Course Name- Anatomy and Physiology Course Code-B.P.Ed.

-106

1.3 Classification, Structure and Function of Tissues

What are Tissues?

In simple terms, tissue can be defined as a group of cells with similar shape and function
are termed as tissues. They form a cellular organizational level, intermediate between the
cells and organ system. Organs are then created by combining the functional groups of
tissues.

Definition of Tissue

Tissues are groups of cells that have a similar structure and act together to perform a
specific function. The word tissue comes from a form of an old French verb meaning “to
weave”. There are four different types of tissues in animals: connective, muscle, nervous,
and epithelial. In plants, tissues are divided into three types: vascular, ground, and
epidermal. Groups of tissues make up organs in the body such as the brain and heart.

What is Human Body Tissue?

If you were to try to explain to someone what your body is made of, you might say two
arms, two legs, feet and hands, a head and a torso or you might go to the other extreme and
say that you are made up of billions of cells. Both answers would be correct. However,
there is a more specific way to describe what makes up a body. We are composed of
several different types of human body tissue. But what exactly does that mean?

Human body tissue is another way of describing how our cells are grouped together in a
highly organized manner according to specific structure and function. These groupings of
cells form tissues, which then make up organs and various parts of the body. For example,
it's easy to see and feel muscle in the body. Muscle is one of the four types of human body
tissue. In this lesson, learn more about the types of tissue and how each functions for a
different purpose.

Types of Tissues

We have determined that we are made up of four different types of tissue. In addition to
muscle tissue, we have connective, epithelial and nervous tissue in the body.
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Tissues are grouped into four types:

1. Connective Tissue
2. Muscle Tissue
3. Nervous Tissue
4. Epithelial Tissue
So, how are these tissue types different? Let's zoom in on each one to better understand.

The collections of tissues are joined in structural units to serve a standard function of
organs. The primary purpose of these four types of tissue differs depending on the type of
organism.

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For example, the origin of the cells comprising a particular tissue type also differs.

Connective Tissues

As its name suggests, connective tissue makes up a connective web inside our body.
Holding our body parts together and providing support are the main jobs of this tissue. We
would certainly not be in good shape if all of our internal body parts were free-floating.
Connective tissue fills in the spaces inside our body with a matrix made of fibers within a
liquid, solid, or jelly-like substance. Think of a gelatin salad with fruit suspended inside,
and you will have an idea of how certain types of connective tissue function.

They are the group of tissues made up of cells separated by non-living material, called as
an extracellular matrix. This tissue provides shape to the different organs and maintains
their positions. For example, blood, bone, tendon, adipose, ligament and areolar tissues.
There are three types of connective tissue:

 Fluid Connective Tissue.

 Fibrous Connective Tissue.
 Skeletal Connective Tissue.
Functions of Connective Tissue

The connective tissue functions by providing shape and maintains the position of different
organs in the body. It functions as the primary supporting tissue of the body. Other
important and the major functions of connective tissue in the body are:

1. Insulating.
2. Helps in binding the organs together and provides support.
3. It protects against the invasions of pathogens by their phagocytic activity.
4. Provides shape to the body, conserves body heat and also stores energy.
5. It is involved in the transportation of water, nutrients, minerals, hormones, gases,
wastes, and other substances within the body.

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Muscle Tissue

As mentioned earlier, these different types of tissue are made of particular kinds of cells
that work together. First let's look at muscle tissue. Muscle tissue is made up of excitable
cells that are long and fibrous. These cells are ready for contraction, or the activation of
tension in our muscles, making it possible for us to move our body parts. They are
arranged in parallel lines and are bundled, making muscle tissue very strong. If you take a
pile of rubber bands, line them up next to each other and attempt to stretch them, you may
get the idea of the nature of the muscle tissue.

They are involved in producing force and generating motion, either for the locomotion or
for other body movements within internal organs. There are three types of muscle tissue:

1. Skeletal Muscle – they are typically attached to bones

2. Cardiac Muscle – found in the heart.
3. Visceral or Smooth Muscle – they are found in the inner walls of organs.

Functions of Muscle Tissue

Muscle tissues are associated with their movements including walking, running, lifting,
chewing, picking and dropping objects, etc. The other major functions of muscle tissue in
the body are:

1. Helps in maintaining an erect position, or posture.

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2. Helps in the constriction of organs and blood vessels.

3. Involved in both voluntary and involuntary movements.
4. Involved in pumping blood and regulating the flow of blood in arteries.
5. Controls respiration by automatically driving the movement of air both into and
out of our body.

Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue is found within the nervous system and is made up of unique specialized
cells. Like electrical circuits, the nervous system transmits signals from nerves to the spinal
cord and brain. Cells known as neurons conduct these impulses, making it possible for us
to use our senses.

They are the main tissue components of the brain and spinal cord in the central nervous
system. While, in the peripheral nervous system, the neural tissue forms the cranial nerves
and spinal nerves.

Functions of Nervous Tissue

The nervous tissue forms the communication network of the nervous system and is
important for information processing. The other major functions of nervous tissue in the
body are:

 Response to stimuli.
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 Stimulates and transmits information within the body.

 Plays a major role in emotions, memory, and reasoning.
 Maintains stability and creates an awareness of the environment.
 Nervous tissue is involved in controlling and coordinating many metabolic
activities.

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissue is made up of epithelial cells, which are vastly different from the muscle
cells we just talked about. These cells can be flat, cuboidal, or columnar. They are joined
tightly together, making a single or stacked continuous sheet. Like a quilt that is tightly
stitched, epithelium makes an excellent protective cover for the body, in the form of skin.
Epithelial tissue can also be found lining some internal cavities and organs.

They are formed by cells which cover the external parts of the body organs and lines the
organ surfaces such as the surface of the skin, the reproductive tract, the airways, and the
inner lining of the digestive tract.

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

This tissue performs a wide variety of functions including:

1. Play a major role in sensory reception, excretion, filtration and other metabolic
activities.

2. Provide mechanical strength and resistance to the underlying cells and tissue.

3. It is involved in the movement of materials through the process of filtration, diffusion

and secretion.

4. Protects the internal organs against the invasions of pathogens, toxins, physical trauma,
radiation, etc.
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Epithelial tissues are also involved in secreting hormones, enzymes, mucus and other
products from ducts and transporting it to the circulatory system.

Functions of tissues

The structure of each tissue of the body is organized to carry out its own specific functions,
and this is reflected in the arrangement of the cells and its histological appearance.

Focuses on five functions of tissues, namely:

 secretion
 movement
 strength
 excretion
 Communication.
As you should already be aware, different tissues are capable of different functions.
However, these functions may be interrelated. For example, the cells of the endocrine
system secrete hormones, which are involved in communication between different tissues.

Secretion is an example of a function that is particularly specialized. Many cell types

release molecules into the extracellular environment, but secretion is a specific function
carried out by epithelial cells.

Tissue Secretion

Thyroid thyroid hormones

Breast milk

Salivary gland saliva

Tear ducts tears

Exocrine pancreas digestive enzymes

Islets of Langerhans insulin, glucagon

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Stomach epithelium acid, intrinsic factor

Secretion: Functions of the thyroid

The thyroid is a two-lobed endocrine (hormone-secreting) gland located in the neck, as can
be seen in Figure

The gland produces two related hormones: thyroxin (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3), which
are involved in the control of metabolic rate. T4 contains four molecules of iodine and T3
contains three molecules of iodine. Deficiency of iodine leads to proliferation of the cells
in the thyroid, in response to the unmet demand for the hormones.

Histological, normal thyroid tissue consists of many follicles lined with a single layer of
epithelial cells called thyrocytes. These cells synthesis a protein (thyroglobulin), which acts
as a precursor and storage site for the thyroid hormones. The thyroglobulin is secreted and
stored inside the thyroid follicles.

When stimulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary, thyroglobulin

is internalised (phagocytosed) by the thyrocytes and broken down to release the hormones,
which are then secreted into the blood.

Thyroid histology is altered in conditions such as Graves’ disease (as a result of an

overactive thyroid) and in Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, an autoimmune disease, where the
body’s own immune system attacks and destroys the thyroid epithelium.

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Movement: functions of muscle

Focus now shifts to the function of movement, and the muscle tissue that facilitates it.

All muscles are contractile and excitable and they contain the proteins myosin and actin,
which are responsible for contraction. However, the functions of the muscle types and the
arrangement of cells within them vary. As you read earlier in the course, from a
histological perspective there are three different types of muscle:

1. Striated (or skeletal) Muscle

2. Smooth Muscle
3. Cardiac Muscle
Skeletal muscles are the voluntary muscles, attached to bones via tendons, which allow
voluntary movement of the body. Muscle tissue is made from a collection of highly
specialized cells, known as muscle fibers. These are formed by the fusion of individual
muscle cells (myocytes).

The muscle tissue is surrounded by supporting and protecting bands of fibrous connective
tissue called fascia. The plentiful nerve and blood supplies which an active muscle requires
are located within fascia.

Within a myofibril, actin and myosin are interleaved, producing the characteristic striated
(striped) appearance, which can be seen under the microscope and is shown schematically
in the figure below. When a muscle contracts the actin and myosin slide across each other,
causing the striations to bunch up.

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Energy is required to relax the muscle (surprisingly the default condition is contraction).
When a muscle runs out of energy it contracts, as occurs in cramp and rigor mortis.

In contrast to skeletal muscle, both cardiac and smooth muscle are involuntary muscles,
meaning that we cannot voluntarily control their contraction. In cardiac muscle the
myocytes form a network, with crosslinks and intercalated discs between the cells. They
have striations comparable to those in skeletal muscle.

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Smooth muscle is found in the wall of blood vessels and many hollow organs, including
the uterus, the bladder and along all parts of the gastrointestinal tract.

Structure and strength: functions of bone and cartilage

Tissues such as bone and cartilage give our bodies’ structure and strength. The examples
used are bone and cartilage.

There are many different types of cartilage, including articular cartilage, which covers the
joints at the end of the bones. However, the example provided in the slide set that you will
examine shortly is from the trachea (windpipe). This structure has bands of hyaline
cartilage, which strengthen the trachea, to resist collapse or closure as the head moves.

Notice in these strong tissues how the cells form only a small proportion of the total tissue
mass. They are responsible for forming, remodeling and repairing the tissue, but the
strength is provided by the extracellular matrix (and mineralization), including proteins
such as collagen and elastic in tendons.

Mineralization produces highly ordered structures around the cells, and is arranged to resist
the stresses placed on the tissue. The hardest tissues of the body – bones and teeth – are
mineralized with calcium hydroxyl apatite.

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Excretion: functions of the kidney

The kidneys are excretory organs that perform three main functions to produce urine,
filtration, reabsorption and secretion. They are situated at the back of the peritoneal cavity.

A cross-sectional slice through the kidney shows an outer layer (renal cortex), a middle
layer (renal medulla), and an inner area (renal pelvis), where the ureter widens to join the
kidney.

Within each kidney there are approximately one million structures called nephrons, each of
which acts as an independent filter and urine-processing unit. A nephron consists of a renal
corpuscle, which lies in the cortex, and a long tube which collects and processes the
filtered fluid, called a renal tubule.

At the renal corpuscle, a network of very small-diameter blood capillaries, known as the
glomerulus, comes into close contact with the closed end of the tubule, which is composed
of a single layer of epithelial cells – the Bowman’s capsule.

In this specialized region, fluid is filtered out of the blood capillaries, across the epithelial
cells and into the lumen of the tubule. The filtrate then passes along the tubule, which is

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convoluted (in some cases looping down into the medulla), before finally joining with the
renal pelvis, where the urine is emptied into the urethras.

It is during its passage along the tubule that the contents of the filtrate are processed, and
urine is formed. Most of the filtered water, glucose, amino acids, sodium and other ions are
reabsorbed by the epithelial cells of the tubules. Waste substances are either not reabsorbed
at all, or only partially reabsorbed.

Some molecules and ions are also secreted into the tubule by the epithelial cells and,
together with waste products which remain in the filtrate, are excreted in the urine.

Cells of the kidney thus perform three main functions to produce urine:

 Filtration occurs in the glomerulus/Bowman’s capsule

 Reabsorption and secretion occur in the tubules.

The following diagram illustrates the blood supply to different parts of the nephron. High
pressure within the glomerulus promotes the initial filtration of the blood plasma, and the
network of vessels associated with the loop of Henle allows reabsorption of ions and water.

Communication: functions of the nervous system

The function of the nervous system, and the cells that comprise it, is to communicate
signals that originate both within the body and in the external environment.

The nervous system is divided into two main parts.

 The central nervous system (CNS) includes the brain, spinal cord and retina of the eye

 The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the network of nerves outside the CNS that
runs through virtually all other tissues.

Both parts are illustrated in Figure.

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There are a greater abundance of nerve cells in some parts of the body than others. For
example, there is a dense plexus of nerves associated with the gut, which is know as the
enteric nervous system. This network of cells controls peristalsis – the coordinated
contraction of the muscles along the gut wall that moves matter through the digestive
system.

The roles and structures of neurons

Around half of the cells that comprise the nervous system are called neurons.

Neurons typically consist of a cell body, which contains the nucleus of the cell. Dendrites
extend from the cell body, and this is where information (signals) are received. Each cell
also has a single axon, which relays signals onwards to other neurons or to other cells such
as muscle. A number of possible arrangements of neural structures are depicted below in
Figure.

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