healthcare

Article
Bullying and Self-Concept, Factors Affecting the Mental Health
of School Adolescents
Carmen Galán-Arroyo 1,2 , Santiago Gómez-Paniagua 3, * , Nicolás Contreras-Barraza 4 ,
José Carmelo Adsuar 5 , Pedro R. Olivares 6,7 and Jorge Rojo-Ramos 8, *

1 Physical and Health Literacy and Health-Related Quality of Life (PHYQoL), Faculty of Sport Science,
University of Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain; [email protected]
2 Sport, Health & Exercise Research Unit (SHERU), Castelo Branco Polytechnic Institute, School of Education,
Department Sport and Well-Being, 6000-266 Castelo Branco, Portugal
3 BioẼrgon Research Group, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
4 Facultad de Economía y Negocios, Universidad Andrés Bello, Viña del Mar 2531015, Chile;
[email protected]
5 Promoting a Healthy Society Research Group (PHeSO), Faculty of Sport Sciences,
University of Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain; [email protected]
6 Faculty of Education, Psychology and Sport Sciences, University of Huelva, 21007 Huelva, Spain;
[email protected]
7 Facultad de Educación, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Talca 3480094, Chile
8 Physical Activity for Education, Performance and Health Research Group, Faculty of Sport Sciences,
University of Extremadura, 10003 Cáceres, Spain
* Correspondence: [email protected] (S.G.-P.); [email protected] (J.R.-R.)

Abstract: Bullying is an aggressive and repetitive behavior, where one person or several people
physically, socially, or emotionally harm a vulnerable person and provokean imbalance of power
in a school setting. Several factors such as age, sex, school performance, psychological factors, and
ethnicity have been associated with bullying and more are being sought. Thus, the objectives of this
study were as follows: (1) analyze the differences in bullying (victimization and aggression) and
self-concept (academic, social, emotional, family, and physical) with respect to sex, school location,
Citation: Galán-Arroyo, C.; and educational level among Spanish adolescents; (2) explore the associations of bullying and self-
Gómez-Paniagua, S.; concept with these sociodemographic dimensions. A cross-sectional study was designed with a total
Contreras-Barraza, N.; Adsuar, J.C.; of 1155 participants (between 12 and 18 years old); there were 48.8% boys and 51.2% girls, where
Olivares, P.R.; Rojo-Ramos, J.
75.9% studied compulsory secondary education (CSE) and 24.1% Baccalaureate, and 31.9% were
Bullying and Self-Concept, Factors
students from rural schools and 68.1% were from urban schools. Medium and inverse correlations
Affecting the Mental Health of School
were shown between victimization and self-concept at the general level, for both sexes, both types of
Adolescents. Healthcare 2023, 11, 2214.
school, and both educational stages. For the aggression dimension, the correlations with self-concept
https://doi.org/10.3390/
healthcare11152214
were inverse at the general level (low), in girls (low), in rural students (medium), and in compulsory
secondary education students (medium). For academic self-concept and family self-concept, the
Academic Editor: John H. Foster
associations were medium and inverse with bullying in all variables. For emotional self-concept
Received: 6 June 2023 the correlation with bullying was direct and medium in all variables; in physical self-concept, the
Revised: 28 July 2023 correlations with bullying were inverse in almost all variables except in boys. Self-concept may
Accepted: 4 August 2023 be a protective factor for bullying and interventions should aim at adolescents building a positive
Published: 6 August 2023 multidimensional self-concept that prevents and protects them from bullying either as aggressor
or victim.

Keywords: bullying; self-concept; physical education; adolescents; associations

Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
1. Introduction
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// The origins of research on bullying date back to the 1970s [1]. From that moment
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ on, a prolific field of research began to grow rapidly in recent years [2]. Just as scientific
4.0/). production in this area continues to grow, so does its prevalence, associated risk factors,

Healthcare 2023, 11, 2214. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11152214 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/healthcare

Healthcare 2023, 11, 2214 2 of 13

consequences, and forms of prevention and intervention. The scientific production in this
regard comes to place bullying as a multicausal phenomenon that occurs in the school
environment and constitutes a relevant public health problem [3]. It can be defined as an
aggressive and repetitive behavior which is exercised by a person or group of people in the
school environment with the intention of harming at physical, social, or emotional level
another vulnerable person and cause in imbalance of power. It can take many forms, such
as verbal or physical intimidation, social isolation, exclusion, defamation, and cyberbul-
lying [4–6]. According to Anatalis et al. [7], the prevalence in Spain of students reporting
bullying victimization is around 30%. In addition, 2.6% reported bullying perpetration and
15% reported being bullies/victims in primary education. This is also detailed in another
study, where the prevalence of victimization ranges between 3% and 33% in adolescents
aged 11 to 15 years, and an average rate of perpetrators of harassment of 20.6%, with a
range between 9% and 54% [8].
The recent review by Cuesta et al. [9] highlights factors that have been associated with
bullying such as age, sex, ethnicity, psychological factors, sexual activity, sexual/physical
abuse, family factors, socioeconomic status, stressful events, and school performance,
among others [10]. Regarding sex, scientific literature has pointed out that male stereotypes,
still existing in developed societies, influence school-age youth negatively. Thus, they
show behaviors related to violence and bullying, mainly since the most common behaviors
of boys involve both the use of physical force and insulting or threatening a peer [11].
However, other research indicates that girls with more feminine attributes are more likely
to experience victimization behaviors, as their actions tend to be more about exclusion or
rejection by social groups, or about spreading rumors about their peers [12]. Similarly, the
environment in which the school is located seems to be of vital importance when it comes
to recording bullying behaviors and proposing social and educational strategies, either to
prevent or combat it. Generally, the existing evidence has shown that abusive behaviors
were more recurrent in urban areas compared to rural areas [13], although there are more
current studies that indicate that bullying has been gradually spreading to these rural
environments [14]. However, some experts point out that these changes in trends may be
produced by the different classifications given to the environments internationally, as well
as the different sociocultural variables affecting the populations studied [15]. In addition,
the grade to which the students belong has been identified as a determinant factor in the
expression of bullying-related behaviors [16], reaching its maximum expression during
early adolescence and decreasing as adulthood approaches [17].
In this sense, the association between the five dimensions of self-concept (social,
emotional, academic/work, family, and physical) and bullying-related behaviors has only
recently begun to be explored by the scientific community [18]. Self-concept can be defined
as the set of beliefs that the individual has of their own person at a given time, where the
positive or negative feelings they have about themselves and the experiences lived in their
social and cultural environment help to build their personality and develop emotionally
and socially [19]. Self-concept, therefore, can be a relevant factor, especially in bullying
victims, as they tend to have a negative view of themselves and their situation, and
consequently a worse self-concept [10]. In addition, it can become a vicious circle in which
students with a low self-concept will be further victimized, which will further damage
their self-esteem [20] and could lead to more serious situations such as suicidal ideation
and self-aggressive behavior [9,18]. In this regard, several studies have exposed among
their results that victims of bullying tend to have a more negative self-concept compared to
their peers who do not suffer bullying [21–23]. More specifically, Houbre et al. [24] showed
that bullying victims possessed worse self-concepts about their social competence, physical
appearance, global self-esteem, and self-efficacy than their non-bullied peers. In line with
the above, recent studies on the analysis of research on bullying have detailed that there is
a certain tendency to study bullying with aspects such as acceptance, resilience, self-esteem,
or social support [25]. On the other hand, the relationship between self-concept and the
abuser’s aggressive behaviors has also received attention from researchers. Normally,
Healthcare 2023, 11, 2214 3 of 13

the bully’s self-concept is reinforced by the bullying behaviors, being socially accepted
by his peers, and seeing himself as a superior person in comparison to his victims and,
therefore, motivated to maintain his behaviors [26]. However, abusive behaviors and self-
concept are also negatively associated, as research has shown that abusers have a poorer
family and academic self-concept, affecting their relationship with their family and school
environment [27].
Therefore, this research aims (1) to explore bullying (victimization and aggression)
and self-concept (in relation to academic, social, emotional, family, and physical domains)
as a function of sex, school location, and educational stage in Spanish adolescents. In
addition, the aim is (2) to explore the possible correlations between bullying and self-
concept, specifically analyzing the associations between its subdomains as a function of the
aforementioned variables.
It is hypothesized that (1) both bullying and self-concept of Spanish adolescents will
be affected by their sociodemographic variables: with respect to bullying, girls will show
more victimization and boys more aggressiveness; students in urban schools might be more
aggressive than in rural schools; and the older the school age, the more aggressive behavior.
With respect to self-concept, there will be higher academic and emotional self-concept in
girls and higher social, family, and physical self-concept in boys; students in rural schools
will have higher self-concept than in urban schools; and the higher the level of education,
the better the self-concept. It is also believed that (2) there will be an inverse correlation
between bullying-related behaviors and self-concept, with the magnitude varying according
to socio-demographic variables. In this way, the aim is to identify the current state of
both bullying behaviors and students’ self-concept, in order to develop multidimensional
educational and/or social strategies to improve them both in the short and long term.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants
The inclusion criteria for participants established in this study were as follows:
(1) submit an informed consent form, where parents or guardians authorize the student to
participate in the research; and (2) be a student of physical education at a public or private
secondary school (from 12 to 18 years old) in Extremadura, an Autonomous Community
of Spain.
A non-probability sampling method based on convenience sampling was used to
determine the sample size [28]. The sample consisted of 1155 students, 48.8% of whom were
boys and 51.2% girls, which is an equal proportion in terms of the sex of the participants.
For the educational stage, the proportion was more disproportionate, where 75.9% were
students in Compulsory Secondary Education (CSE) (12 to 16 years old) and 24.1% were
Baccalaureate students (17 and 18 years old). In relation to the location of the school,
31.9% belonged to rural schools and 68.1% to urban schools, classifying as urban schools
those located in towns with more than 20,000 inhabitants and as rural schools those located
in towns with fewer than 20,000 inhabitants. These categories were established following
the criteria of the Diputación Provincial de Cáceres (https://www.dip-caceres.es/, accessed
on 1 June 2023). Finally, 75.2% studied in public schools and 24.8% in private schools, and
all this sociodemographic information can be found in Table 1.

2.2. Procedure
It was possible to establish which institutions offer physical education courses for
Secondary Education through Baccalaureate (from 12 to 18 years of age) by gaining access to
the Department of Education and Employment’s database. The physical education teachers
employed at these schools were emailed to inquire about the possibility of organizing a
researcher visit so they could give the questionnaire to the pupils who had their parents’
informed consent. They were asked to use the same channel to reply to the questions as
well. The communication included a description of the study’s goals, the parents’ informed
consent, and the instrument models that had been utilized. If the teachers agreed to work
Healthcare 2023, 11, 2214 4 of 13

together, they were required to reply to the email by arranging for a researcher to come to
the school and, after obtaining parental permission, interview the pupils about bullying.
The students were given first access to the questionnaire through a tablet, and each item
was thoroughly explained to them one at a time so they would not be confused when
responding. After collecting all of the questionnaires, the researchers processed, cleaned,
and anonymized the data in order to prepare it for a second researcher’s subsequent
blind analysis.

Table 1. Sociodemographic characteristics of the participants (n = 1155).

Categories n %
Boys 564 48.8
Sex Girls 591 51.2
CSE 877 75.9
Educational Stage
Baccalaureate 278 24.1
Rural 368 31.9
School Location
Urban 787 68.1
Public 869 75.2
School type
Private 286 24.8
n: number, %: percentage, CSE: Compulsory Secondary Education.

The Biosafety and Bioethics Committee of the University of Extremadura in Spain

(Registration Code 71/2022) has approved a protocol that follows the principles of the
Declaration of Helsinki.

2.3. Instruments
2.3.1. Sociodemographic Data
In order to acquire sociodemographic data about the participating sample, a prelimi-
nary questionnaire was first developed that addressed questions about the students’ sex,
educational stage, school environment, and school type.

2.3.2. Bullying-Related Behaviors

With the objective to analyze bullying-related behaviors, the European Bullying Inter-
vention Project Questionnaire (EBIPQ) in Spanish was used [29]. This scale was previously
validated in the school population, and it has 14 items spread across 2 main dimensions,
7 of which (Dimension 1) indicate victimization-related characteristics and 7 of which (Di-
mension 2) relate to aggressiveness. The actions, which pertain to both dimensions, include
beating, insulting, threatening, stealing, swearing, excluding, or spreading rumors. Each
question has a Likert scale format with a score between 0 and 4, where 0 means “Never”
and 4 means “Always,” with a time range of the two months prior. Each dimension obtains
a different score, ranging from 0 (few victimization/aggression behaviors) to 28 (recurrent
victimization/aggression behaviors). For the calculation of the total score, the overall scores
of both dimensions are added together since victimization and aggression behaviors are
not mutually exclusive.

2.3.3. Self-Concept
Finally, the AF-5 scale [18], which was also validated in the study population, con-
sisting of 30 total items covering 5 dimensions—academic self-concept, social self-concept,
emotional self-concept, family self-concept, and physical self-concept—was used to assess
self-concept. The scale is from 1 to 5, with 1 denoting “strongly disagree” and 5 denoting
“strongly agree.” The authors reported that the AF-5 scale delivers indices higher than
0.71 in relation to the psychometric properties of the instrument in each of the five domains.
Each dimension has its own score ranging from 5 (poor self-concept) to 25 (optimal self-
concept), where the final score of the scale is the average value of the 5 dimensions that
belong to it. It was demonstrated that all scale components measure the same construct
(self-concept), yielding a value of 0.78 when taken as a whole.
Healthcare 2023, 11, 2214 5 of 13

2.4. Statistical Analysis

First, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test was used to check whether the data of the contin-
uous variables followed a normal distribution. This was not the case, so we proceeded to
use nonparametric statistical tests. The Mann–Whitney U-test was used to analyze possible
differences in the scores of the dimensions of the EBIPQ questionnaire and the AF-5 scale
as a function of sex, school location, and educational stage. Spearman’s Rho test was used
to explore the correlations between the scores of each of the dimensions of the question-
naires. The thresholds proposed by Mondragón-Barrera [30] were taken into account to
interpret the following correlation coefficients: from 0.01 to 0.10 (low correlation), from
0.11 to 0.50 (medium correlation), from 0.51 to 0.75 (considerable correlation), from 0.76 to
0.90 (very high correlation), and from 0.91 to 1.00 (perfect correlation). In addition, in order
to analyze the reliability of each of the instruments, Cronbach’s alpha, McDonald’s omega,
and composite reliability were used. The values cited by Nunnally Berstein [31] were used
as a reference to interpret the values resulting from the reliability test: <0.70 (low), 0.71 to
0.90 (satisfactory), and >0.91 (excellent). The SPSS statistical software version 23 for MAC
(IBM SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA) was used to process the data collected.

3. Results
Firstly, Table 2 shows how all the reliability values obtained for the different dimen-
sions of the scales of both the EBIPQ and the AF-5 can be considered satisfactory.

Table 2. Reliability indices for the different dimensions belonging to the scales used.

Composite
Dimensions Cronbach’s Alpha McDonald’s Omega
Reliability
EBIPQ
Victimization 0.847 0.850 0.850
Aggression 0.851 0.856 0.856
AF-5
Academic 0.878 0.884 0.884
Social 0.758 0.789 0.789
Emotional 0.801 0.800 0.800
Family 0.879 0.879 0.886
Physical 0.763 0.766 0.766

Table 3 shows both the descriptive statistics and the differences obtained in the two
dimensions of the EBIPQ according to sex, school environment, and the educational stage
to which the students belong. In general, sex showed significant differences in both
dimensions, with girls showing higher scores in the victimization dimension of the EBIPQ,
while boys students obtained higher scores in the aggression dimension. Likewise, the
school location only showed significant differences in the aggression behavior dimension,
with students from urban schools having higher values. Similarly, educational stage only
showed differences in the second dimension, with Baccalaureate students showing higher
ratings compared to their CSE peers.
Likewise, Table 4 contains the descriptive statistics of the results obtained in AF-5 by
the participants. All the dimensions of this scale showed significant differences according
to the sex of the students, so that boys perceived a better social, family, and physical
self-concept. However, the girls expressed better ratings of their academic and emotional
self-concept. On the other hand, the school location did not seem to influence the students’
self-concepts, except in the family dimension where students from rural schools had better
scores than their urban peers, giving rise to significant differences. Finally, the educational
stage only highlighted differences with respect to the emotional dimension, pointing to
high school students as those with a better self-concept.
Healthcare 2023, 11, 2214 6 of 13

Table 3. Descriptive results of the EBIPQ according to sex, school location, and educational stage.

Sex School Location Educational Stage

Girls Boys Rural Urban CSE Baccalaureate
Item p (U) p (U) p (U)
Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR)
<0.01 ** 0.28 0.80
1. Victimization 1.86 (0.7) 1.71 (0.8) 1.86 (0.9) 1.86 (0.9) 1.86 (0.9) 1.86 (0.9)
(172,325) (155,547) (120,705)
<0.01 ** <0.01 ** <0.01 **
2. Aggression 1.43 (0.6) 1.43 (0.7) 1.29 (0.6) 1.43 (0.7) 1.43 (0.6) 1.50 (0.7)
(170,160) (147,278) (104,567)
Me = median value; IQR = interquartile range. Differences are significant at ** p < 0.01. Each score is obtained is
based on a Likert scale (0–4): 0 is “Never” and 4 “Always”.

Table 4. Descriptive results of the AF-5 according to sex, school location, and educational stage.

Sex School Location Educational Stage

Girls Boys Rural Urban CSE Baccalaureate
Dimensions p (U) p (U) p (U)
Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR)
<0.01 ** 0.26 0.59
1. Academic 3.83 (1.0) 3.66 (1.2) 3.66 (1.2) 3.66 (1.0) 3.66 (1.0) 3.66 (1.2)
(164,023) (157,911) (119,316)
<0.01 ** 0.92 0.16
2. Social 3.83 (1.0) 4.00 (0.8) 3.83 (1.0) 3.83 (1.0) 3.83 (1.0) 3.83 (0.8)
(155,380) (158,255) (115,060)
<0.01 ** 0.19 <0.01 **
3. Emotional 3.00 (1.2) 2.33 (0.8) 2.66 (1.0) 2.66 (1.2) 2.66 (1.0) 2.83 (1.2)
(114,336) (151,260) (108,394)
<0.01 ** 0.02 * 0.08
4. Family 4.50 (1.0) 4.66 (0.8) 4.66 (1.0) 4.66 (1.0) 4.66 (1.0) 4.50 (1.0)
(168,919) (150,092) (113,639)
<0.01 ** 0.56 0.44
5. Physical 3.33 (1.0) 3.83 (1.0) 3.66 (1.1) 3.50 (1.2) 3.50 (1.0) 3.50 (1.2)
(122,177) (157,567) (118,141)
Me = median value; IQR = interquartile range. Differences are significant at ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05. Each score
obtained is based on a Likert scale (1–5): 1 is “Strongly disagree” and 5 “Strongly agree”.

As for the correlations existing between the EBIPQ dimensions and the AF-5 score
(Table 5), both were characterized as inverse and significant; however, the dimension
referring to victimization exhibited a medium association while that of aggression was
defined as low. In addition, sex exhibited mean, inverse, and significant correlations for
EBIPQ victimization and self-concept, exhibiting a stronger relationship in girls. Regarding
the aggression dimension, only the female sex highlighted significant differences, showing
low and inverse associations in both sexes with the self-concept scale. On the other hand,
the location of the school showed significant inverse mean relationships between the
victimization dimension and self-concept, with a slightly higher coefficient in students
from urban schools. However, aggression behaviors are only significantly associated with
self-concept in students in rural schools, inversely and averagely. Finally, the section on
victimization generated inverse, mean, and significant relationships with self-concept in
both educational stages, with the Baccalaureate stage exhibiting the highest coefficient.
In contrast, aggression behaviors had significant, mean, and inverse associations with
self-concept in CSE students.

Table 5. Correlations between EBIPQ dimensions and AF-5 score, according to sex, school location,
and educational stage of the student body.

Sex School Location Educational Stage

EBIPQ AF-5
Dimensions ρ Girls Boys Rural Urban CSE Baccalaureate
Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR)
1. Victimization −0.18 ** −0.23 ** −0.12 ** −0.17 ** −0.18 ** −0.16 ** −0.22 **
2. Aggression −0.08 ** −0.09 * −0.07 −0.18 ** −0.03 −0.11 ** −0.01
Me = median value; IQR = interquartile range. Differences are significant at ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05.

Finally, the possible correlations between the values corresponding to the dimensions
of the AF-5 scale and the final EBIPQ scores were explored (Table 6). In general, all
dimensions of the AF-5 were significant when associated with the EBIPQ. The academic,
family, and physical self-concepts showed inverse and average relationships, while the
social dimension, although also inverse, was characterized as low. Emotional self-concept
Healthcare 2023, 11, 2214 7 of 13

revealed a medium and direct correlation. With respect to sex, all the dimensions of the
AF-5 showed significant relationships with the EBIPQ, except for social and physical self-
concept in male students. In this sense, all the associations in the female population have
higher values compared to the male population, most of them being inverse except for
emotional self-concept. Next, the location of the school yielded different results, with only
one non-significant correlation, that between social self-concept and EBIPQ in both types
of schools. The urban students found higher values than their rural peers in the academic
and emotional self-concepts. In contrast, family and physical self-concepts are higher in
students belonging to rural schools. Finally, the results of the educational stage yielded
significant results in all dimensions except social self-concept, most of them being mean
and inverse, since in emotional self-concept they were direct. Higher values were found in
CSE students for the academic, emotional, and family dimensions; however, the physical
self-concept showed a higher coefficient in Baccalaureate students.

Table 6. Correlations between AF-5 dimensions and EBIPQ score, according to sex, school location,
and educational stage of the student body.

Sex School Location Educational Stage

Dimensions EBIPQ ρ Girls Boys Rural Urban CSE Baccalaureate
Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR) Me (IQR)
1. Academic −0.24 ** −0.25 ** −0.20 ** −0.21 ** −0.25 ** −0.25 ** −0.18 **
2. Social −0.07 * −0.09 * −0.04 −0.05 −0.08 −0.07 −0.07
3. Emotional 0.28 ** 0.31 ** 0.27 ** 0.22 ** 0.30 ** 0.29 ** 0.22 **
4. Family −0.37 ** −0.45 ** −0.29 ** −0.41 ** −0.35 ** −0.39 ** −0.30 **
5. Physical −0.11 ** −0.13 ** −0.04 −0.13 ** −0.09 * −0.11 ** −0.12 *
Me = median value; IQR = interquartile range. Differences are significant at ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05.

4. Discussion
First, significant differences were observed for the two dimensions of bullying, with
girls showing higher scores on the victimization dimension and boys showing higher
scores on the abuse dimension. These results are supported by the findings of other studies,
which have shown that girls are more involved in the role of victim and boys in the role
of bully [5,32,33]. This could be due to a certain social expectation about the stereotypical
participation of boys and girls in bullying situations [6]. In this sense, Navarro et al. in their
study showed how stereotypical characteristics of masculinity are more related to bullying
perpetration and violence [11], and Silva et al. showed how feminine traits of girls are more
related to victimization [34]. These differences could also be explained by the fact that boys
mostly use physical violence, threats, or insults in bullying and girls are associated with
relational behaviors such as being ignored, exclusion, or spreading rumors [12,35]. For
school location, students studying in urban schools showed significantly higher values on
the aggression dimension than those studying in rural schools. In this sense, the study by
De Frutos et al. [13] supports this fact, showing that bullying is more common in schools
located in an urban environment than those located in rural environments. However,
more recent research shows contradictory results, indicating a higher prevalence in rural
areas [14,36]. These differences with respect to other studies could be explained by how the
various studies define the concept of rural or urban and by the cultural influence of the
country or region where the study was conducted [15]. In relation to the educational stage,
Baccalaureate students showed significantly higher scores in the aggression dimension than
CSE students. The results are certainly contradictory to previous research, which shows that
the results are higher for the role of the bully between 11 and 15 years of age, or the periods
ranging from 1st to 4th grade of CSE [16,37], with the highest involvement occurring in
middle adolescence and then decreasing in later years [17]. This could be due to the type of
bullying and the specific behaviors employed as adolescents grow older, evolving from
more aggressive and violent bullying to more indirect and subtle forms [5,38].
Healthcare 2023, 11, 2214 8 of 13

In this study, significant differences were also observed in the five dimensions of
self-concept according to sex, with better academic and emotional self-concepts in girls
and better physical, family, and social self-concepts in boys. The results of this study
are in line with the scientific evidence, with boys showing a better physical self-concept
than girls [39–41]. Biological aspects could influence this self-concept, with boys achieving
better marks in most physical skills and possessing greater muscle density than girls [42].
The physiological variations that occur during puberty could also have a certain rela-
tionship, occurring earlier in girls than in boys [43] and the latter trying to hide these
changes because they consider them less attractive, with negative repercussions on their
physical self-concept [44]. For academic self-concept, the results of other studies also cor-
roborate the findings of this study, with girls having a better academic self-concept than
boys [40,41,45]. This academic self-concept could be influenced by the greater dedication
and self-demanding nature of girls in the academic field [46], as well as their better study
habits, which usually lead them to obtain better grades than boys [47]. In this manner, it has
been shown that girls associate academic success with effort and boys with their available
skills [48]. However, in emotional self-concept, the results shown in this study are contrary
to later research where a better emotional self-concept is observed in boys [41,45,49]. In
relation to this, some research shows that boys seem to manage their negative emotions
better [50] and other studies show that women have better emotional skills than men [51];
therefore, there is some uncertainty regarding emotional self-concept. In the social and
family self-concepts, the results of other studies are also contrary to ours, showing that
girls have a better social and family self-concept or, directly, no significant differences are
observed between the sexes [40,41,45,49]. In the research by Herrera et al., they explain
that the higher family and social self-concepts of girls could be associated with the fact
that they show better social skills such as empathy and social responsibility, while boys
show better emotional skills such as stress tolerance and impulse control, which could
influence their better emotional self-concept [52]. The treatment received by parents and the
close environment could also have an impact in this sense [52]. For the educational stage,
no significant differences were found for self-concept in most dimensions between CSE
and Baccalaureate individuals, except in emotional self-concept, where a better emotional
self-concept was observed in Baccalaureate students. The scores between both stages are
very similar, which could be due to the small age difference between the two stages. This
is the opposite case to that observed when comparing self-concept between secondary
and primary education, since in secondary school there are psychological and emotional
alterations that build the self-concept and personality of the individual [53]. Finally, the
location of the school does not seem to influence the students’ self-concept, except in the
family dimension, where students from rural schools showed a better self-concept than
those from urban schools. In this sense, communication and a good family environment
favor the development of self-esteem and self-concept of adolescents in both rural and
urban areas [54]. However, this better family self-concept of rural students could be due
to the fact that life in these areas is less complex, since rural adolescents are subject to less
pressure and stress due to their family environment, in addition to the fact that their family
relationships could be closer [55].
In general, the victimization dimension (medium association) and the aggression
dimension (low association) of the EBIPQ were inversely and significantly associated
with the total score of the AF-5 self-concept scale, which means that the higher the self-
concept, the lower the aggression and victimization, with victimization having a stronger
association. In both boys and girls, victimization had an inverse, medium, and significant
association with self-concept, with the coefficient being higher in girls; however, in the
aggression dimension, only in girls was it inversely and significantly associated with self-
concept, though this was a small association. As for school location, students from rural
schools showed an inverse and average association between both dimensions of bullying
and self-concept, and students from urban schools only showed an inverse and average
association for victimization. The same occurred with the educational stage, with CSE
Healthcare 2023, 11, 2214 9 of 13

students showing an inverse and average association between both dimensions of bullying
and self-concept, while Baccalaureate students only showed it for victimization, where the
coefficient was higher than those of CSE. In the case of the association between victimization
and self-concept, several studies corroborate these results, stating that students with a low
self-concept will be more victimized; this fact will have even more negative repercussions on
their self-esteem, and may even lead, in extreme cases, to suicidal ideation and self-injurious
behaviors [10,56]. Furthermore, high levels of self-concept would have a protective effect
on bullying victimization, since a sense of competence and positive self-efficacy about
oneself could contribute to the fight against depressive symptoms that could result from
bullying victimization [10,57,58]. Regarding the association between self-concept and the
aggression dimension, this study showed a low and inverse association; however, there
is some uncertainty and few studies that analyze the multidimensional self-concept in
traditional bullies. Some research contradicts our results, as the study by Olthof et al. shows
how bullies are socially accepted and are motivated to denigrate their victims, presenting
a higher social self-concept [26]. The same happens with the physical self-concept in
the study by Taylor et al. where bullies had a positive self-image of themselves, seeing
themselves as superior to their victims [20]. On the other hand, other studies support our
findings, stating that bullies present a negative family self-concept generated by a family
climate lacking affection and little communication, and a lower academic self-concept [59],
possibly due to lower academic performance [27].
Finally, the association between the five dimensions of the AF-5 scale and the final
EBIPQ scores was studied. For academic self-concept, an inverse and average association
was shown at the general level, for both sexes, for both types of school, and for both
educational stages, presenting very similar coefficients. Other studies support this as we
have cited above in the case of aggressors who showed a more negative academic self-
concept [60], which could be due to poor academic performance [27]. A lower academic
self-concept also produces greater victimization [59], where negative experiences, low
grades, and negative perceptions at school together with a poor school climate could be
associated with bullying and have a negative impact on academic self-concept [60,61]. For
the social self-concept, the association with the EBIPQ total score was low-to-inverse at the
general level, and it was only associated with girls in this same way. Furthermore, in the
case of bullying victims, several studies show how victims have a lower social self-concept
than students who are not involved in bullying [59,62], which may be influenced by the
prolonged rejection received by their peers that generates feelings of social incompetence
and perception of loneliness and triggers greater isolation [63]. However, as mentioned
above, in the case of the aggressors the scientific evidence contradicts our results, showing
a better social self-concept that could be favored by the social acceptance of their environ-
ment [26]. In the emotional self-concept, a direct and average association was obtained
with the EBIPQ at the general level and for all the variables of sex, location of the school,
and educational stage. These results are striking, since a better emotional self-concept is
related to a greater involvement in bullying. Most research, both in the cases of victims and
aggressors, exposes a lower emotional intelligence that could influence the construction of
a lower emotional self-concept [48,64]. In the case of aggressors, this is shown by not being
aware of the negative consequences of their actions and possessing little empathy [48], and
in the case of victims by less emotional clarity and not being able to regulate and inter-
rupt negative emotions [64]. The best coefficients were obtained for family self-concept,
showing an inverse and average association at the general level and with all variables.
Several studies support these data, especially in offenders who present a lower family
self-concept [59,65], possibly characterized by a poor affective bond between parents and
children [66] and by the frequent presence of family conflicts [67]. For physical self-concept,
the association with EBIPQ was medium and inverse at the general level, for girls, for
students in rural schools, and for both educational stages, with this association being low
for students in urban schools. The study by Benítez-Sillero et al. follows the line of our
study, showing a negative association between physical self-concept and victimization,
Healthcare 2023, 11, 2214 10 of 13

also exposing physical activity as a protective aspect against bullying, showing a strong
association between physical activity and self-concept [68].

4.1. Practical Implications

This study has shown the association between adolescent self-concept and bullying,
either as a victim or as an aggressor. It is suggested that policies and programs be imple-
mented and developed based on these findings, where adolescents can apply tools and
techniques to work on their self-concept in the different dimensions that compose it. Along
these lines, it has been proven that self-concept and its different dimensions are made
up of different social, mental, emotional, and physical factors, where educational schools
could exert some influence, adopting a competent teaching–learning process based on the
interests and motivations of the students, as well as families that provide support, positive
perceptions, and protection for the adolescents. In addition, interventions should pay
special attention to emotional knowledge and regulation skills, helping victims to recognize
what they feel and become socially, mentally, and physically resilient. Such interventions
would also help bullies to control their emotions and impulses where the use of any type of
violence is prohibited, decreasing arousal generated by frustration or distress.

4.2. Limitations and Futures Lines of Research

This research has certain limitations, like any other. For example, caution should
be exercised when interpreting the results of this study since it is a cross-sectional and
correlational study. Also, the sample was only composed of students from Extremadura,
a Spanish autonomous community. Similarly, the role of the bystander was not taken
into account in this study because the questionnaire used did not contemplate it. In
addition, only quantitative methods were used, although qualitative methodology could
yield important information on multidimensional processes, such as the development of
self-concept and the existence of bullying-related behaviors.
As possibilities for future project, it is suggested to conduct a longitudinal study with
measurements at different times in order to establish the observed relationships over time.
Additionally, it would be interesting to apply this study in other Spanish regions or in other
countries, analyzing whether there are sociocultural differences. In the same way, other
research could study the role of the bystander and its possible association with self-concept.
The fear of defending the victim for becoming a new target of the bully could influence
the results to some extent [69]. Finally, these questionnaires could be applied to the entire
school environment (teachers, parents, administrators, etc.) in order to understand the
different perspectives of educational agents, identifying the current state and developing
strategies based on this.

5. Conclusions
Significant differences were obtained for both dimensions of bullying according to
sex, with girls showing more victimization and boys more aggression. Students from
urban schools showed more aggressive behavior than their rural peers, and Baccalaureate
students showed more aggression than CSE students. A higher academic and emotional
self-concept was observed in girls and a higher social, family, and physical self-concept
was observed in boys. School location and educational stage did not seem to influence
self-concept, since only a higher family self-concept was observed in rural students with
respect to urban students and a higher emotional self-concept in Baccalaureate students
with respect to CSE students. Victimization was inversely associated with self-concept, at
the general level, in both sexes, in both types of school, and in both educational stages.
However, the aggression dimension was only associated with self-concept at the general
level, in girls, in rural students, and in CSE students. Academic and family self-concept
showed inverse associations with bullying at the general level, in both sexes, in both types
of school, and in both educational stages. The same was true for physical self-concept, with
the exception of boys, where the correlation was not significant. Emotional self-concept
Healthcare 2023, 11, 2214 11 of 13

showed direct associations with bullying at the general level and for all variables. Social
self-concept only showed correlation with bullying overall and in girls. These findings
show how self-concept can be a protective factor for bullying. Therefore, interventions
should be carried out from different areas to cover the different dimensions of self-concept
and for adolescents to build a positive multidimensional self-concept that protects them
from being involved in bullying situations either as aggressor or victim.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.G.-A.; Data curation, J.R.-R.; Formal analysis, S.G.-P.
and P.R.O.; Funding acquisition, J.C.A.; Investigation, C.G.-A., P.R.O., N.C.-B. and J.R.-R.; Methodol-
ogy, S.G.-P.; Project administration, C.G.-A., P.R.O. and J.R.-R.; Software, S.G.-P.; Supervision, P.R.O.,
N.C.-B., J.C.A. and J.R.-R.; Visualization, P.R.O., N.C.-B. and J.C.A.; Writing—original draft, C.G.-A.
and J.R.-R.; Writing—review & editing, C.G.-A., S.G.-P., N.C.-B., J.C.A. and J.R.-R. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration
of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of University of Extremadura (protocol code
71/2022 in June of 2022) for studies involving humans.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the
study.
Data Availability Statement: The datasets are available through the corresponding author upon
reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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