to

happen (because of intention or present
signs)

Present progressive Arrangement/plan made by the subject

Will / shall + progressive Already planned (but de-emphasizing

the subject’s will and intention)
Ongoing in the future

Be to Personal subject: decision by other

than the subject
Non-personal subject: official plan

Simple tense Fixed plan or schedule

Also used regularly as future-referring
expressions in if-clauses and time
clauses

Be about to Immediate future

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Comparison: Positive (small) - Comparative (smaller) - Superlative (smallest)

Types of adjectives
- Qualitative (descriptive vs. Evaluative)
- Colour
- Origin, style, material
- Emphasizing
- Limiters
- Partiples
Adjective phrases
a. adverb + adjective /adjective + adverb
b. adjective + prepositional phrase as complement
c. adjective + subordinate clause as complement
d. split modifier (adjective between two parts of the modifier)
Syntactic functions
a. premodifier noun phrase
b. post modifier noun phrase
c. subject predicative
d. free predicative

● Attributive vs. Predicative

● Specifying vs. Classifying
● Nominalized
Types of adverbs
- Descriptive & evaluative
- Negative
- Focus
- Linking
Syntactic functions of adjective phrase
a. modifier in adjective phrase
b. modifier in adverb phrase
c. adverbial (“modifies”the verb or the clause/sentence)

ADVERBIALS

REALIZATION OF ADVERBIALS
○ Adverb
○ Adverb Phrase
○ Noun Phrase
○ Prepositional Phrase
○ Finite Subordinate Clause
○ Non-finite Subordinate Clause
○ Verbless Clause

ADJUNCTS
- Time - Place - Manner
 - Instrument - Reason - Focus
- Means - Purpose - Viewpoint
- Degree - Condition - Respect
- Participant - Concession

DISJUNCTS
a) Modal
b) Fact-evaluating
c) Style-evaluating
d) Subject-evaluating
e) Sentential relative clause

CONJUNCTS: Link

PLACEMENT
1. Initial (before subject)
2. Medial (between subject and last obligatory component)
3. End (after last obligatory component)

FINITE CLAUSES: RELATIVE, ADVERBIAL, NOMINAL

RELATIVE CLAUSES - ADJECTIVAL

- Modify nouns (adjectival function)
- Antecedent

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Pronoun Antecedent Function

who perso S, O, P

whom perso O, comp of prep

whose Perso & non-perso Determiner

which non-perso S, O, P, comp of prep

that Perso & non-perso S, O, P

ø Perso & non-perso O, P

1. Restrictive relative clause

a. No comma
b. Specification
2. Non-restrictive relative
a. Comma
b. Addition
3. Sentential
a. Which
 b. Matrix clause as antecedent
c. Other subordinators in relative clauses:
i. Relative adverbs: where, when, why = substitution for ‘prep +
which’
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
d. Function as adverbials, adjuncts
e. Can function as postmodifiers in NP

NOMINAL CLAUSES
f. That-clauses
i. ‘That’ or Ø
g. Nominal relative clauses
i. Wh-pronouns
ii. No antecedent, wh-word functions as antecedent
h. Indirect question
i. Interrogative pronouns and adverbs
ii. Conjunctions ‘if’ or ‘whether’
i. Other
i. Cleft clauses
ii. Indirect speech
iii. Comment clauses

NON-FINITE CLAUSES

Clause Phrase level function Clause level function

Infinitive Postmod of nouns S; dO; sP; oP

Apposition A
Comp of adjectives

-ing participle Apposition S; dO; sP; oP

Comp of prepositions A
Comp of adjectives

Past participle Postmod of nouns dO

A

Verbless

THE MISSING SUBJECT

When the non-finite clause is a subject or subject predicative in the main clause,
the subject of the non-finite clause is understood to be people in general, or there
is focus on the action as such more than on anyone in particular doing it.

When the non-finite clause is an object or adverbial, its subject is the same as in
the superordinate clause.

When the clause functions as a postmodifier, the subject is understood to be the

same as the head noun.
OVERT SUBJECT
When infinitive clauses and past participle clauses have overt subjects, they are in
the object form. The subject of an infinitive can be preceded by for.

In -ing clauses the subject can be either in the object form or in the possessive
form.
Possessive form more focus on the action (also: more formal choice, less used)
Objects form more focus on the person who is doing the action.

Some verbs allow only the object form: keep, have, get, leave, find, want,and many
perception verbs.

The verbal in verbless clauses = a form of the lexical verb BE.

Non-finite clauses can have subordinating conjunctions when they function as

adverbials, but very often they do not. We need the context to interpret what sort
of relationship there is between the two clauses (what sort of adjunct we are
actually dealing with).