Dr. P.

ARAVINDHABABU
Lecture Notes
B.E (E&E) Section-1
UNIT- 3 ELECTRIC TRAINS FEB 2023

Electric Drive-trains: Basic concept of electric traction, introduction to various electric drive-train
topologies, power flow control in electric drive-train topologies, fuel efficiency analysis. Electric
Propulsion unit: Introduction to electric components used in hybrid and electric vehicles,
Configuration and control of DC Motor drives, Configuration and control of Induction Motor drives,
configuration and control of Permanent Magnet Motor drives, Configuration and control of Switch
Reluctance Motor drives, drive system efficiency.

1. ELECTRIC DRIVE-TRAIN
 A modern electric drive train is conceptually illustrated in Fig. 1 The drive train consists of
three major subsystems: (1) electric motor propulsion, (2) energy source, and (3) auxiliary.
 The electric propulsion subsystem comprises the vehicle controller, power electronic
converter, electric motor, mechanical transmission, and driving wheels.
 The energy source subsystem involves the energy source, the energy management unit, and
the energy refueling unit.
 The auxiliary subsystem consists of the power steering unit, the hotel climate control unit, and
the auxiliary supply unit.

Fig. 1 Conceptual illustration of general EV configuration.

 Based on the control inputs from the accelerator and brake pedals, the vehicle controller
provides proper control signals to the electronic power converter, which functions to regulate
 the power flow between the electric motor and energy source.
 The backward power flow is due to the regenerative braking of the EV and this regenerated
energy can be restored into the energy source (batteries), provided the energy source is
receptive.
 The energy management unit cooperates with the vehicle controller to control the regenerative
braking and its energy recovery. It also works with the energy refueling unit to control the
refueling unit and to monitor the usability of the energy source.
 The auxiliary power supply provides the necessary power with different voltage levels for all
the EV auxiliaries, especially the hotel climate control and power steering units.

Fig. 2 Possible EV configurations.

There are a variety of possible EV configurations due to the variations in electric propulsion
characteristics and energy sources, as shown in Fig. 2.
 Fig. 2a shows the configuration of the first alternative, in which an electric propulsion replaces
the IC engine of a conventional vehicle drive train. It consists of an electric motor, a clutch, a
gearbox, and a differential. The clutch and gearbox may be replaced by an automatic
transmission. The clutch is used to connect or disconnect the power of the electric motor from
the driven wheels. The gearbox provides a set of gear ratios to modify the speed-power (torque)
 profile to match the load requirement. The differential is a mechanical device (usually a set of
planetary gears), which enables the wheels of both sides to be driven at different speeds when
the vehicle runs along a curved path.
 With an electric motor that has constant power in a long speed range, a fixed gearing can
replace the multispeed gearbox and reduce the need for a clutch. This configuration not only
reduces the size and weight of the mechanical transmission, it also simplifies the drive train
control because gear shifting is not needed.
 Similar to the drive train in (Fig. 2b), the electric motor, the fixed gearing, and the differential
can be further integrated into a single assembly while both axles point at both driving wheels.
The whole drive train is further simplified and compacted.
 In Fig. 2d, the mechanical differential is replaced by using two traction motors. Each of them
drives one side wheel and operates at a different speed when the vehicle is running along a
curved path.
 In order to further simplify the drive train, the traction motor can be placed inside a wheel.
This arrangement is the so-called in-wheel drive. A thin planetary gear set may be employed
to reduce the motor speed and enhance the motor torque. The thin planetary gear set offers the
advantage of a high-speed reduction ratio as well as an inline arrangement of the input and
output shaft.
 By fully abandoning any mechanical gearing between the electric motor and the driving wheel,
the out-rotor of a low-speed electric motor in the in-wheel drive can be directly connected to
the driving wheel. The speed control of the electric motor is equivalent to the control of the
wheel speed and hence the vehicle speed. However, this arrangement requires the electric
motor to have a higher torque, to start and accelerate the vehicle.

2. ELECTRIC PROPULSION SYSTEMS

 Electric propulsion systems are at the heart of EVs and HEVs. They consist of (1) electric motors,
(2) power converters, and (3) electronic controllers.
 The electric motor converts the electric energy into mechanical energy to propel the vehicle, or
vice versa, to enable regenerative braking and/or to generate electricity for charging the on-board
energy storage.
 The power converter is used to supply the electric motor with proper voltage and current.
 The electronic controller commands the power converter by providing control signals to it, and
then it controls the operation of the electric motor to produce proper torque and speed, according
to the command from the driver. The electronic controller can be further divided into three
functional units— (1) sensor, (2) interface circuitry, and (3) processor.
 The sensor is used to translate the measurable quantities, such as current, voltage, temperature,
speed, torque, and flux, into electric signals through the interface circuitry. These signals are
conditioned to the appropriate level before being fed into the processor. The processor output
signals are usually amplified via the interface circuitry to drive power semiconductor devices of
the power converter.
 The functional block diagram of an electric propulsion system is illustrated in Fig. 3.
 The choice of electric propulsion systems for EVs and HEVs mainly depends on several factors,
including the driver’s expectation, vehicle constraints, and energy source.
o driver’s expectation such as acceleration, maximum speed, climbing capability, and
 braking.
o vehicle constraints such as volume and weight, vehicle type, vehicle weight, and payload
o energy source such as batteries, fuel cells, supercapacitors, flywheels, and various hybrid
sources.

Fig. 3 Functional block diagram of a typical electric propulsion system.

3. ELECTRIC MOTORS - CLASSIFICATION

 Unlike the industrial applications of motors, the motors used in EVs and HEVs usually require
 frequent starts and stops
 high rates of acceleration/deceleration
 high torque and low-speed hill climbing
 low torque and high-speed cruising, and
 a very wide speed range of operation

Fig. 4 Classification of electric motor drives for EV and HEV applications.

 The motor drives for EVs and HEVs can be classified into two main groups, commutator motors
and commutatorless motors, as illustrated in Fig. 4.
 Commutator motors mainly are the traditional DC motors, which include series-excited, shunt-
excited, compound-excited, separately excited, and permanent magnet (PM)-excited motors.
 DC motors need commutators and brushes to feed current into the armature, making them less
reliable and unsuitable for maintenance-free operation and high speed. In addition, winding-
excited DC motors have low specific power density.
 Nevertheless, because of their mature technology and simple control, DC motor drives have been
prominent in electric propulsion systems with the following advantages:
 Simple control
 delivery of high starting torque
 can be overloaded for a short duration
 exhibit near-linear performance
 Technological developments have recently pushed commutatorless electric motors into a new era.
Advantages include higher efficiency, higher power density, and lower operating cost. They are
also more reliable and maintenance-free compared to commutator DC motors; thus,
commutatorless electric motors have now become more attractive.
 Induction motors are widely accepted as a commutatorless motor type for EV and HEV
propulsion. This is because of the following advantages:
 higher efficiency,
 higher power density, and
 lower operating cost
 more reliable
 No brushes.
 No contacts on rotor shaft
 Robust
 Easy to manufacture
 Almost maintenance-free, except for bearing and other “external” mechanical
parts
 The drawbacks of Induction Motors are:
 the starting torque is low.
 simple variable-voltage and variable-frequency control cannot provide the desired
performance
 they require complex field oriented control (FOC) or vector control schemes, for
achieving the desired starting torque and control - but suffer from low efficiency
at light loads and a limited constant-power operating range
 By replacing the field winding of conventional synchronous motors with PMs, PM synchronous
motors can eliminate conventional brushes, slip rings, and field copper losses. These PM
synchronous motors are also called PM brushless AC motors, or sinusoidal-fed PM brushless
 motors, because of their sinusoidal AC current and brushless configuration. Since these motors
are essentially synchronous motors, they can run from a sinusoidal or pulse width modulation
(PWM) supply without electronic commutation.
 On the other hand, by abandoning field winding or PMs while purposely making use of the rotor
saliency, synchronous reluctance motors are generated. These motors are generally simple and
inexpensive but with relatively low output power. Similar to induction motors, these PM
synchronous motors usually use FOC for high-performance applications. Because of their
inherently high power density and high efficiency, they have been accepted as having great
potential to compete with induction motors for EV and HEV applications.
 By virtually inverting the stator and rotor of PM DC motors (commutator), PM brushless DC
(BLDC) motors are generated. It should be noted that the term “DC” may be misleading, since it
does not refer to a DC current motor. These motors are fed by rectangular AC current and hence
are also rectangular-fed PM brushless motors. The advantages of BLDC are are
 No brushes
 ability to produce a large torque because of the rectangular interaction between
current and flux. brushless configuration allows more cross-sectional area for the
armature windings.
 higher power density.
 Excellent high speed performance
 High efficiency due to small rotor losses
 The disadvantages of BLDC are
 More Ripples in Torque
 Permanent magnet may be demagnetized at high temperature
 Filed weakening draws large current
 Switched reluctance motors (SRMs) have been recognized to have considerable potential for EV
and HEV applications. Basically, they are direct derivatives of single-stack, variable reluctance
stepping motors. SRMs have definite advantages of simple construction, low manufacturing cost,
and outstanding torque–speed characteristics for EV and HEV applications. Although they
possess simplicity in construction, this does not imply any simplicity of their design and control.
Because of the heavy saturation of pole tips and the fringe effect of pole and slots, their design
and control are difficult and subtle. Traditionally, SRMs operate with shaft sensors to detect the
relative position of the rotor to the stator. These sensors are usually vulnerable to mechanical
shock and sensitive to temperature and dust. Therefore, the presence of the position sensor reduces
the reliability of SRMs and constrains some applications.

4. DC MOTOR DRIVES
DC motor drives have been widely used in applications requiring adjustable speed, good speed
regulation, and frequent starting, braking, and reversing. Various DC motor drives have been widely
applied to different electric traction applications because of their technological maturity and control
simplicity.
There are four types of wound-field DC motors, depending on the mutual interconnection between
the field and armature windings. They are separately excited, shunt excited, series excited, and
compound excited, as shown in Fig. 5.
 Fig. 5 Wound-field DC motors.
 In the case of a separately excited motor, the field and the armature voltage can be controlled
independently of one another. In a shunt motor, the field and the armature are connected in
parallel to a common source. Therefore, an independent control of field or armature currents
can only be achieved by inserting a resistance in the appropriate circuit. This is an inefficient
method of control. The efficient method is to use power-electronics-based DC–DC converters
in the appropriate circuit to replace the resistance. The DC–DC converters can be actively
controlled to produce proper armature and field voltage.
 In the case of a series motor, the field current is the same as the armature current; therefore,
field flux is a function of armature current.
 In a cumulative compound motor, the magnetomotive force (mmf) of a series field is a function
of the armature current and is in the same direction as the mmf of the shunt field.

Fig. 6 Steady-state equivalent circuit of armature circuit of a DC motor.

 The steady-state equivalent circuit of the armature of a DC motor is shown in Fig. 6. The
resistor Ra is the resistance of the armature circuit. For separately excited and shunt DC
motors, it is equal to the resistance of the armature windings; for series and compound motors,
 it is the sum of armature and series field winding resistances. The basic equations of a DC
motor are
𝑉 =𝐸+𝑅 𝐼
𝐸 =𝐾 ∅𝜔
∅ ( ∅)
𝑇 = 𝐾 ∅ 𝐼 →→ 𝑉− 𝜔 (a generalized torque for shunt, series and
compound motor)

𝑇 = 𝐾 𝐼 →→ (for series motor, as torque is a function of armature

( )
flux )

Where
∅ is the flux per pole in webers
Ia is the armature current in A
𝑉 is the armature voltage in volts
𝑅 is the resistance of the armature circuit in ohms
𝑅 is the series of the series field coil
𝜔 is the speed of the armature in rad/s
T is the torque developed by the motor in N-m
𝐾 is a constant.
 In the case of separately excited motors, if the field voltage is maintained as constant, the
speed–torque characteristic of a separately excited motor is a straight line, as shown in Fig. 7.
The speed can be adjusted by the armature voltage. Separately excited motors are used in
applications requiring good speed regulation and proper adjustable speed.

Fig. 7 Speed characteristics of DC motors.

  A speed–torque characteristic of a series DC motor is shown in Fig. 7. In the case of a series,
any increase in torque is accompanied by an increase in the armature current and, therefore,
an increase in magnetic flux. Because flux increases with the torque, the speed drops to
maintain a balance between the induced voltage and the supply voltage.
 Series DC motors are suitable for applications requiring high starting torque and heavy torque
overload, such as traction. However, series DC motors for traction application have some
disadvantages:
 They are not allowed to operate without load torque, as speed indefinitely raises
to a very high value and damages the motor.
 Regenerative braking is difficult.
 The speed–torque characteristics of cumulative compound DC motors are between series-
excited and separately excited (shunt) motors, as shown in Fig. 7.

4.1 Combined Armature Voltage and Field Control

The independence of armature voltage and field provides more flexible control of the speed and
torque than other types of DC motors. In EV and HEV applications, the most desirable speed–torque
characteristic is to have a constant torque below a certain speed (base speed) and a constant power in
a speed range above the base speed, as shown in Fig. 8.
In a speed range lower than the base speed, the armature current and field are set at their rated values,
producing the rated torque. The armature voltage can be increased proportionally to the increase in
speed. At the base speed, the armature voltage reaches its rated value (equal to the source voltage)
and cannot be increased further. To further increase the speed, the field must be weakened with the
increase in speed, then the back EMF and armature current constant maintained. The torque produces
drops parabolically with the increase in speed, and the output power remains constant, as shown in
Fig. 8.

Fig. 8 Torque and power limitations in combined armature voltage and field control.

4.2 Multi-quadrant Control of Chopper-Fed DC Motor Drives

Choppers are used for the control of DC motors because of their several advantages such as high
efficiency, flexibility in control, light weight, small size, quick response, and regeneration down to
very low speeds. At present, the separately excited DC motors are usually used in traction due to the
control flexibility of armature voltage and field.

Fig. 9 Speed–torque profiles of a multiquadrant operation.

The application of DC motors on EVs and HEVs requires the motors to operate in multiquadrants,
including forward motoring, forward braking, backward motoring, and backward braking, as shown
in Fig. 9.
Quadrant-1: The marked polarities across the battery, motor and current direction in quadrant-1 are
assumed to be positive. With these polarities, the motor rotates in one direction and causes forward
motion of the EV. Now battery supplies current and power to the motor. This is referred to forward
motoring. This falls in first quadrant.
Quadrant-3: For reversing the EV, we have to rotate the motor in reverse direction. To do this, we
have to reverse the supply voltage and direction of current. Both current and voltage must be negative.
In the diagram, -ve current is denoted by -Y axis and -ve voltage by -X axis. This falls in third
quadrant.
Quadrant-2: When the car is moving in the forward direction, the voltage across the motor is +ve.
if we use this voltage to charge the battery, that is, if current is drawn from the motor and used for
charging the battery, the negative current produces torque that will cause barking. It is also referred
as forward regenerative braking. This falls in quadrant-2.
Quadrant-4: When the car is moving in reverse direction, the voltage across the motor is negative.
Under such situation, if current is drawn from the motor to charge the battery, it causes braking. This
is also referred as reverse regenerative braking and falls in quadrant-4.
For vehicles with reverse mechanical gears, two-quadrant operation (forward motoring and forward
braking, or quadrant I and quadrant IV) is required. However, for vehicles without reverse mechanical
gears, four-quadrant operation is needed. Multiquadrant operation of a separately excited DC motor
is implemented by controlling the voltage poles and magnitude through power-electronics-based
choppers.

4.2.1 Two-Quadrant Control using Class-C Chopper

A two-quadrant operation consisting of forward motoring and forward regenerative braking requires
a chopper capable of giving a positive voltage and current in either direction. Class-C chopper, shown
in Fig. 10, is usually used to such two-quadrant operation. The self-commutated semiconductor
switch S1 and diode D1 constitute one chopper and the self-commutator switch S2, and diode D2
form another chopper. Both the choppers are controlled simultaneously, both for motoring and
regenerative braking.

Fig. 10 Class-C chopper for two-quadrant operation

Forward Motoring (I quadrant): In this mode, the battery supplies power to the motor, and the
motor rotates in the forward direction. The chopper with switch S1 and diode D1 is active and the
other chopper with switch S2, and diode D2 are inactive.
The switch S1 is turned ON and OFF, and the ON and OFF durations are controlled to adjust the
speed and torque. When the switch S1 is ON, the freewheeling D1 is in OFF state. The current flows
from (+)ve terminal of the battery, through S1, Motor Armature and then reaches the (-)ve terminal
of the battery, as marked by RED coloured line in Fig. 11.
When switch S1 is made OFF, then the motor current will not become immediately zero due to the
large inductance of the motor, but will continue to flow in the same direction through the freewheeling
diode D1, as marked by GREEN coloured line in Fig. 11.
The voltage and current waveforms during this quadrant operation are shown in Fig. 12. From the
waveforms, the average voltage across the motor can be expressed as
𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝟏 𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝑽𝒂 = 𝑽 𝒅𝒕 = 𝑽
𝑻 𝟎 𝒕𝒐𝒏 + 𝒕𝒐𝒇𝒇
𝒕𝒐𝒏
Where is known as Duty Cycle, and (𝒕𝒐𝒏 + 𝒕𝒐𝒇𝒇 ) is the chopper period T.
𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒐𝒇𝒇
 Fig. 11 Forward Motoring (I quadrant)

V
v

ton toff ton toff ton toff ton toff

S1 D1 S1 D1 S1 D1 S1 D1
i

t
Fig. 12 Voltage and Current Waveforms during Forward Motoring

Forward Regeneration (II quadrant): In this mode, the kinetic energy in the mass of the vehicle
drives the motor, and the motor serves as a generator. The generated electrical power is used to charge
the battery. The chopper with switch S2 and diode D2 is active and the other chopper with switch S1,
and diode D1 are inactive.
The switch S2 is turned ON and OFF, and the ON and OFF durations are controlled to adjust the
charging current.
When the switch S2 is ON, the armature is short circuited, and heavy current flows through Armature
and switch S2, with the direction marked by RED coloured line.
When S2 is made off, then the short circuit current that was already flowing through S2 finds an
alternate path through diode D2 and charges the battery. The direction of the current flow is marked
with green coloured line in Fig. 13.
 Fig. 13 Forward Regeneration (II quadrant)

Methods of Controlling Chopper: The switch S can be controlled in various ways for varying the
duty cycle D. The control technologies can be divided into two categories:
1. Time ratio control (TRC).
2. Current limit control (CLC).
In TRC, also known as pulse width control, the ratio of on-time (𝒕𝒐𝒏 ) to chopper period is controlled.
The TRC can be further divided as follows:
1) Constant-frequency TRC: The chopper period (T) is kept fixed, and the on-period (𝒕𝒐𝒏 ) of
the switch is varied to control the duty cycle (D).
2) Variable-frequency TRC: Here, D is varied either by keeping 𝒕𝒐𝒏 constant and varying T or
by varying both 𝒕𝒐𝒏 and T.
In variable-frequency control with constant on-time, low-output voltage is obtained at very low
chopper frequencies. The operation of a chopper at low frequencies adversely affects the motor
performance. Furthermore, the operation of a chopper with variable frequencies makes the design of
an input filter very difficult. Thus, variable-frequency control is rarely used.
In CLC, also known as point-by-point control, D is controlled indirectly by controlling the load
current between certain specified maximum and minimum values. When the load current reaches a
specified maximum value, the switch disconnects the load from the source and reconnects it when
the current reaches a specified minimum value. For a DC motor load, this type of control is, in effect,
a variable-frequency variable on time control.
4.2.2 Four-Quadrant Control using Class-E Chopper
Four-quadrant operation can be obtained by combining two class C choppers, as shown in Fig. 14,
which is referred to as a class E chopper.

Fig. 14 Class E four-quadrant chopper

Forward Motoring
 T1 and T2 turn on together: supply is
connected to motor terminal
 T1 and T2 off: armature current freewheels
through D3 and D4

Forward Regeneration
 When T4 is turned on, the armature current
rises thro T4 and D2
 When T4 is turned off, the motor returns energy
through D1 and D2
 Reverse Motoring
 T3 and T4 turn on together: supply is
connected to motor terminal
 T3and T4 off: armature current freewheels
through D1 and D2

Reverse Regeneration
 When T2 is turned on, the armature current
rises through T2 and D4
 When T2 is turned off, the motor returns energy
through D3 and D4

5. INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES

Commutatorless motor drives offer several advantages over conventional DC commutator motor
drives for the electric propulsions of EVs and HEVs. At present, induction motor drives are the mature
technology among commutatorless motor drives. Compared with DC motor drives, the AC induction
motor drive has additional advantages such as
 its lightweight nature
 small volume
 low cost
 high efficiency.
There are two types of induction motors, wound-rotor and squirrel-cage motors. Because of the high
cost, need for maintenance, and lack of sturdiness, wound-rotor induction motors are less attractive
than their squirrel-cage counterparts, especially for electric propulsion in EVs and HEVs. Hence,
squirrel-cage induction motors are loosely referred to as induction motors.
 Fig. 15 Torque-slip characteristics of an induction motor with fixed stator frequency and voltage

Fig. 15 shows the torque-slip characteristics of an induction motor, which has fixed voltage and
frequency. Here, 𝑠 represents the slip and 𝑠 denotes the rated slip of the motor.
 In the region of 0 < 𝑠 < 𝑠 , the torque increases approximately linearly with increase in
slip till the slip reaches 𝑠 , then it decreases with further increase in slip.
 At 𝑠 = 1, the rotor speed is zero, and the corresponding torque is the starting torque, which
is less than its torque at 𝑠 = 𝑠 .
 The region of 0 < 𝑠 < 1 is the forward motoring region.
 In the region of 𝑠 > 1, the rotor torque is positive and decreases further with the increase of
slip, and the rotor speed is negative. Thus, in this region, the operation of the motor is reverse
braking.
 In the region of 𝑠 < 0, that is, when the rotor speed is greater than the synchronous speed,
the motor produces a negative torque.
 The speed–torque characteristic of a fixed-voltage and fixed-frequency induction motor is not
appropriate to vehicle traction applications. This is due to the low starting torque, limited
speed range, and unstable operation in the range of 𝑠 > 𝑠 , in which any additional disturbing
torque in the load leads the machine to stop as the torque decreases, with the speed decreasing
characteristically.
 The high slip also results in high current, which may cause damage in the stator windings.
The operation of the fixed voltage and frequency induction motor are usually operated in a
narrow slip range of 0 < 𝑠 < 𝑠 . Thus, for traction applications, an induction motor must be
controlled to provide proper speed-torque characteristic.

5.1 Induction Motor Drive with Constant Volt/Hertz Control

For traction application, the torque-speed characteristic of an induction motor can be varied by
simultaneously controlling the voltage and frequency, which is known as the constant volt/hertz
control. The maximum torque produced by the induction motor can be written as
 3 3𝐸
𝑇 =
𝜔 𝐿 𝜔
The above equation indicates that with constant 𝐸/𝜔, the maximum torque is constant with varying
frequency.
When the motor speed is beyond its rated speed, the voltage reaches its rated value and cannot be
increased with the frequency. In this case, the voltage is fixed to its rated value, and the frequency
increases continuously with the motor speed. The motor goes into the field weakening operation. The
slip 𝑠 is fixed to its rated value corresponding to the rated frequency, and the slip speed (𝜔 )
increases linearly with the motor speed. This control approach results in constant power operation, as
shown in Fig. 16.
In traction applications, speed control in a wide range is usually required, and the torque demand in
the high-speed range is low. Control beyond constant power range is required.
To prevent the torque from exceeding the breakdown torque, the machine is operated at a constant
slip speed, and the machine current and power are allowed to decrease, as shown in Fig. 16. Fig.17
shows a general block diagram for constant 𝑉/𝑓 control.

Fig. 16 Operating characteristics versus motor speed of induction motor.

 Fig. 17 General configuration of constant V/f control.
As EV and HEV propulsion, an induction motor drive is usually fed with a DC source, which has
approximately constant terminal voltage. Thus, a variable frequency and variable-voltage DC/AC inverter is
needed to feed the induction motor. A general DC/AC inverter is constituted by power electronic switches
and power diodes. The commonly used topology of a DC/AC inverter is shown in Fig. 18, which has three
legs (𝑆 and 𝑆 , 𝑆 and 𝑆 , and 𝑆 and 𝑆 ), feeding phases a, b, and c of the induction motor. The schematic
of the control signal generator is shown in Fig. 19.

When switches 𝑆 , 𝑆 , and 𝑆 are closed, 𝑆 , 𝑆 , and 𝑆 are opened, and phases a, b, and c are supplied with a
positive voltage (𝑉 /2). Similarly, when 𝑆 , 𝑆 , and 𝑆 are opened and 𝑆 , 𝑆 , and 𝑆 are closed, phases 𝑎, 𝑏,
and 𝑐 are supplied with a negative voltage. All the diodes provide a path for the reverse current of each phase.

Fig. 18 Inverter Topology.

 Fig. 19 Control Signals.

Fig. 20 Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation: (a) three-phase reference voltage and triangular carrier
waveforms; (b) voltage of phase a; (c) voltage of phase b; and (d) voltage of phase c.
For constant volt/hertz control of an induction motor, sinusoidal pulse width modulation (PWM) is
used exclusively. Three-phase reference voltages 𝑉 , 𝑉 , and 𝑉 of variable amplitudes 𝐴 , 𝐴 , and
𝐴 are compared with a common isosceles triangular carrier wave 𝑉 of a fixed amplitude 𝐴 , as
shown in Fig. 20a.
The outputs of comparators 1, 2, and 3 form the control signals (Fig. 19) for the three legs of the
inverter. When the sinusoidal reference voltages 𝑉 , 𝑉 , and 𝑉 at a time t are greater than the triangular
waved voltage, turn-on signals are sent to the switches 𝑆 , 𝑆 , and 𝑆 and turn-off signals to 𝑆 , 𝑆 ,
and 𝑆 . Thus, the three phases of the induction motor have a positive voltage. On the other hand,
when the reference sinusoidal voltage is smaller than the triangular wave voltage, turn-on signals are
sent to switches 𝑆 , 𝑆 , and 𝑆 and turn-off signals to 𝑆 , 𝑆 , and 𝑆 . The three phases of the induction
motor then have a negative voltage. The voltages of the three phases are shown in Fig. 20b-d.
The frequency of the fundamental component of the motor terminal voltage is the same as that of the
reference sinusoidal voltage. Hence, the frequency of the motor voltage can be changed by changing
the frequency of the reference voltage.
𝐴
𝑚=
𝐴
Where
𝑚 is the modulation index denoting the ratio of the amplitude of the reference wave to that of
the triangular carrier wave.
𝐴 is the multitude of the reference sinusoidal voltage, 𝑉 , 𝑉 , and 𝑉
𝐴 is the multitude of angular carrier voltage.
The fundamental (rms) component in the phase waveform 𝑉 , 𝑉 , or 𝑉 is given by
𝑚𝑉
𝑉 =
2 √2
Thus, the fundamental voltage increases linearly with 𝑚 until 𝑚 = 1. For 𝑚 > 1, the number of pulses
in 𝑉 , 𝑉 , or 𝑉 becomes less, and the modulation ceases to be sinusoidal.

5.2 Induction Motor Drive with Field Orientation Control

The constant volt/hertz control of the induction motor is more suitably applied to motors that operate
with relatively slow speed regulation. However, this approach shows poor response to frequent and
fast speed variations and results in poor operation efficiency due to the poor power factor. In the last
two decades, Field Orientation Control (FOC) or vector control technology has been successfully
developed. This technology mostly overcomes the disadvantages of the constant volt/hertz control in
AC motor drives.
The aim of FOC is to maintain the stator field perpendicular to the rotor field to always produce the
maximum torque as in DC motors.
However, for induction motors, phase voltages are the only accesses for control. When balanced
three-phase sinusoidal currents flow through the three phases of the stator of an induction motor, the
rotating field is developed; current is induced in the rotor. In turn, the current induced in the rotor is
also three phase and produces a field, which rotates with the same angular velocity of the stator
rotating field. The rotating fields of both stator and rotor can be described by two retorting vectors,
referring to a common, stationary reference frame, 𝑑𝑞. The vectors of stator voltage, current, and flux
can be also described by its components in 𝑑 and 𝑞 axes as follows:
 Fig. 21 Stator 𝑚𝑚𝑓 vector in stator and excitation reference frames
Transferring three-phase variables (voltage, current, and flux) into a stationary stator based 𝑑𝑞 frame
does not change the alternate characteristics of the variable with time.
AC quantities are somewhat inconvenient for control purposes. For instance, control systems are
usually represented by block diagrams in which the variables are time-varying DC signals.
Therefore, another transformation is necessary, which allows the conversion of the AC 𝑑𝑞
components of the motor vectors into DC variables. To do this, a transformation is conducted from a
stationary stator reference frame, 𝑑𝑞, to the so-called excitation reference frame, 𝐷𝑄, which rotates
at angular speed 𝜔 in the same direction as does 𝑚𝑚𝑓, 𝐹 .
As a result, in the steady state, coordinates of motor vectors in the new reference frame do not vary
in time. This is illustrated in Fig. 16, which shows the stator 𝑚𝑚𝑓 vector in both reference frames.
The components in DQ frame enables independent control of motor field and torque, and emulates a
separately excited DC motor in two aspects:
 Both the magnetic field and the torque developed in the motor can be controlled independently.
 Optimal conditions for torque production, resulting in the maximum torque per unit ampere,
occur in the motor both in the steady state and in transient conditions of operation.
Fig. 22 illustrates an independent flux and torque control block diagram based on the vector control
of an induction motor with direct rotor flux orientation. In the system, proportional-plus-integral (PI)-
based field and torque controllers are used to generate the control signals 𝑖 ∗ and 𝑖 ∗ in the excitation
frame by comparing the target rotor flux, λ∗ , and target torque, 𝑇 ∗ , with the actual rotor flux, 𝜆 , and
torque, 𝑇. Then, 𝑖 ∗ and 𝑖 ∗ in the excitation frame are transformed into 𝑖 ∗ and 𝑖 ∗ in the stator
reference frame using a rotor flux angle. Furthermore, 𝑖 ∗ and 𝑖 ∗ in the stator reference frame are
transformed into phase current signals 𝑖 ∗ , 𝑖 ∗ and 𝑖 ∗ through static transformation. The phase
current signals, as the reference signals, are used to control the power electronics of the inverter to
generate a corresponding phase current 𝑖 , 𝑖 and 𝑖 .

Fig. 22 Vector control system for induction motor with direct rotor flux orientation.
The field-orientation techniques are considered to be the most robust and accurate. However, it
requires the placement of vulnerable Hall sensors in the air gap of the motor, which increases the cost
and affects the reliability of the drive system.

6. Permanent Magnetic BLDC Motor Drives

 Using high-energy permanent magnets (PM) as the field excitation mechanism, a PM motor drive
can be potentially designed with high power density, high speed, and high operation efficiency.
Of the family of PM motors, the Brushless DC Motor (BLDC) motor drive is the most promising
candidate for EV and HEV applications.
 BLDC motor drive consists mainly of the BLDC machine, the digital signal processor (DSP)-
based controller, and the power-electronics-based power converter, as shown in Fig. 23. Position
sensors H1, H2, and H3 sense the position of the machine rotor. The rotor position information is
fed to the DSP-based controller, which in turn supplies gating signals to the power converter by
turning on and off the proper stator pole windings of the machine. In this way, the torque and
speed of the machines are controlled.
 In vehicle traction applications, the torque produced is required to follow the torque desired by
the driver and commanded through the accelerator and brake pedals. Thus, torque control is the
basic requirement.
 Fig. 24 shows a block diagram of a torque control scheme for a BLDC motor drive. The desired
current I* is derived from the commanded torque T* through a torque controller. The current
controller and the commutation sequencer receive the desired current I*, position information
from the position sensors, and perhaps the current feedback through current transducers and then
 produce gating signals. These gating signals are sent to the three-phase inverter (power converter)
to produce the desired phase current to the BLDC machine.

Fig. 23 BLDC Motor

Fig. 24 Torque control of BLDC motor

In traction applications, speed control may be required, cruising control operation, for example (Fig.
25). Many high-performance applications include current feedback for torque control. A DC bus
current feedback is required to protect the drive from over-currents.
The “speed controller” is a proportional-integral (PI) controller or a more advanced controller such
as an artificial intelligence control.
The current controller and commutation sequencer provide appropriate gating signals to the three-
phase inverter while comparing sensed currents to a reference to maintain a constant peak current
control by hysteresis (current chopping) or with a voltage source (PWM)-type current control.
Using position information, the commutation sequencer causes the inverter to electronically
commutate, acting as the mechanical commutator of a conventional DC machine. The commutation
angle associated with a brushless motor is normally set so that the motor commutates around the peak
of the torque angle curve.
Considering a three-phase motor, connected in Delta or wye, commutation occurs at electrical angles,
which are plus or minus 30◦ (electrical) from the peaks of the torque–angle curves. When the motor
position moves beyond the peaks by an amount equal to 30◦ (electrical), then the commutation sensors
cause the stator phase excitation to switch to move the motor suddenly to −30◦ relative to the peak of
the next torque–angle curve.
 Fig. 25 Speed control of BLDC motor
Advantages of a BLDC motor:
 High efficiency: The PMs consume no power, and the absence of mechanical commutators
and brushes reduces friction losses thereby achieving higher efficiency.
 Compactness: The use of rare-earth magnets offering high-energy-density (flux-density)
makes the BLDC motors small and light.
 Ease of control: The control variables of BLDC motor are easily accessible and constant
throughout its operation very similar to that of DC motor.
 Ease of cooling: The rotor does not have any circulation current and does not have any rotor
copper loss. The only heat production is on the stator, which is easier to cool than the rotor
because it is static and on the periphery of the motor.
 Low maintenance, great longevity, and reliability: The absence of brushes and mechanical
commutators lowers regular maintenance. It reduces the risk of failure associated with these
elements, thereby improving reliability. The longevity is therefore only a function of the
winding insulation, bearings, and magnet life length.
 Low noise emissions: The noise associated with mechanical commutator is absent as
commutation is electronic and not mechanical. The switching frequency converter is high
enough so that the harmonics are not audible.
Disadvantages of BLDC motor drives:
 Cost: Rare-earth magnets are much more expensive than other magnets, thereby increasing
motor cost.
 Limited constant power range: A large constant power range is crucial to achieving high
vehicle efficiencies. The PM BLDC motor is incapable of achieving a maximum speed greater
than twice the base speed.
 Safety: Large rare-earth PMs attract flying metallic objects during manufacturing, which may
injure the workers. If the wheels spin freely during accidents, the rotor with high-energy-
density magnets rotate, and produces high voltages at motor terminals, which could endanger
passengers or rescuers.
 Magnet demagnetization: Magnets can be demagnetized by large opposing magnetomotive
forces and high temperatures. The critical demagnetization force is different for each magnet
material. Great care must be taken in cooling the motor, especially if it is compact.
  High-speed capability: Surface-mounted PM motors cannot reach high speeds because of the
limited mechanical strength of the assembly between the rotor yoke and the PMs.
 Inverter failures in BLDC motor drives: The rotating rotor with magnets induces emf and
produces heavy short-circuit current in the stator, when inverter failure short-circuits the stator
windings. The resulting large torques tends to block the rotor. If the rear wheels are blocked
while the front wheels are spinning, the vehicle will spin uncontrollably. If the front wheels
are blocked, the driver will have no directional control over the vehicle. If only one wheel is
blocked, it will induce a yaw torque that will tend to spin the vehicle, which will be difficult
to control. In addition to the dangers to the vehicle, it should be noted that the large current
resulting from an inverter short-circuit poses a risk of demagnetizing and destroying the PMs.
7. Permanent Magnetic BLDC Motor Drives
 Switched reluctance motor (SRM) drive is considered an attractive candidate for variable-speed
motor drives in EVs and HEVs due to
 its low cost,
 rugged structure,
 reliable converter topology,
 high efficiency over a wide speed range, and
 simplicity in control.
 high-speed operation capability

Fig. 26 SRM drive system

 A conventional SRM drive system consists of the SRM, power inverter, sensors such as voltage,
current, and position sensors, and control circuitry such as the DSP controller and its peripherals,
as shown in Fig. 26. Through proper control, high performance can be achieved in the SRM drive
system.
 The SRM drive inverter is connected to a storage batteries. The phase windings of the SRM are
connected to the power inverter, as shown in Fig. 27. The control circuit provides a gating signal
to the switches of the inverter according to particular control strategies and the signals from
various sensors.
 The SRM has salient poles on both the stator and the rotor. It has concentrated windings on the
stator, and no winding or PM on the rotor. There are several configurations for SRM depending
on the number and the size of the rotor and stator poles. The configurations of the 8/6 and 6/4
SRMs, which are more common, are shown in Fig. 28.
 Fig. 27 SRM and its power supply.

Fig. 28 Cross section of common SRM configurations: (a) 6/4 SRM and (b) 8/6 SRM.
 The torque developed by the motor can be controlled by varying the amplitude and the timing of
the current pulses in synchrony with the rotor position. To control the amplitude and pulse width
of the phase current, a certain type of inverter should be used.
 Unlike other AC machines, the currents in SRMs can be unidirectional. Hence, conventional
bridge inverters used in AC motor drives are not used in SRM drives. The most popularly used
configurations is shown in Fig. 29.
 The most commonly used inverter uses two switches and two freewheeling diodes per phase and
is called a classic converter. The main advantage of the classic converter is the flexibility in
control. All phases can be controlled independently, which is essential for very high-speed
operation, where there will be considerable overlap between the adjacent phase currents.
 Fig. 29 Half-bridge Converter for SRM Drives

Fig. 30 Modes of operation for classic converter: (a) turn-on mode,

(b) zero voltage mode, and (c) turn-off mode.

Fig. 31 Low-speed (below the base speed) operation of SRM.

 The operation of the classic converter is shown in Fig. 30 by taking phase-1 as an example. When
the two switches S1 and S2 are turned on, as in Fig. 30a, the DC bus voltage, Vdc, is applied to
the phase-1 winding. Phase-1 current increases as it flows through the path consisting of the Vdc
positive terminal, S1, phase-1 winding, S2, and the Vdc negative terminal.
 By turning off S1 and holding on S2 (i.e., Fig. 30b), when the phase is energized, the current
freewheels through the S2 and D1. In this mode, phase-1 is not getting or giving energy to the
power supply.
 When S1 and S2 are turned off (Fig. 30c), the phase-1 current flows through D2, the Vdc positive
terminal, the Vdc negative terminal, D1, and phase-1 winding. During this time, the motor phase
is subjected to negative DC bus voltage through the freewheeling diodes. The energy trapped in
the magnetic circuit is returned to the DC link. The phase current drops due to the negative applied
phase voltage.
 By turning on and off S1 and S2, the phase-1 current can be regulated. The half-bridge converter
uses 2n switches and 2n diodes for an n-phase machine.
 For SRM, there is a speed at which the back EMF is equal to the DC bus voltage. This speed is
defined as the base speed. Below the base speed, the back EMF is lower than the DC bus voltage.
The phase current amplitude can be regulated from 0 to the rated value by turning on or off the
switches. The typical waveforms of the phase current, voltage, and flux linkage of the SRM below
the base speed are shown in Fig. 31.

Fig. 32 High-speed (above the base speed) operation of SRM.

Fig. 33 Torque–speed characteristic of SRM.

 Above the base speed, the back EMF is higher than the DC bus voltage. The phase current is
limited by the back EMF. The maximum power of the SRM drive is almost constant. The typical
waveforms at high-speed operation are shown in Fig. 32.
 The torque–speed characteristic of the SRM is shown in Fig. 33.