Version of Record: https://www.sciencedirect.

com/science/article/pii/S0950061820334024
Manuscript_5b56c0404d345b90e9472c48bd440c90

1 THERMAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND ITS

2 CONSTITUENTS AT ELEVATED TEMPERATURES: A REVIEW

3 Manisha Malik1, S. K. Bhattacharyya2, Sudhirkumar V. Barai3

1
4 Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, [email protected]

2
5 Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, [email protected]

3
6 Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, [email protected]

7 HIGHLIGHTS

8 • Effect of temperature exposure on different types of coarse and fine aggregates including
9 recycled coarse aggregates are summarized.
10 • Impact of different types of primary and secondary cementitious materials on post-heating
11 behavior of concrete are reported.
12 • Physical, thermal and mechanical properties of plain cement concrete exposed to elevated
13 temperature are discussed.
14 • Impact of polypropylene and steel fiber reinforcement in concrete exposed to elevated
15 temperature is reviewed.
16 • Modes of failure in fire affected concrete are outlined.

17

© 2020 published by Elsevier. This manuscript is made available under the Elsevier user license
https://www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/
18 ABSTRACT

19 To retrofit a fire damaged structural element, it is important to understand the extent of thermal exposure
20 of such structural element. It is presumed that the extent of damage of fire affected structural elements
21 may be assessed with the knowledge of the properties of their constituent materials at elevated
22 temperatures. The fire resistance of concrete and temperature propagation inside the structural element
23 depends on the thermal and mechanical properties of the ingredients and also on concrete heterogeneity
24 and its compactness. Different crystallographic arrangements of materials result in differential thermal
25 expansion of cement-sand matrix and coarse aggregates. Since concrete consists of a major proportion of
26 coarse aggregates, special focus has been given on the thermal and mechanical properties of different
27 types of coarse aggregate at elevated temperatures. The objective of this paper is to present a brief critical
28 review of the thermal and mechanical properties of different types of concrete and its constituents at
29 elevated temperatures and highlight certain areas that may be explored further by researchers.

30 Keywords: Concrete, Elevated temperature, Fire, Thermal properties, Mechanical properties, Concrete
31 chemical composition, Porosity, Recycled Coarse Aggregates, Fibre reinforced Concrete

2
 1 INTRODUCTION

2 Fire is one of the most severe as well as unpredictable hazards that may affect the functioning of a
3 structural system in its lifetime. It claims thousands of lives each year and renders damage to properties
4 worth billions of dollars on a global scale [1]. India suffers a loss of approximately 25,000 lives and
5 injuries to over 55,000 individuals annually due to fire scenarios. The impact of fire on Indian economy is
6 about one lakh crore rupees(13.5 Billion Dollars) per annum [2]. As per the National Crime Record
7 Bureau, more than 50% of these fire incidents occur in residential or commercial buildings, while a few
8 are the cases of factories and vehicular fire incidents. Fire incidents may not be entirely prevented,
9 however, conscientious design and maintenance of structures may mitigate the risk to a great extent. India
10 has the highest death rate due to accidental fires in the world, which is not only because of fire burns, but
11 also due to the post-fire collapse incidents of structural systems. Safe design guidelines to ensure stability
12 and integrity of a structural system in a fire event, safe evacuation, fire suppression and extinction,
13 minimization of property damage, fire-spread control, retrofitting of fire damaged structural system are
14 some of the relevant aspects of structural fire engineering [3].

15 Depending on the severity of the damage, the fire-affected structures are required to be retrofitted, in an
16 appropriate manner. Over a few decades, researchers are contributing extensively to the field of structural
17 fire engineering. There has been development of certain codal provisions and test standards for design and
18 damage assessment of masonry, concrete, steel and composite structures exposed to elevated temperatures
19 [4–6]. Many Nations, viz., UK, America, Japan, Germany as well as International Union of Laboratories
20 and Experts in Construction Materials, Systems, and Structure(RILEM) and International Organization
21 for Standardization (ISO) recommend time-temperature curves and fire test conditions for different kinds
22 of structural elements [7–10].

23 Fire resistance of a structure is measured in terms of its ability to resist failure, collapse and fire spread in
24 the event of a fire [11]. Fire resistance rating (FRR) is the measure of time duration for which a structural
25 element may resist fire passively. Bureau of Indian Standards, through IS1642:1989 [12] specifies the
26 FRR for various structural elements based on the type of construction, extent of fire exposure and the
27 element type and size. Standards for fire tests recommend the experimental studies to be conducted on
28 full size structural elements exposed to fire as well as mechanical load simultaneously. However, due to
29 unconventional test set-up as well as the high cost of experiments, most of the researchers conduct the
30 experiments on representative specimens of smaller dimensions in order to understand the material
31 behavior during or after the fire event.
1
32 Concrete cannot be ‘set on fire’ like other combustible materials and hence it does not add to the fire load
33 as such [13]. As per British Standards (EN 13501-1:2007- A1:2009) [14], concrete has been classified as
34 a non-combustible material under ‘Class-A1’ because of its inability to emit smoke at high temperature
35 exposure. Also, concrete has a relatively low thermal conductivity and high specific heat enabling it to act
36 as an effective fire barrier among different structural components up to a certain temperature and time
37 period. Prolonged exposure to high temperature of 300ºC and beyond causes the concrete to undergo
38 changes in its physical and chemical characteristics. In case of reinforced concrete components, heat
39 penetration may weaken the steel reinforcements adversely affecting the structural integrity. Structural
40 steel undergoes severe deformations beyond 500ºC temperature exposure [4,15,16]. Depending upon
41 the damage assessment of a fire-damaged structure, appropriate actions are required to be taken to
42 rehabilitate the structural system using certain measures. In order to establish an organized solution for
43 the retrofitting measure, apart from critical visual scrutiny, understanding of the characteristics of existing
44 structural materials at the exposed temperature is one of the primary needs.

45 The heterogeneous nature of concrete and non-uniform temperature exposure makes it difficult for the
46 researchers to assess the exact extent and cause of the deterioration of the concrete structural elements in
47 the event of fire. However, the knowledge of material properties of individual concrete constituents at the
48 temperature exposed may help assess the extent of damage. A number of studies have been conducted in
49 the past to discover significant changes in the properties of different types of concrete exposed to different
50 temperatures, strength decrement trends[17–20], effect of moisture movement[21–25] and contribution of
51 aggregate types and additives on strength depreciation at elevated temperatures. However, there are very
52 limited number of studies relating this diversified data and presenting a rationale for the selection of
53 materials and optimized mixture proportions suitable for fire-resistant concrete design. The objective of
54 the present paper is to bring out a brief /comprehensive /critical and methodical review of the research
55 works carried out for thermal and mechanical properties of various types of concrete and its individual
56 constituents exposed to elevated temperatures and to highlight certain areas that may be explored further
57 by researchers. The present study is restricted to Plain Concrete only and doesn’t delve into the
58 reinforcement part.

2
59 EFFECT OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURE ON INDIVIDUAL CONCRETE
60 CONSTITUENTS

61 Concrete structural elements are formed with different compositions of the ingredients as per the strength
62 and performance requirements of the structure. Commonly used concrete are Normal Strength Concrete
63 (NSC), High Strength Concrete (HSC), High Performance Concrete (HPC), Self-Consolidating Concrete
64 (SCC), Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC) etc. Primary constituents of concrete are the binder or
65 cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates and water. In order to attain high strength or high performance
66 standards, certain secondary components such as, fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag ( slag),
67 silica fume, superplasticizers etc. may be added in the design mix.

68 At elevated temperatures, properties of concrete may alter due to changes in moisture content,
69 chemical and physical alterations of its ingredients, variations in heating and cooling regimes,
70 type of aggregates and water cement ratio [26–29]. With the change in temperature, variation in
71 moisture content causes the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ) between cement paste and coarse
72 aggregates to weaken [30,31]. Properties of individual concrete constituents at higher
73 temperature are also different causing significantly variable thermal expansion in each
74 constituent. After a certain degree of thermal exposure, the changes in cement and aggregates are
75 irreversible [32]. Effect of fire on concrete and its constituents has been briefly discussed by
76 Memon S. et al.[33] in a recently published review article. However, the authors do not
77 comprehensively report the behaviour of different kinds of cement and aggregates. This section
78 provides an eclectic overview on the ramifications of temperature exposure to different concrete
79 constituents.

80 Cement

81 Most widely used cement for construction purposes is the Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). In the recent
82 decades, part-replacement of OPC with secondary cementitious materials such as fly ash, volcanic ash,
83 slag along with gypsum to synthesize blended cements such as Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) and
84 Portland Slag Cement (PSC) has become a common practice. Not only the blended cements are
85 economical and reduce the industrial waste and CO2 emission, but these also provide resistance to cement
86 paste against the chloride and sulfate attacks [34,35]. PPC is synthesized by mixing portland cement
87 clinker with gypsum and a pozzolanic material such as fly ash, volcanic ash or calcined clay. Pozzolana
3
88 content in PSC may vary from 15-40%. PSC is formed by mixing Portland cement clinker with slag and
89 gypsum. Slag in PSC may vary from 25-70% by weight. Apart from aforementioned cementitious
90 materials, OPC is also commonly blended with silica fume as a supplementary pozzolan.

91 Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)

92 Ordinary Portland Cement primarily consists of tricalcium silicate, Ca3SiO5 and beta dicalcium silicate, β-
93 Ca2SiO4. Hydration reaction in OPC leads to the production of Calcium Silicate Hydrates(C-S-H) and
94 portlandite (Ca(OH)2). C-S-H is a gel like structure having very similar properties to a naturally occurring
95 mineral, tobermorite [36]. Thus, it is also known as tobermorite gel and is an important constituent in
96 determining rheological properties of hardened cement paste and consequently the workability [37].
97 Elevated temperature exposure causes cement paste to experience a series of irreversible physical and
98 chemical changes leading to the decomposition of hydration products [38,39]. Thermo-analytical
99 techniques [40–43], Scanning Electron Microscopy(SEM) [44–46] and Polarizing and Fluorescent
100 Microscopy(PFM) [47] are some of the methods utilized by different researchers to determine the changes
101 in cement paste with increase in the degree of temperature exposure as represented in Table 1.

102 Table 1. Phase Transformation in Cement Paste at Elevated Temperatures

TEMPERATURE PROPERTY CHANGES REFERENCES

Evaporation of physically adsorbed water
60-90ºC [48,49]
Contraction of crystal lattice of C-S-H Gel
90ºC Ettringite Dissociation [50,51]
120-163ºC Gypsum dissociation and depletion [47]
180ºC Beginning of C-S-H dissociation [52]
210-310ºC Evaporation of chemically adsorbed water [22]
400-550ºC Portlandite dehydroxylation [43,53,54]
570-580ºC Quartz Inversion [55]
600-700ºC CSH decomposition to form β-C2S [51]
750-800ºC Calcite decomposition [56]
750-950ºC Complete CSH gel decomposition into a less crystalline phase [56]
1100ºC Melting of concrete to form a gel-like substance [57]

103 Dehydration of the C-S-H gel during heating causes cementitious materials to lose their binding property
104 and induces coarsening of microstructure, known as porosity coarsening which essentially means
105 increased permeability and reduced permeability-related durability [58–60]. During the cooling regime,
4
106 dehydrated lime(CaO) rehydrates into portlandite(Ca(OH)2) due to the presence of moisture causing the
107 cement matrix to expand and crack [61,62]. A few studies indicate that the hydration of heat treated
108 specimens in 100% relative humidity over a period of 6-10 weeks may cause all the hydration products to
109 rehydrate and attain the stoichiometry these possessed prior to heat treatment [56,63,64]. However, a
110 major drawback of rehydration is the development of progressive cracks which is an irreversible
111 phenomenon.

112 Blended Cements

113 The secondary cementitious materials present in PPC and PSC react with free portlandite formed after the
114 initial hydration reaction to form additional C-S-H, thus lowering the portlandite concentration and
115 permeability of cement paste [65–67]. Heat-treatment of PSC, PCC and OPC blended with secondary
116 pozzolans reportedly exhibit lesser crack formation as compared to OPC which may be attributed to the
117 reduced concentration of Ca(OH)2 which plays a major role in crack formation during dehydration and
118 rehydration processes. The behavior of commonly used secondary cementitious materials at elevated
119 temperatures is discussed herein.

120 Fly Ash (F)

121 The properties of concrete made with part replacement of cement with fly ash at high temperatures are
122 reportedly better than 100% OPC concrete [68–71]. Low portlandite content in concrete made with fly
123 ash prevents crack generation during dehydroxylation reaction at 400ºC temperature exposure [20,72].
124 Nasser et al. [73] and Diederiches et al. [74] observed better fire performance in OPC blended with type-F
125 fly ash as compared to 100% OPC. Similar findings with approximately double residual strength in OPC
126 blended with fly ash as compared to 100% OPC at 600ºC were reported by several researchers [75,76].
127 Optimum replacement of cement with fly ash for better performance at high temperature up to 600ºC was
128 reported to be 30% [71,77]. Greater than 30% replacement of binder with fly ash results in lower
129 compressive strength at room temperature. However, to mitigate this effect, Rashad A M.[78]
130 recommended replacing a percentage of fly ash with a combination of silica fume and slag. The authors
131 reported a higher 28-day compressive strength and a trifold increase in residual strength post 400ºC
132 temperature exposure. Figure 1 and Figure 2 show the effect of elevated temperature exposure on
133 behavior of OPC and F-blended cement paste and concrete respectively.

5
134

135 Figure 1. Residual compressive strength of cement pastes containing Ordinary Portland Cement(C) and blended
136 cements[70,75,77,79,80].

137 NOTE: C = Portland Cement; C* = Hybrid cement consisting of very high volume fly ash; C** = Portland
138 composite cement (Type II/A-M)[81]

139

140 Figure 2. Residual compressive strength of concrete containing Ordinary Portland Cement(C) and Fly Ash(F)
141 blended cements[68,69,71,72,80,82]

6
142 Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (S)

143 Hooton et al. [83] and Swamy et al. [84] had observed that since slag and fly ash exhibit low early
144 strength, the high temperature exposure accelerates their hydration reactions which in turn gives higher
145 strength. It was observed by Wang et al. [79] that for concrete prepared by replacing 50-80% cement with
146 slag and water-binder ratio of 0.23, residual compressive strength increases with increase in temperature
147 up to 1050ºC. The authors also reported that increasing the water-binder ratio with high percentage of
148 slag does not provide high compressive strength at room temperature which was reconfirmed by Hager et
149 al. [85]. Diederiches et al. [74] and Sarshar et al. [75] reported that slag blended with OPC produced
150 higher residual strength at elevated temperatures as compared to other supplementary cementitious
151 materials. As per the observations of Poon et al. [82], concrete containing slag did not exhibit any
152 spalling. However, recently Shumuye et al. [86] observed the optimum replacement of cement by slag to
153 be 30% beyond which excessive cracking and spalling was reported. These results contradict the other
154 existing findings that report concrete containing 40-70% slag to provide remarkable fire performance with
155 no spalling[71,75,82]. Replacement of cement with greater than 30% of slag generally decreases the room
156 temperature compressive strength, but increases the residual compressive strength at elevated
157 temperatures because of the hydration reaction between slag and portlandite. Figure 3 shows the effect of
158 elevated temperature exposure on behavior of slag-blended concrete as observed by multiple researchers.

159

160 Figure 3. Residual compressive strength of concrete containing Ordinary Portland cement(C) and slag(S) blended
161 cements[71,75,82,86]
7
162 Silica Fume (SF)

163 Researchers such as Behnood et al. [87], Mazloom et al. [88] and Yazici et al. [89] had observed the
164 effect of part-replacement of cement with silica fume on the mechanical properties of mortar and
165 concrete. Up to 250-300ºC, silica fume reportedly increases the compressive strength due to high density
166 and moisture clog effect. However, it is observed that at further elevated temperatures, development of
167 pore pressure due to less interstitial spaces may lead to explosive spalling [90,91]. The optimum
168 replacement of cement with silica fume for better performance at high temperature was reported to be
169 10% while being heated at a rate no higher than 5ºC/min [92–94]. Sarshar et al. [75] and Felicitti et al.
170 [95] contradicted these observations by stating that 10% replacement of OPC with silica fume did not
171 benefit at elevated temperatures. As per the observations of Rashad A M., silica fume, when blended with
172 fly ash, produces higher residual compressive strength post elevated temperature exposure than OPC as
173 shown in Figure 4.

174

175 Figure 4. Residual compressive strength of concrete containing Ordinary Portland cement(C) and silica fume(SF)
176 blended cements[69,75,78,82,87,94]

8
177 Fine Aggregates

178 Fine aggregates may be composed of granite, dolomite, quartzite, sandstone, limestone, basalt or diabase.
179 Difference in mineralogical composition of fine aggregates results in difference in mortar properties at
180 elevated temperatures. Fine aggregates such as pumice and expanded clay possess low thermal
181 conductivity and are exposed to elevated temperatures during their production, for e.g. pumice is formed
182 by explosive volcanic activity [96–98]. It enables these aggregates to sustain high temperature loads
183 without suffering extensive volumetric changes or decomposition The use of such aggregates into cement
184 mortars was incorporated by Aydin and Baradan et al. [99]. The researchers reported 96% and 68%
185 compressive strength retention at 600ºC and 900ºC respectively in cement and pumice mortars. This was
186 attributed to the strong bond between cement paste and aggregate as well as thermal compatibility
187 between the materials at elevated temperatures.

188 Naus et al. [100] reported that in case of elevated temperature exposure to concrete consisting of siliceous
189 fine aggregates and river gravel as coarse aggregate, silicates from fine aggregates react with lime in
190 hydrated cement matrix which preserves the strength at high temperature. As observed in the previous
191 section that slag blended with cement gives better fire performance than OPC, Aydin et al. [101] studied
192 the performance of mortar formed using slag as cementitious material and pumice as fine aggregate. The
193 authors reported a 22% increase in compressive strength at 300ºC and 95% strength retention of its room
194 temperature strength at 600ºC in case of slow air cooling.

195 Ahn et al. [102] and Stewart et al. [103] observed that high content of micro fines in fine aggregate results
196 in an increment in drying shrinkage of the mortar which may lead to generation of higher tensile stresses
197 in case of elevated temperature exposure.

198 Coarse Aggregates

199 Coarse aggregates are composed of gravel or crushed rocks. These vary in shape, size, mineralogy,
200 density etc. It is important to understand the behavior of different types of coarse aggregates at elevated
201 temperatures because the type of coarse aggregates used directly influence the concrete properties [104–
202 107]. As specified by the researchers such as, Robert et al. [108], Xing et al. [109] and Niry et al. [110],
203 predominant parameters affecting the aggregate behavior at elevated temperatures are the different
204 mineralogical and chemical compositions, quartz crystallinity, texture, gradation, amount of silicate
205 hydrate and percentage of trapped water. Coarse aggregates are generally classified on the basis of

9
206 dominance of silica or calcium content known as siliceous, calcareous or silico-calcareous aggregates.
207 The primary constituents of Silico-calcareous aggregates are flint (70%), carbonates (24%) and silica-rich
208 minerals(e.g., quartzite, sandstone etc.) [109]. Apart from these, coarse aggregates like hematite are rich
209 in iron oxides. Certain aggregates are also classified as thermally stable either because of their exposure
210 to elevated temperatures during production(e.g., firebrick, pumice) or because of their light weight and
211 low density(e.g., scoria, lytag).

212 Siliceous, calcareous and silico-calcareous aggregates react differently to elevated temperatures as shown
213 in Table 2. The siliceous aggregates possess higher thermal conductivity due to their crystalline nature
214 [111]. Quartz inversion in siliceous aggregates as well as decarbonation in calcareous aggregates result in
215 micro-fissuring, cracking, porosity increase and strength loss that consequently leads to weakening of
216 aggregate-cement bond or ITZ. However, these phenomena occur at distinct temperatures, and affect the
217 concrete structural elements differently. Figure 5 and Figure 6 summarize the influence of aggregate
218 type on the compressive strength of Normal Strength Concrete(NSC). Furthermore, Figure 7 shows the
219 behavior of NSC containing thermally stable aggregates. It is observed that concrete containing
220 carbonaceous aggregates (e.g., limestone, dolomite) experience lesser loss in compressive strength as
221 compared to concrete consisting of siliceous (e.g., granite, quartz) or iron ore aggregates(hematite) when
222 exposed to elevated temperatures.

223 Table 2. Property changes in coarse aggregates at elevated temperatures

Temperature Property Changes References

<300ºC • No Apparent changes in aggregates [51]

300-350ºC • Oxidation of iron oxides to hematite [112][51]

• Aggregates turn reddish-brown in color

570-580ºC • Quartz Inversion - causes 0.85% expansion; Substantial [55,113,114]

in siliceous aggregates
• Fragmentation of silico-calcareous aggregates due to
flint unstability at higher temperatures

750-800ºC • Calcite decomposition – causes up to 30% mass loss [115]

• Substantial in calcareous aggregates

10
 • Aggregates turn brown in color

224

225 Figure 5. Influence of aggregate type on the compressive strength of NSC consisting of OPC[78,116,117]

226

227 Figure 6. Influence of aggregate type on the compressive strength of NSC consisting of blended cement[78,82]

11
228

229 Figure 7. Effect of thermally stable aggregates on residual compressive strength of NSC[68,75]

230 Lightweight Aggregates

231 It is observed in literature that the lightweight aggregates are good thermal insulators due to low thermal
232 expansion coefficient and low thermal conductivity owing to higher void content [118]. Lightweight
233 aggregates also exhibit greater stability at elevated temperatures as compared to normal and heavy weight
234 aggregates [119–121]. The bulk density of normal weight aggregates varies from 1200 to 1750 kg/m3 that
235 produces concrete of normal density (2200-2400 kg/m3). Lower density aggregates such as expanded
236 shale, clay and slate are often used to produce lightweight concrete of density 1350 to 1850 kg/m3 [122].
237 Rocks such as pumice, aglite, vermiculite, perlite, scoria and diatomite are used to produce insulating
238 ultra-lightweight concrete for insulation purposes [123–125]. As observed by Fares et al. [126], light-
239 weight aggregates have higher water absorption capacity and are more compatible with cement paste than
240 the normal weight aggregates. The authors also reported that concrete made using lightweight aggregates
241 exhibits less cracking and retains more compressive strength after temperature exposure of 600ºC as
242 compared to the normal weight aggregates. On the contrary, in a set of experiments, Sarshar and Khoury
243 [75] drew a comparison on the performance of thermally stable Lytag(Pulverized fly ash) aggregates and
244 firebrick aggregates; the authors observed that latter performed better at elevated temperatures and stated
245 that thermal stability is not the sole criteria for choosing aggregates for better fire performance.

12
246 Recycled Coarse Aggregates (RCA)

247 To reduce the impact of construction industry on the environment, waste from demolished structures is
248 used to extract Recycled Coarse Aggregate. The concrete made using these coarse aggregates is known as
249 Recycled Aggregate Concrete (RAC). The proportion of recycled coarse aggregates may vary as per the
250 requirements. As observed by the works of researchers such as Abou-Zeid et al. [127] and Xiao et al.
251 [128], RAC exhibits higher compressive strength as compared to concrete made with natural coarse
252 aggregates up to 500ºC while in a more recent study, Vieira et al. [129] observed no significant difference
253 in the performance of recycled and natural coarse aggregates at elevated temperatures. Zega et al. [130]
254 observed that post-fire performance of RAC consisting of siliceous coarse aggregates is better than that of
255 calcareous aggregates. As per the observations of Zega et al. [131] and Sarhat et al. [117], concrete made
256 with 100% recycled aggregates exhibits fewer micro-cracks at elevated temperature which may be
257 attributed to the similar thermal properties of aggregates and mortar matrix leading to lesser differential
258 expansion.

259 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE EXPOSED TO ELEVATED TEMPERATURES

260 Thermal Properties of Concrete

261 Thermal conductivity

262 Thermal conductivity is a measure with which heat flows through a material. In the process of
263 conduction, heat is transferred from one particle to another through molecular vibration and energy
264 transfer via free electrons [132]. Thermal conductivity of a material depends on its lattice arrangement,
265 mineralogical composition, pore connectivity and size of granules [133–135] while that of concrete
266 depends upon the mix proportion, type and source of individual constituents, temperature exposure and
267 the moisture content [133,136,137]. Thermal conductivity of saturated concrete and mortar specimens are
268 reportedly 50-70% higher than that of dry specimens [138–140].

269 Thermal conductivity may be measured by using steady state or transient heat flow methods. Some of the
270 techniques are guarded heat flow method and steady state box method for steady state conditions and hot
271 wire method, transient plane source method and heat flow meter for transient conditions [141–144].
272 Transient plane source method is the most commonly used one due to its less testing time and cost of the
273 equipment [145]. Bažant et al. [146] and Van Geem et al. [147,148] observed that the thermal

13
274 conductivity of Normal Strength Concrete (NSC) and High Strength Concrete (HSC) ranges from 1.6 to
275 3.6 W/mK at room temperature based on concrete density and aggregate type. Kodur V. [115] observed
276 that thermal conductivity of HSC is higher than that of NSC at room temperature due to the higher
277 density and presence of different binders in HSC. Conductivity of cement paste varies from 0.33 W/mK
278 to 0.53 W/mK and that of cement-sand mortar varies from 0.9 W/mK to 1.1 W/mK based on the variation
279 in the mix proportion and addition of chemical admixtures [149]. As specified by Hu X. F. et al. [150],
280 thermal conductivity of siliceous and carbonaceous aggregates at room temperature are 2.54W/mK and
281 2.8W/mK respectively. Quartz, which is the primary component of siliceous aggregates possesses thermal
282 conductivity of about 5.15 to 7.7 W/mK depending upon the source. Granite, a siliceous aggregate, which
283 consists of quartz and feldspar predominantly, possesses thermal conductivity of about 3.5 W/mK [147].
284 Carbonaceous and calcareous aggregates are majorly composed of limestone and dolomite whose thermal
285 conductivities range from 2.9 to 3.3W/mK and 5.3 to 6 W/mK respectively [151,152].

286 With increase in temperature, evaporation of physically and chemically bound water causes thermal
287 conductivity of concrete containing carbonaceous aggregates and siliceous aggregates to decrease to 0.79
288 W/mK and 1.12 W/mK at 1000ºC respectively [150,153,154]. It was also observed that thermal
289 conductivity of concrete decreases with increase in water binder ratio due to increased porosity and
290 increases with increase in sand binder ratio due to decreased porosity [155]. Lightweight concrete and
291 concrete with low density and high porosity tends to be a poor conductor of heat and thus the thermal
292 conductivity of aggregate containing lightweight aggregate concrete is 40-53% lower than that of the
293 concrete with same mix proportions containing normal weight aggregate [156]. Ultra lightweight concrete
294 with thermal conductivity as low as 0.4 W/mK have also been observed to retain more strength than NSC
295 at elevated temperatures [157,158]. Figure 8 shows the variation of thermal conductivity of different
296 kinds of concrete based on aggregate type exposed to elevated temperatures. Many studies have
297 recommended the use of porous concrete as an outer layer of thermal insulation due to its low
298 conductivity [159,160]. Since porosity is one of the factors affecting the thermal conductivity to a great
299 extent, porous concrete may allow the pore pressure to be released through voids and prevent cracking in
300 the concrete.

14
301

302 Figure 8. Thermal Conductivity of concrete containing different types of aggregates.[52]

303 Porosity and Thermal Conductivity

304 Porosity is one of the major factors affecting thermal conductivity of concrete [119]. 1% increase in
305 concrete porosity decreases its thermal conductivity by 0.6% [156]. At elevated temperatures, the increase
306 in porosity due to physical and chemical changes may cause crack development and deterioration of
307 concrete. When a concrete specimen is exposed to fire, the temperature and pressure in the specimen
308 increase. It was observed by Cioni et al. [161] that up to 200ºC, not much change in structure of cement
309 mortar and coarse aggregates occur. The physically bound water may evaporate and get entrapped in the
310 micro pores of the matrix. At 400ºC and beyond, due to the release of physically and chemically bound
311 water, the crack development initiates and the voids begin to develop. Beyond 500ºC, fracture planes and
312 cracks develop along the transition zones of crystals in the coarse aggregates and ITZs of cement-sand
313 mortar and coarse aggregates leading to a further increase in porosity [162]. Depending on the source of
314 coarse aggregates as well as the temperature exposure conditions, the porosity of coarse aggregates may
315 vary from 3% to 35% at a temperature range from 24±2ºC to 850ºC [163].

316 Similar findings have been observed in the experimental studies conducted by the present authors on
317 locally available coarse aggregates and Normal Strength Concrete (NSC). X-ray diffraction (XRD) tests
318 revealed that the aggregates predominantly consisted of feldspar and quartz which may be classified as
319 granite. Upon exposure to elevated temperatures, the changes in the aggregate strength and properties
320 were evaluated which may be found in another publication[80]. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

15
321 test was conducted and image processing was employed on the SEM micrographs to obtain porosity. The
322 development of cracks and voids in the coarse aggregates exposed to elevated temperatures of 24±2ºC to
323 1000ºC at an interval of 200ºC was observed.

324 The thermal conductivity may also vary based on the test methods and test conditions used for
325 measurement. The dry specimens tend to exhibit contact resistance amongst the granules and thus exhibit
326 lower conductivity values than the water saturated specimens [164].

327 Specific Heat

328 Specific heat (Cp) or heat capacity is a measure of the ease with which heat is stored in a material or the
329 rate of increase of internal energy of a system. By definition, specific heat is the heat required to raise the
330 temperature of a material by one degree Celsius. It may be measured using Differential Scanning
331 Calorimeter (DSC) up to 600ºC and Differential Thermal Analyzer (DTA) for temperatures above 600ºC.
332 The factors affecting specific heat of concrete are concrete density, type of aggregates and the moisture
333 content [165–167]. As per European standards, the specific heat of dry concrete at room temperature is
334 900 J/kgK for concrete containing siliceous as well as calcareous aggregates. It increases up to 1100
335 J/kgK at 400ºC and remains constant beyond that. For moist concrete, specific heat may linearly increase
336 up to 2200 J/kgK at about 115ºC before linearly decreasing again to 1000 J/kgK at about 200ºC [168].
337 This may be attributed to the evaporation of physically bound water [154]. Shin et al. [169] reported that
338 mineralogical composition has an insignificant effect on the specific heat of a material. However, Kodur
339 et al. [170] observed from that from room temperature up to 400ºC, specific heat increases from 840 to
340 1800 J/kgK as a result of phase changes in bound water. In case of concrete consisting of siliceous
341 aggregates, it increases further as a result of quartz inversion at about 570ºC. The authors also reported
342 that concrete consisting of carbonate aggregates exhibit higher specific heat beyond 700ºC due to
343 presence of high amount of dolomite which requires a large amount of heat to dissociate at about 780ºC.

344 Thermal Expansion

345 Thermal expansion is one of the most crucial properties while understanding the behavior of concrete at
346 elevated temperatures. Free thermal expansion is the strain that concrete experiences while being exposed
347 to only thermal load without any mechanical load. Coefficient of thermal expansion(CTE) is the measure
348 of thermal expansion in terms of percentage change in length per degree of rise in temperature.

16
349 Linear thermal expansion may be measured using dilatometry or thermo-mechanical analysis [171]. Since
350 concrete is a heterogeneous material, its properties are a cumulative effect of the properties of its
351 individual components and each component has an individual CTE. At room temperature, CTE of
352 concrete varies from 6 ⨯ 10-6 to 13 ⨯ 10-6 ºC-1 based on the type of coarse aggregate present [172].
353 Factors affecting the thermal expansion of concrete are the mixture proportion, type of cement, specimen
354 size, degree of temperature rise, and the age of the specimen [111,172]. The present authors observed that
355 CTE of concrete cube specimens of size 100 mm consisting siliceous aggregates varies non-linearly from
356 0.85 x 10-6 ºC-1 at 200ºC to 2.76 x 10-5 ºC-1 at 800ºC. This non-linearity may be attributed to the irregular
357 thermal expansion of coarse aggregates which consist of quartz and feldspar crystals that may have
358 different thermal expansions in different crystallographic directions [55]. As observed by Schneider et al.
359 [173] and Ghannam et al. [174], the thermal expansion of concrete containing siliceous coarse aggregates
360 increases non-linearly to 17 x 10-5 ºC-1 at about 600ºC. These experimental observations deviate from the
361 trend provided by the American as well as European standards as shown in Figure 9[111,175].

362 A major proportion of concrete consists of coarse aggregates. Thermal expansion of coarse aggregates
363 depends on the aggregate types and their crystallographic arrangement. CTE of granite ranges from 1.8 ⨯
364 10-6 ºC-1 to 9.2 ⨯ 10-6 ºC-1 while that of limestone varies from 4⨯ 10-6 ºC-1 to 9.1 ⨯ 10-6 ºC-1 depending on
365 the measurement of CTE parallel or perpendicular to the bedding plane [55]. At about 570ºC, the CTE of
366 coarse aggregates containing quartz increases steeply due to the expansive inversion from alpha to beta
367 quartz [154]. It was also observed that sudden heating or cooling may induce shrinkage in the cement
368 paste region which further may cause cracks along the ITZ [39]. Replacement of cement or fine
369 aggregates by slag reportedly reduces the CTE of cement paste, however, it may induce micro-cracks
370 along ITZ due to concrete shrinkage [86].

17
371

372 Figure 9. Coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete containing siliceous aggregates at elevated temperatures

373 Mass Loss

374 Upon exposure to elevated temperatures, concrete may lose its mass due to the moisture loss depending
375 on the material properties, especially the aggregate types. Concrete with both siliceous as well as
376 calcareous aggregates show similar trends in mass loss up to 500ºC. Concrete with calcareous aggregates
377 loose more moisture due to the dolomite dissociation at about 780ºC leading to about 30% mass loss. As
378 observed by several researchers in the past as well as by present authors, concrete with siliceous
379 aggregates exhibit 3-10% mass loss up to 1000ºC [150,176]. Van Geem et al. [153] reported steep mass
380 loss in concrete with siliceous aggregates at 540ºC which may be attributed to the moisture loss due to
381 lattice realignment during quartz inversion.

382 Colour Changes

383 The coarse aggregate, mortar and concrete specimens exhibit changes in color with exposure to elevated
384 temperatures. Upon heating to 200ºC, no significant color changes are observed in the coarse aggregate
385 specimens. However, beyond 300ºC of temperature exposure, the aggregates begin to show reddish
386 brown colour and brown towards 800ºC and 1000ºC due to oxidation of minerals containing iron,
387 especially in case of siliceous aggregates [51,112]. Similar changes were observed by the present authors
388 by exposing siliceous aggregates to a range of elevated temperatures as shown in Figure 10. The color
389 changes in the aggregates which were not in direct contact with the heat were less significant. Short N R
18
390 et al. [112] reported that concrete with siliceous aggregates exhibits red/pink color when exposed to
391 300ºC to 600ºC temperature due to the presence of iron compounds, grey color from 600ºC to 900ºC and
392 buff color from 900ºC to 1000ºC. Li et al. [177] reported yellow color tint at 800ºC in fiber reinforced
393 HSC. The present authors also observed a pale tint of yellow at 200ºC in both mortar and normal strength
394 concrete specimens exposed to uniform temperature at every cross section, turning a shade of champagne
395 pink towards 800ºC and attaining a buff color at 1000ºC which may be attribute to the presence of sulphur
396 formed from sulphides present in cement (Figure 11).

397

398 Figure 10. Siliceous coarse aggregates turn reddish brown after being exposed to 800ºC

399

400 Figure 11. Color change in NSC-1 specimens after exposure to elevated temperatures

19
401 Mechanical Properties of Concrete

402 As stated by Nanstad et al. [178] and observed by the present authors, the behavior of concrete exposed to
403 elevated temperatures varies depending upon the source and proportion of its individual constituents. The
404 environmental conditions, curing history of specimens and the non-standardized test set-ups and
405 procedures makes it even difficult to extract a generalised outcome for the mechanical properties of
406 concrete exposed to elevated temperatures. Numerous studies are conducted to exclusively observe the
407 effect of materials, environment factors and test conditions on the strength of heated concrete [179].
408 Table 3 and Table 4 summarize the experimental investigations to characterize mechanical properties of
409 concrete with and without fiber reinforcement exposed to elevated temperatures. This section discusses
410 different materials, parameters and underlying mechanisms that exert influence on mechanical properties
411 of concrete.

412 Table 3. Mechanical property tests on concrete specimen exposed to elevated temperatures

Specimen Heating
w/b Secondary Coarse Fine Test Test
Year Rate Ref.
Shape Dimension ratio Materials Aggregate Aggregate Condition Properties
(˚C/min)
Granite
1989 Cube 100 0.26 F, SF Diabase based S 2 fc, E, σ-ε [180]
sand
0.34
62.5(Φ) × Lytag, Lytag,
1993 Cylinder - F, S, SF RS, US 1,3 fc [75]
62.5(L) Firebrick Firebrick
0.77
2001 Cube 100 0.5 F Granite River sand RS 1 fc [72]
0.3,
2001 Cube 100 F, S, SF Granite River sand RS 2.5 fc [82]
0.5
0.22,
100(Φ) × Siliceous,
2004 Cylinder 0.23, SF Siliceous US 2 fc, E, σ-ε [181]
200(L) Carbonaceous
0.25
150(Φ) × fc , ft , E, σ-
2006 Cylinder - N/A Siliceous Siliceous RS 1-4.5 [182]
300(L) ε
100(Φ) ×
2008 Cylinder 0.3 SF Limestone River sand RS 3 fc , E [87]
200(L)
0.29
75 × 75 ×
2009 Prism - F, S, SF Granite River sand RS 5 f c , ft [69]
250
0.48
0.3,
100(Φ) × Quartz
2013 Cylinder 0.4, SF Calcareous RS, US 1 fc, E, σ-ε [183]
300(L) sand
0.5
Riverbed,
100(Φ) ×
2013 Cylinder 0.54 N/A Limestone, River sand RS 10 fc , ft , E [117]
200(L)
RCA

20
 2015 Cube 100 0.4 F, S, SF Dolomite River sand RS 6.67 fc [78]
Basalt,
150;
Cube; Dolomite, fc , ft , E, σ-
2015 100(Φ) × 0.3 N/A River sand RS 0.5 [106]
Cylinder Granite, ε
200(L)
Riverbed
0.35,
2017 Cylinder 100 × 200 F,S Natural Natural RS 5 fc [71]
0.5
0.31, River
Granite,
2017 Cylinder 100 × 200 0.4, F Sand, S, US, RS 12 fc , ft , E [116]
Hematite
0.48 granite
150;
Basalt, fc , ft , E, σ-
2019 cube 100(Φ) × 0.3 N/A River Sand RS 0.5 [85]
Riverbed ε
200(L)
Crushed
2019 Cube 150 0.47 S River Sand RS 10 fc [86]
stone
100;
Cube; 0.35
2020 100(Φ) × F Granite River sand RS 10 fc [80]
Cylinder - 0.5
200(L)

413 NOTE: fc = Compressive Strength; ft = Tensile Strength; E = Young’s Modulus of Elasticity; σ-ε = Stress-Strain Curve

414 Table 4. Mechanical property tests on fiber reinforced concrete specimen exposed to elevated temperatures

Specimen Heating
w/b Secondary Test Fiber Volume Test
Year Rate Ref
Shape Dimension ratio Materials Type Type Fraction (%) Properties
(˚C/min)
0.32, Steel 0, 1 fc
2000 Cube 100 F, SF RS 5-7.0 [184]
0.6 PP 0, 0.2

300 × 300 × 0, 0.12, 0.19, Permeability

2001 Prism 0.3 SF RS 1 PP [185]
120 0.26, 0.32 , Spalling

100(Φ) ×
2004 Cylinder 0.29 SF RS 2.5 Steel 0, 1 fc, E, σ-ε [186]
200(L)
142(Φ) × Permeability
2006 Disc 0.49 F 1 PP 0, 0.167, 0.33 [187]
70(L) , Spalling
142(Φ) × 0.33, Permeability
2008 Disc N/A RS 10 PP 0, 0.75, 1.5 [188]
70(L) 0.41 , Spalling
Steel 0, 0.4, 0.5 f c , ft , E
160(Φ) ×
2011 Cylinder RS 1 [189]
320(L) PP 0, 0.11, 0.22

fc , E,
Steel 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2
100(Φ) × Spalling
2016 Cylinder 0.17 SF US 5 [190]
200(L)
PVA 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2

21
 Steel 0, 0.39, 0.77 f c , ft , E
150(Φ) × 0.5;
2017 Cylinder 0.38 N/A RS [191]
300(L) ISO 834
PP 0, 0.08, 0.17

Steel 0, 0.88 fc , f t
2017 Cube 150 0.404 US 1.6-1.7 [192]
PP 0, 0.167
70(Φ) × S, US, Steel 0, 0.5, 1 fc
2019 Cylinder 0.36 N/A 3 [193]
210(L) RS PP 0, 0.22
Cube; Steel 0, 1, 2, 3 fc , f t
100; 36 ×
2019 Dog 0.2 SF RS ISO 834 0, 0.22, 0.44, [194]
18 PP
Bone 0.66
100(Φ) × 0, 0.11, 0.17,
2019 Cylinder 0.3 N/A RS 6 PP fc , E [195]
200(L) 0.22

415 NOTE: PP = Polypropylene; PVC = Polyvinyl Alcohol

416 Compressive Strength

417 Compressive strength of concrete is dependent on the mix design, packing density, aggregate type, ITZ
418 properties, w/c ratio, type of admixture and its content [196,197]. At elevated temperatures, pore pressure
419 develops inside the concrete due to bound water evaporation. NSC permits diffusion of this pressure
420 while the dense microstructure of HSC does not allow the same [198–201]. Compressive strength of
421 concrete may be evaluated by testing cylindrical specimens of dimension 100 x 200 mm or 150 x 300mm
422 or cubes of 100mm or 150mm dimension [202]. These specimens are subjected to compressive load either
423 during, or post temperature exposure in either hot or cooled state known as stressed, unstressed or residual
424 stressed condition as explained in Table 5. It is observed that up to 300ºC temperature, compressive
425 strength of concrete either increases or remains constant and post 300ºC, it continuously decreases. From
426 50 to 120ºC, the strength In a set of experiments conducted on mass concrete consisting of fly ash,
427 Nasser et al.[73] observed a 150% strength increment at approximately 150ºC which the authors
428 attributed to the formation of tobermorite. Several other studies report this strength increment as a result
429 of cement gel layers moving closer during heating due to increase in van der wall forces[100]. The rate of
430 change of compressive strength is different for different types of concrete as well as for different
431 temperature ranges. Abrams et al. [203] observed the effect of high temperature on concrete with
432 siliceous, carbonaceous and lightweight aggregates. The author observed that up to 480°C, all kinds of
433 concrete exhibit similar characteristics while beyond 480°C, concrete with siliceous aggregates undergoes
434 rapid strength loss. The author also stated that the stressed test results show 5-25% higher compressive

22
435 strength as compared to unstressed and residual strength tests. On the contrary, experiments conducted by
436 several other authors exhibit different results such as, Sarshar et al.[75] and Hager et al.[183] observed
437 greater than 30% difference in the compressive strength computed using unstressed and residual stressed
438 test methods while Reddy et al.[116] observed a similar trend for strength decrement using both the
439 methods. The findings observed by several researchers for NSC and HSC are summarized in Figure 12
440 and Figure 13 respectively.

441 Table 5. Test Methods to determine the mechanical properties of concrete at high temperature

Test Method Procedure

Stressed test method (ST) • Loading up to 20-40% of room temperature ultimate
compressive strength
• Exposure to the target temperature
• Loaded to failure, while at target temperature

Unstressed test method (US) • Exposure to the target temperature

• Loaded to failure, while at target temperature

Residual Test Method (RS) • Exposure to target temperature

• Cool down up to room temperature
• Loaded to failure, at ambient temperature

442

443

23
444

445 Figure 12. Influence of test conditions on compressive strength of NSC[183,204]

446

447 Figure 13. Influence of test conditions on compressive strength of HSC[75,116]

448 As per the observations of Chan et al. [60], strength loss is minor up to 400°C and maximum from 400 to
449 800°C due to dehydration process. The 400 to 800°C was thus regarded as critical strength-loss range by
450 the authors. Beyond 800°C, less than 30% residual strength was reported [205]. Figure 14 and Figure 15
451 show the variation of compressive strength of concrete with temperature as observed by the present
24
452 authors in another publication[80] and as noted from the work of multiple researchers[82,182,205–207].
453 NSC-1 and NSC-2 are Normal strength concrete specimens with 28-day compressive strength as 25 MPa
454 and 40 MPa respectively. HSC-1 and HSC-2 are High strength concrete specimens with 28-day
455 compressive strength as 60 MPa and 80 MPa respectively The strength loss trends of both NSC and HSC
456 are essentially similar with maximum variability in the range of 400-600ºC temperature. The data
457 considered by the present authors for the comparative study is, however, similar. The differences in
458 material composition based on availability in different regions, history of curing temperature, curing
459 cycles, age of concrete, the use of different types of furnaces etc. make it difficult to provide a generalized
460 interpretation.

461 A few studies have been reported on the effect of specimen size in determining concrete strength at
462 elevated temperatures. Li et al. [206] reported that strength decrement in larger sized specimens was less
463 as compared to smaller sized specimens. However, in case of engineered cement composites, the strength
464 changes at elevated temperatures were reported to be independent of specimen size [208].

465

466 Figure 14. Residual compressive strength of NSC exposed to elevated temperatures as observed in existing
467 literature[82,182,205] and in another publication by present authors [80]

25
468

469 Figure 15. Residual compressive strength of HSC exposed to elevated temperatures as observed in existing
470 literature [204–206] and in another publication by present authors [80]

471 Spalling

472 In case of HSC, spalling may be observed which is a result of either thermo-hygral or thermo-mechanical
473 failure. Thermo-hygral process is the mass transfer of water through the pore-network in concrete, also
474 referred to as moisture-clog [209]. In the thermo-mechanical process, also known as restrained thermal
475 dilatation, high pressure develops due to water vapour present in the heated concrete and generates
476 compressive stresses close to the element surface in a plane parallel to the surface. These stresses get
477 released by brittle failure resulting in spalling [210,211]. As specified by the researchers namely Hertz et
478 al. [212] and Dwaikat et al. [198], the conditions favorable for thermo-hygral or thermo-mechanical
479 failure may generate due to low tensile strength, rapid heating, uneven thermal exposure, pre-stress, low
480 porosity, moisture clogging in pores, thin cross sections or dense reinforcement. Connolly RJ et al. [213]
481 observed that in certain scenarios localized spalling of a single piece of coarse aggregate may occur due
482 to presence of water in the aggregate. In case of high density concretes, explosive spalling is relatively
483 more common [92,93,212,214–216]. However, concrete subjected to heating rate of 1-5ºC/min is less
484 prone to spalling. The present authors conducted residual strength tests on concrete cube and cylindrical
485 specimens and observed spalling in both NSC and HSC specimens. The NSC cylindrical specimen heated
486 to 600ºC were the most affected and a few specimens split into two halved with little pressure.

26
487 Randomized explosive corner spalling in HSC cubes was observed. Figure 16 shows the general cracking
488 pattern observed in most NSC specimens.

489

490 Figure 16. Development of micro and macro cracks in NSC specimens

491 Tensile Strength

492 The simplest method to determine tensile strength is direct tension test, accuracy of which is greatly
493 influenced by the boundary conditions. At elevated temperatures beyond 350°C, micro-fissuring, cracking
494 and spalling in concrete may affect the test set up [68,217–220]. Hence, split-tensile test is most
495 commonly used one to determine the tensile strength of concrete[221]. Moisture loss at elevated
496 temperatures in concrete causes shrinkage cracks and enhanced tensile stress generation which promotes
497 spalling behaviour in case of HSC [222–224].

498 Tensile strength of concrete is dependent on almost same factors as compressive strength of concrete. It is
499 observed from the existing literature that at approximately 600°C, NSC retains 30% of its original
500 strength while HSC retain none [221,225]. Concrete with low cement content shows relatively higher
501 strength after temperature exposure. Concrete reinforced with 1 to 3 kg/m3 of Poly-propylene (PP) fibers
502 experiences 10% more tensile strength loss at temperatures beyond 100ºC as compared to concrete
503 without PP fibers which may be attributed to generation of voids beyond 170ºC which marks the melting

27
504 point of PP fibers while incorporation of steel fibers in concrete enhances strength retention at elevated
505 temperatures by increased ductility and substantial reduction in crack initiation [207,226,227].

506 Modulus of Elasticity (E)

507 The modulus of elasticity is the representation of the ability of concrete to resist deformation. In other
508 words, it a measure of concrete’s stiffness. Due to the non-linear behaviour of the stress-strain curve of
509 concrete, it may be measured using the secant or tangent modulus method. The factors affecting E value
510 are similar to the ones affecting compressive strength of concrete. The measure of elasticity reduction at
511 elevated temperatures depends primarily on the degree of temperature exposure, water-cement ratio, age
512 of concrete; concrete mix design and aggregate properties [181,228–230]. At high temperatures,
513 disintegration of hydrated cement products, increase in capillary spaces due to cement paste dehydration
514 as well as increase in tensile stresses at ITZ due to variable thermal expansion of concrete constituents
515 cause a detrimental effect on the modulus of elasticity [63,231,232]. Results from the research papers
516 available in the literature indicate that the primary factors affecting the modulus of elasticity at high
517 temperature is the occurrence of sustained stress during heating. It is observed from the test results of
518 Hager I et al.[106] that concrete containing basalt or dolomite aggregates exhibits higher elasticity
519 modulus at room temperature, however, concrete composed of basalt or riverbed gravel as coarse
520 aggregates retains higher modulus of elasticity when exposed to elevated temperatures. The riverbed
521 aggregates in the study were composed of sandstone (40%), granite(27%), quartzite(15%) and
522 porphyry(18%). Figure 17 summarises the effect of aggregate type on the decrement of elasticity
523 modulus at elevated temperatures. In another work by Hager et al.[85,106] it is observed that strength of
524 concrete poses little effect in that change of elasticity modulus with temperature(Figure 18) which
525 coincides with the results of Castillo and Durani[205]. Incorporation of steel fibres in concrete reportedly
526 retains 30% higher modulus of elasticity at 500C as compared to non-fiber reinforced concrete[181].
527 Duration of temperature exposure and heating-cooling cycles have little effect on modulus degradation at
528 elevated temperatures [233,234].

28
529

530 Figure 17. Relative modulus of elasticity of concrete exposed to elevated temperatures classified on the basis of
531 type of coarse aggregates[85,106,116,181,182,184]

532

533 Figure 18. Relative modulus of elasticity of concrete exposed to elevated temperatures classified on the basis of
534 concrete strength[205]

29
535 Stress-Strain Relationship

536 It was observed in the previous section that modulus of elasticity reduces with increase in temperature.
537 The elastic part of stress-strain curve flattens and higher strain values are observed at very low stress as
538 shown in Figure 19 and Figure 20. This phenomenon is more pronounced at higher temperatures.

539

540 Figure 19. Stress-Strain relationship of NSC at elevated temperatures[182]

541

542 Figure 20. Stress-Strain relationship of HSC at elevated temperatures[235]

30
543 Effect of Fiber-Reinforcement

544 Concrete under mechanical stress accompanied by thermal load leads to thermal shrinkage and dilation
545 gradients [211] as well as generation of pore pressure in the concrete matrix [236]. These simultaneous
546 thermo-mechanical and thermo-hygral events may cause a chunk of concrete to detach known as spalling
547 phenomenon. In case of highly dense microstructure of high strength and high performance
548 concretes(HPC) due to additives such as fly ash, silica fume and metakaolin [92,237–239], thermal
549 spalling is explosive in nature [192,240]. In order to combat with explosive spalling behavior of concrete
550 exposed to high temperatures of 300ºC and above, polypropylene fibers, steel fibers or both, also known
551 as hybrid fibers are incorporated in the cement sand paste [187–189,241–245]. Figure 21 and Figure 22
552 summarize the effect of elevated temperatures on concrete consisting of steel and polypropylene fibers
553 respectively.

554

555 Figure 21. Residual compressive strength of steel fiber reinforced concrete exposed to elevated
556 temperatures[82,181,182,190]

31
557

558 Figure 22. Residual compressive strength of polypropylene fiber reinforced concrete exposed to elevated
559 temperatures

560 Polypropylene (PP) fibers attain their melting point before the spalling temperature. At approximately
561 170ºC, the melting of PP fibers increases the permeability of mortar allowing the vapors to escape
562 [246,247], thus decreasing the pore pressure [185,248]. To prevent spalling, PP fibers of approximately
563 10-20mm length, and 50–200μm diameter are generally incorporated in a dosage of 0.1% to 0.3% by
564 volume[185,195]. Since the fibers may affect the workability of concrete their fraction in the concrete
565 must be optimized. Researchers have reported a lower compressive strength at elevated temperatures in
566 case of PP fiber-reinforced concrete as compared to ordinary concrete and a significant pore pressure
567 reduction by PP fiber incorporation of 0.1-0.22% by volume[185,249]. However, beyond 300ºC
568 temperature, decrement in concrete compressive strength and toughness is also observed which may be
569 combatted by incorporation of steel fibers [186,191,250]. Poon et al. [186] observed 100% increment in
570 toughness of HSC and High Performance concrete(HPC) at room temperature and better toughness
571 retention at elevated temperatures with 0.22% steel fiber incorporation with as well as without PP fibers,.
572 Steel fiber dosage may be varied from 0 - 3% volume fraction with best results reported at 1 - 1.75% to
573 achieve improved compressive and flexure strength as well as enhanced elasticity modulus at elevated
574 temperatures [251–253].

575 In order to combat spalling phenomenon most effectively, Li et al[194] recommended the usage of hybrid
576 fibers(Steel+PP). As the PP fibers melt at 300ºC temperature, empty fiber tunnels are left behind. The

32
577 microcracks generated due to thermal expansion at even higher temperatures connect with these tunnels
578 and facilitate the release of pore pressure through increased permeability. Heo et al.[243] observed the
579 effect of specimen size to be dominant in fiber reinforced concrete. The effectiveness of hybrid fibers
580 decreases with increase in specimen size due to the development of large thermal gradients.

581 TEST MODALITIES INFLUENCING STUDY OF CONCRETE EXPOSED TO

582 ELEVATED TEMPERATURES

583 Three test conditions as suggested by Phan L. et al. [165], are commonly utilized to determine the
584 mechanical properties of concrete at high temperature viz., stressed, unstressed and residual test methods
585 (ref: Table 5). Castillo and Durani et al. [205] observed decrease in strength loss in preloaded condition
586 during temperature exposure beyond 400ºC as compared to the unstressed condition. Explosive spalling
587 was observed to be more prominent in preloaded specimens. Furumura et al. [254] observed that in case
588 of unstressed tests, the strength of both NSC and HSC recovered to room temperature strength at 200°C
589 and started deteriorating beyond 200°C. In case of residual strength tests, the compressive strength curve
590 showed a decrement in strength in the entire range without any recovery [204,255]. Unstressed and
591 residual strength tests produced similar compressive strength up to 450°C, while strength was observed to
592 be relatively 5-25% higher in case of stressed tests [203,204,256,257] which may be attributed to the
593 restriction in thermal crack-propagation due to restricted boundary conditions [258]. HSC specimens with
594 preload suffered explosive spalling beyond 400°C [259,260]. Fu & Wong et al. [255] observed no
595 spalling and lesser strength loss in all test conditions as compared to Castillo and Durani et al. [205] and
596 Phan and Carino et al. [204]. The primary difference in the studies was the one-fourth heating rate
597 employed in the experiments by Fu and Wong et al. [255]. This, however, is contradicted by studies
598 performed by certain studies that reported explosive spalling failure of unstressed HSC at very low
599 heating rates [180,261–263]. The authors also observed Young’s Modulus degradation at elevated
600 temperature to be much less in stressed test condition as compared to the unstressed condition.

601 In the opinion of the present authors, specimen boundary conditions/end fixtures, micro-fissures, cracks,
602 spalling in case of experimental investigations may compromise the test integrity in case of physically
603 damaged specimens which must be taken into consideration.

33
604 MODES OF FAILURE

605 The hydration products consist of interstitial spaces known as gel pores and capillary pores ranging from
606 micrometer to nanometer scale [264]. These pore spaces entrap gel water and capillary water [222,264].
607 Apart from the pore water, a certain measure of water is also adsorbed physically on the surface of
608 hydration products or bound chemically with them known as physically adsorbed water and bound water
609 respectively. In case of high temperature exposure of concrete, the physically adsorbed water on the
610 hydration products is evaporated followed by the water entrapped in the gel and capillary pores. The
611 intrinsic structure of hardened cement is not affected by the loss of free water, however, vacuum
612 generated may lead to faster yielding. Loss of physically bound capillary water causes shrinkage in the
613 cement paste which leads to generation of tensile stress in the matrix. Further increase in temperature
614 causes the bound water to vaporize that initiates cracking in the concrete due to the development of pore
615 pressure resulting in a brittle failure [265].

616 Castillo et al. [205] observed a gradual ductile failure in NSC up to 100ºC temperature and an abrupt
617 brittle failure at 200ºC while a relatively more brittle failure in HSC at the room temperature to 200ºC
618 temperature range. The authors also reported that at higher temperatures of 300ºC to 800ºC, NSC
619 underwent large strains and experienced a gradual failure after attaining peak strength while in case of
620 HSC, gradual failure was observed only up to 600ºC and an abrupt failure at peak strength beyond 800ºC.
621 This observation was contradicted by Cheng and Kodur et al. [181] when they reported an abrupt failure
622 of HSC at peak strength up to 600ºC and a gradual failure from 600ºC to 800ºC. While both the studies
623 were carried out using concrete made from materials having similar mineralogy, they varied in terms of
624 specimen size and rate of heating which may have led to the difference in results.

625 It was specified by Ehm et al. [266] that in case of uniaxial loading in a non-heated as well as heated
626 concrete specimen, failure occurs along a plane parallel to the loading plane and orthogonal to the free
627 surface of specimen. In case of biaxial loading, the concrete exhibits a significant change in the properties
628 with a slight variation in load values in the secondary axis. Also, the plane orthogonal to non-loading
629 directions exhibits significant micro-cracking.

630 SUMMARY/CONCLUSION

631 This paper presents a critical review on the thermal and mechanical properties of concrete and its
632 constituents exposed to a range of elevated temperatures. The effect of temperature on different types of

34
633 cements, coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and secondary additives have been discussed. The
634 temperature dependent thermal and mechanical properties of normal and high strength concrete computed
635 using various test methods, test set-ups, consisting of variable moisture content and fiber reinforcement
636 are presented. Based on the review, following conclusions may be drawn:

637 • The material properties of concrete degrade at prolonged temperature exposure beyond 300ºC. The
638 level of degradation is a resultant of magnitude and time-period of temperature exposure, curing
639 history, material properties at room temperature, test conditions and number of thermal cycles. Thus,
640 the required data must be extracted from the available resources very carefully to avoid generalization
641 and misrepresentation.
642 • Thermal conductivity and specific heat are a function of the mix proportion, mineralogical
643 composition, grain size and the pore connectivity of the concrete matrix. With increase in
644 temperature, thermal conductivity decreases as a result of increment in pore volume in the cement-
645 sand matrix and change in grain size due to development of fracture planes within the coarse
646 aggregates as well as the ITZ. Specific heat increases with an increase in temperature up to about
647 400ºC and remains constant thereafter.
648 • Thermal expansion of concrete depends greatly on the mineralogical composition of the concrete
649 constituents. Siliceous coarse aggregates experience a higher value of thermal expansion coefficient
650 due to expansive inversion of quartz at around 570ºC. Cement-sand mortar matrix may undergo
651 thermal shrinkage at elevated temperatures due to the loss of moisture, thus increasing the cracking at
652 ITZ. As the concrete specimen exhibit cracking at elevated temperature exposure, the linear thermal
653 expansion techniques utilizing extremely small specimen size may not be the correct representation of
654 the thermal expansion in case of larger specimens.
655 • Mass loss is more pronounced in concrete containing calcareous aggregates due to dolomite
656 dissociation at approximately 780ºC.
657 • Compressive strength, tensile strength and elasticity modulus of concrete decrease with increase in
658 temperature and the slope of decrement curve depends on the individual material properties of the
659 concrete constituents.
660 • Majority of mechanical property tests are conducted using residual stress test method. While
661 comparing same type of concrete (e.g., NSC/HSC) without secondary cementitious materials and
662 similar aggregate properties, it was observed in the existing literature that stressed, unstressed and
663 residual stress tests exhibit different results. Different heating rates, cooling methods and water
664 binder-ratio may result in these differences.

35
665 • Concrete consisting of blended cement with slag or fly ash as supplementary cementitious materials
666 and lightweight aggregates as coarse aggregates exhibit good fire performance. Synergistic impact of
667 high volume fly ash blended with slag and silica fume shows excellent results at elevated
668 temperature. It would be beneficial to explore such blends along with different kinds of fiber
669 reinforcement to achieve desired strength at room as well as elevated temperatures.
670 • High Strength and high performance concrete are more susceptible to spalling at temperature beyond
671 350ºC. The existing literature indicates a significant irregularity and randomization in spalling. A
672 consensus for spalling estimation and quantification is required that includes specimen geometrical
673 configuration, packing density, moisture content and heating rate.
674 • Addition of silica fume increases the risk of spalling in such types of concrete due to a dense
675 microstructure. Addition of polypropylene fibers allow vapors to escape, and prevents explosive
676 spalling. Incorporation of steel fibers increases the strength and toughness of concrete at elevated
677 temperatures.
678 • Low dose of hybrid fibers (Steel + PP) in concrete prevents spalling due to increased connectivity of
679 pores, microcracks and void fiber tunnels that enable the pore pressure to disperse. In larger specimen
680 such as slabs, the vapors traveling upwards may condense while reaching the relatively cooler surface
681 that remains unexposed to fire, causing a larger temperature gradient. The impact of varied volume
682 fraction of individual and hybrid fibers on larger concrete specimen insulated on one or more sides
683 may be investigated.
684 • Majority of mechanical property tests for plain cement concrete are conducted on specimen ranging
685 from 100mm to 150mm size. Further studies on the effect of specimen size and failure mode of
686 concrete are required to be performed.
687 • Exiting equations to predict residual mechanical properties post-fire are based on the individual
688 design mixture of the respective authors employing different heating and cooling rates. There is a
689 need for a set of comprehensive equations incorporating the material properties, secondary
690 cementitious materials, rate of heating, cooling methods, fiber type and percentage, test modalities
691 and specimen shape and dimensions.
692 • Eurocode 2 provides general guidelines for fire resistant design. However, the design standards for a
693 diverse composition and for different kinds of concrete such as FRC and RCA concrete are still not
694 available. It would be beneficial to perform fire resistance tests on a diversified set of specimen for
695 structural fire design incorporating such materials.
696 • Due to the difference in crystallographic arrangements, different kinds of aggregates and cement
697 paste behave differently with rise in temperature exposure. Thus, the material properties of individual
36
698 concrete constituents must be taken into consideration while developing a fire-resistant design as well
699 as while performing post-fire analysis of a concrete structural member.

700 DECLARATION OF COMPETING INTEREST

701 The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that
702 could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

703 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

704 The support of Structural Engineering Laboratory of Civil Engineering Department and Scanning
705 Electron Microscope & X-Ray Diffraction Laboratories of Department of Geology and Geophysics, of
706 Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur is gratefully acknowledged.

37
 1 REFERENCES

2 [1] Ben Evart, Fire Loss In The United State During 2017, Natl. Fire Prot. Assoc. (2018).

3 [2] NCRB, Accidental Deaths & Suicides in India 2015, 2016.

4 [3] T. Lennon, Structural fire engineering design, in: Struct. Fire Eng., 2011.
5 https://doi.org/10.1680/sfe.41417.039.

6 [4] BS EN 1992-1-2, Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures - Part 1-2: General rules-Structural fire
7 design, Des. Concr. Struct. - Part 1-2 Gen. Rules-Structural Fire Des. (2004).

8 [5] Y.C. Wang, D.B. Moore, Steel frames in fire: analysis, Eng. Struct. (1995).
9 https://doi.org/10.1016/0141-0296(95)00047-B.

10 [6] W. Wang, G. Li, V. Kodur, F. Asce, Approach for Modeling Fire Insulation Damage in Steel
11 Columns, 139 (2013) 491–503. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000688.

12 [7] British Standard Institute, BS476 - 21: Fire tests on building materials and structures — Methods
13 for determination of the fire resistance of loadbearing elements of construction, in: BS476 Fire
14 Tests Build. Mater. Struct., 2014.

15 [8] ACI/TMS Committee 216, ACI 216.1-97 / TMS 0216.1-97: Standard Method for Determining
16 Fire Resistance of Concrete and Masonry Construction Assemblies, Man. Concr. Pract. (1997).

17 [9] RILEM TC 200-HTC, Mechanical concrete properties at high temperatures - modelling and
18 applications - Part 1: Introduction - General presentation, Mater. Struct. (2007).
19 https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-006-9203-z.

20 [10] ISO834-1:1999, Fire-resistance tests -- Elements of building construction -- Part 1: General

21 requirements, Int. Organ. Stand. Geneva, Switz. (1999).

22 [11] T. Long, P. Therese, L. John, J. Morgan, Best Practice Guidelines for Structural Fire Resistance
23 Design of Concrete and Steel Buildings, (n.d.).

24 [12] IS 1642, Indian Standard: Fire safety of buildings (general): Details of construction-code of
25 practice, 1989.

26 [13] Performance of Concrete Structures in Fire, in: ISBN 978-1-904818-83, MPA The Concrete
27 Centre, 2011.

28 [14] British Standards Institution, BS EN 13501-1: 2007 Fire classification of construction products
29 and building elements - Part 1: Classification using test data from reaction to fire tests, 2007.

30 [15] V. Kodur, V. Kodur, Properties of Concrete at Elevated Temperatures, ISRN Civ. Eng. 2014
31 (2014) 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/468510.

38
32 [16] Y.C. Wang, Design of steel structures for fire safety, in: Steel Compos. Struct., 2010.
33 https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203302248_chapter_8.

34 [17] T. Harada, J. Takeda, S. Yamane, F. Furumura, Strength, elasticity and thermal properties of
35 concrete subjected to elevated temperatures, ACI Spec. Publ. (1972).

36 [18] V.K.R. Kodur, L. Phan, Critical factors governing the fire performance of high strength concrete
37 systems, Fire Saf. J. 42 (2007) 482–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2006.10.006.

38 [19] L.T. Phan, High strength concrete at high temperature, in: Am. Concr. Institute, ACI Spec. Publ.,
39 2008.

40 [20] M. Sahmaran, M. Lachemi, V.C. Li, Assessing mechanical properties and microstructure of fire-
41 damaged engineered cementitious composites, ACI Mater. J. (2010).
42 https://doi.org/10.14359/51663759.

43 [21] A. Noumowé, G. Ranc, C. Hochet, Moisture migration and thermo-mechanical behaviour of

44 Concrete at up to 310 °C, in: Trans. 17th Int. Conf. Struct. Mech. React. Technol. (SMiRT 17),
45 2003.

46 [22] Y. Ichikawa, G.L. England, Prediction of moisture migration and pore pressure build-up in
47 concrete at high temperatures, Nucl. Eng. Des. 228 (2004) 245–259.
48 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2003.06.011.

49 [23] C.T. Davie, C.J. Pearce, N. Bićanić, Coupled heat and moisture transport in concrete at elevated
50 temperatures - Effects of capillary pressure and adsorbed water, Numer. Heat Transf. Part A Appl.
51 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1080/10407780500503854.

52 [24] H.L. Zhang, C.T. Davie, A numerical investigation of the influence of pore pressures and
53 thermally induced stresses for spalling of concrete exposed to elevated temperatures, Fire Saf. J.
54 59 (2013) 102–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2013.03.019.

55 [25] M. Zhang, Pore-scale modelling of relative permeability of cementitious materials using X-ray
56 computed microtomography images, Cem. Concr. Res. 95 (2017) 18–29.
57 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.02.005.

58 [26] X. Luo, W. Sun, S.Y.N. Chan, Effect of heating and cooling regimes on residual strength and
59 microstructure of normal strength and high-performance concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (2000)
60 379–383. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00264-1.

61 [27] O. Arioz, Effects of elevated temperatures on properties of concrete, Fire Saf. J. (2007).
62 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2007.01.003.

63 [28] A.F. Bingöl, R. Gül, Effect of elevated temperatures and cooling regimes on normal strength
64 concrete, Fire Mater. (2009). https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.987.

65 [29] A. Millard, P. Pimienta, Scope, in: RILEM State-of-the-Art Reports, 2019.

66 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11995-9_1.
39
67 [30] F.C. Lea, The effect of temperature on some of the properties of materials, Engineering. 110
68 (1920) 293.

69 [31] F.C. Lea, The resistance to fire of concrete and reinforced concrete, J. Soc. Chem. Ind. (1922).
70 https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.5000411814.

71 [32] T.Z. Harmathy, Determining the temperature history of concrete constructions following fire
72 exposure, in: J. Proc., 1968: pp. 959–964.

73 [33] S.A. Memon, S.F.A. Shah, R.A. Khushnood, W.L. Baloch, Durability of sustainable concrete
74 subjected to elevated temperature – A review, Constr. Build. Mater. (2019).
75 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.040.

76 [34] G.J. Osborne, Durability of Portland blast-furnace slag cement concrete, Cem. Concr. Compos.
77 (1999). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(98)00032-8.

78 [35] O.S. Baghabra Al-Amoudi, Attack on plain and blended cements exposed to aggressive sulfate
79 environments, Cem. Concr. Compos. (2002). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(01)00082-8.

80 [36] G.F. Claringbull, M.H. Hey, A re-examination of tobermorite, Mineral. Mag. J. Mineral. Soc. 29
81 (1952) 960–962. https://doi.org/DOI: 10.1180/minmag.1952.029.218.10.

82 [37] S. Brunauer, Tobermorite gel—the heart of concrete, Am. Sci. 50 (1962) 210–229.

83 [38] B. Georgali, P.E. Tsakiridis, Microstructure of fire-damaged concrete. A case study, Cem. Concr.
84 Compos. 27 (2005) 255–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2004.02.022.

85 [39] I. Janotka, T. Nürnbergerová, Effect of temperature on structural quality of the cement paste and
86 high-strength concrete with silica fume, Nucl. Eng. Des. (2005).
87 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nucengdes.2005.05.011.

88 [40] H.G. Midgley, The use of thermal analysis methods in assessing the quality of high alumina
89 cement concrete, J. Therm. Anal. 13 (1978) 515–524.

90 [41] S.J. Raina, V.N. Vishwanathan, S.N. Ghosh, Instrumental techniques for investigation of damaged
91 concrete, Indian Concr. J. 52 (1978).

92 [42] S.K. Handoo, S. Agarwal, S.K. Agarwal, Physicochemical, mineralogical, and morphological
93 characteristics of concrete exposed to elevated temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. (2002).
94 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00736-0.

95 [43] L. Alarcon-Ruiz, G. Platret, E. Massieu, A. Ehrlacher, The use of thermal analysis in assessing the
96 effect of temperature on a cement paste, Cem. Concr. Res. (2005).
97 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.06.015.

98 [44] M. Tsimbrovska, P. Kalifa, D. Quenard, J.F. Daian, High performance concretes at elevated
99 temperature: permeability and microstructure, (1997).

40
100 [45] X.S. Wang, B.S. Wu, Q.Y. Wang, Online SEM investigation of microcrack characteristics of
101 concretes at various temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (2005) 1385–1390.
102 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.07.015.

103 [46] H. Fares, S. Remond, A. Noumowe, A. Cousture, High temperature behaviour of self-
104 consolidating concrete. Microstructure and physicochemical properties, Cem. Concr. Res. (2010).
105 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.10.006.

106 [47] T.G. Nijland, J.A. Larbi, Unraveling the temperature distribution in fire-damaged concrete by
107 means of PFM microscopy: Outline of the approach and review of potentially useful reactions,
108 Heron. (2001).

109 [48] X. Cong, R.J. Kirkpatrick, Effects of the temperature and relative humidity on the structure of
110 CSH gel, Cem. Concr. Res. (1995). https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(95)00116-T.

111 [49] H.F.W. Taylor, Cement chemistry. 2nd ed., Acad. Press. 20 (1997) 335.
112 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(98)00023-7.

113 [50] Q. Zhou, F.P. Glasser, Thermal stability and decomposition mechanisms of ettringite at <120°C,
114 Cem. Concr. Res. (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00558-0.

115 [51] I. Hager, Behaviour of cement concrete at high temperature, Bull. Polish Acad. Sci. Tech. Sci.
116 (2013). https://doi.org/10.2478/bpasts-2013-0013.

117 [52] U. Schneider, U. Diederichs, C. Ehm, Effect of temperature on steel and concrete for PCRV’s,
118 Nucl. Eng. Des. 67 (1982) 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/0029-5493(82)90144-3.

119 [53] E. Menéndez, L. Vega, C. Andrade, Use of decomposition of portlandite in concrete fire as
120 indicator of temperature progression into the material: Application to fire-affected builds, J.
121 Therm. Anal. Calorim. 110 (2012) 203–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-011-2159-4.

122 [54] E. Gallucci, X. Zhang, K.L. Scrivener, Effect of temperature on the microstructure of calcium
123 silicate hydrate (C-S-H), Cem. Concr. Res. (2013).
124 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.06.008.

125 [55] W.H. Johnson, W.H. Parsons, Thermal expansion of concrete aggregate materials, Journal of
126 Research of the national Bureau of Standards, Volume 32, March 1944, 1944.
127 https://doi.org/10.6028/jres.032.002.

128 [56] C. Alonso, L. Fernandez, Dehydration and rehydration processes of cement paste exposed to high
129 temperature environments, J. Mater. Sci. (2004).
130 https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JMSC.0000025827.65956.18.

131 [57] U. Schneider, Concrete at high temperatures - A general review, Fire Saf. J. (1988).
132 https://doi.org/10.1016/0379-7112(88)90033-1.

133 [58] D.N. Crook, M.J. Murray, Regain of strength after firing of concrete, Mag. Concr. Res. (1970).
134 https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.1970.22.72.149.
41
135 [59] F.S. Rostásy, R. Weiβ, G. Wiedemann, Changes of pore structure of cement mortars due to
136 temperature, Cem. Concr. Res. 10 (1980) 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(80)90072-
137 1.

138 [60] Y.N. Chan, G.F. Peng, M. Anson, Residual strength and pore structure of high-strength concrete
139 and normal strength concrete after exposure to high temperatures, Cem. Concr. Compos. 21 (1999)
140 23–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(98)00034-1.

141 [61] A. Mendes, J. Sanjayan, F. Collins, Phase transformations and mechanical strength of OPC/Slag
142 pastes submitted to high temperatures, Mater. Struct. Constr. (2008).
143 https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-007-9247-8.

144 [62] M.A. Tantawy, Effect of High Temperatures on the Microstructure of Cement Paste, J. Mater. Sci.
145 Chem. Eng. (2017). https://doi.org/10.4236/msce.2017.511004.

146 [63] M.C.R. Farage, J. Sercombe, C. Gallé, Rehydration and microstructure of cement paste after
147 heating at temperatures up to 300 °C, Cem. Concr. Res. (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-
148 8846(03)00005-X.

149 [64] M. Chromá, D. Vo, P. Bayer, Concrete Rehydration after Heating to Temperatures of up to 1200 °
150 C, Int. Conf. Durab. Build. Mater. Components. (2011).

151 [65] B.K. Marsh, R.L. Day, D.G. Bonner, Pore structure characteristics affecting the permeability of
152 cement paste containing fly ash, Cem. Concr. Res. (1985). https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-
153 8846(85)90094-8.

154 [66] R. Hooton, Permeability and Pore Structure of Cement Pastes Containing Fly Ash, Slag, and Silica
155 Fume, in: Blended Cem., 2008. https://doi.org/10.1520/stp36395s.

156 [67] L. Dembovska, D. Bajare, I. Pundiene, L. Vitola, Effect of Pozzolanic Additives on the Strength
157 Development of High Performance Concrete, in: Procedia Eng., 2017.
158 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.02.050.

159 [68] H. Tanyildizi, A. Coskun, The effect of high temperature on compressive strength and splitting
160 tensile strength of structural lightweight concrete containing fly ash, Constr. Build. Mater. (2008).
161 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.07.033.

162 [69] W.C. Tang, T.Y. Lo, Mechanical and fracture properties of normal-and high-strength concretes
163 with fly ash after exposure to high temperatures, Mag. Concr. Res. (2009).
164 https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.2008.00084.

165 [70] S. Donatello, C. Kuenzel, A. Palomo, A. Fernández-Jiménez, High temperature resistance of a

166 very high volume fly ash cement paste, Cem. Concr. Compos. (2014).
167 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.09.010.

168 [71] O. Karahan, Transport properties of high volume fly ash or slag concrete exposed to high
169 temperature, Constr. Build. Mater. (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.051.

42
170 [72] Y. Xu, Y.L. Wong, C.S. Poon, M. Anson, Impact of high temperature on PFA concrete, Cem.
171 Concr. Res. (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00513-0.

172 [73] K.W. Nasser, H.M. Marzouk, Properties of mass concrete containing fly ash at high temperatures,
173 in: J. Proc., 1979: pp. 537–550.

174 [74] U. Diederichs, U.-M. Jumppanen, V. Penttala, Behavior of high strength concrete at high
175 temperatures, 1989.

176 [75] R. Sarshar, G.A. Khoury, Material and environmental factors influencing the compressive strength
177 of unsealed cement paste and concrete at high temperatures, Mag. Concr. Res. (1993).
178 https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.1993.45.162.51.

179 [76] S. Ghosh, K.W. Nasser, Effects of high temperature and pressure on strength and elasticity of
180 lignite fly ash and silica fume concrete, ACI Mater. J. (1996). https://doi.org/10.1016/0140-
181 6701(96)89623-8.

182 [77] B. Li, T.C. Ling, J.G. Yu, J. Wu, W. Chen, Cement pastes modified with recycled glass and
183 supplementary cementitious materials: Properties at the ambient and high temperatures, J. Clean.
184 Prod. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118155.

185 [78] A.M. Rashad, Potential use of silica fume coupled with slag in HVFA concrete exposed to
186 elevated temperatures, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. (2015). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-
187 5533.0001274.

188 [79] H.Y. Wang, The effects of elevated temperature on cement paste containing GGBFS, Cem. Concr.
189 Compos. (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2007.12.003.

190 [80] M. Malik, S.K. Bhattacharyya, S. V Barai, .Forthcoming., Microstructural Changes in Concrete:
191 Postfire Scenario, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-
192 5533.0003449.

193 [81] EN 197-1, Cement. Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements, Eur.
194 Stand. (2011).

195 [82] C.S. Poon, S. Azhar, M. Anson, Y.L. Wong, Comparison of the strength and durability
196 performance of normal- and high-strength pozzolanic concretes at elevated temperatures, Cem.
197 Concr. Res. (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00580-4.

198 [83] R.D. Hooton, J.J. Emery, Glass content determination and strength development predictions for
199 vitrified blast furnace slag, Spec. Publ. 79 (1983) 943–962.

200 [84] R.N. Swamy, Design for durability and strength through the use of fly ash and slag in concrete,
201 Spec. Publ. 171 (1997) 1–72.

202 [85] I. Hager, T. Tracz, M. Choińska, K. Mróz, Effect of Cement Type on the Mechanical Behavior
203 and Permeability of Concrete Subjected to High Temperatures, Materials (Basel). (2019).
204 https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12183021.
43
205 [86] E.D. Shumuye, J. Zhao, Z. Wang, Effect of fire exposure on physico-mechanical and
206 microstructural properties of concrete containing high volume slag cement, Constr. Build. Mater.
207 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.04.079.

208 [87] A. Behnood, H. Ziari, Effects of silica fume addition and water to cement ratio on the properties of
209 high-strength concrete after exposure to high temperatures, Cem. Concr. Compos. (2008).
210 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2007.06.003.

211 [88] M. Mazloom, A.A. Ramezanianpour, J.J. Brooks, Effect of silica fume on mechanical properties
212 of high-strength concrete, Cem. Concr. Compos. (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-
213 9465(03)00017-9.

214 [89] Ş. Yazici, G.N. Sezer, H. Şengül, The effect of high temperature on the compressive strength of
215 mortars, Constr. Build. Mater. (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.02.082.

216 [90] P. Kalifa, F.D. Menneteau, D. Quenard, Spalling and pore pressure in HPC at high temperatures,
217 Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (2000) 1915–1927. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00384-7.

218 [91] Y. Ju, K. Tian, H. Liu, H.W. Reinhardt, L. Wang, Experimental investigation of the effect of silica
219 fume on the thermal spalling of reactive powder concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. (2017).
220 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.08.086.

221 [92] K.D. Hertz, Danish investigations on silica fume concretes at elevated temperatures, ACI Mater. J.
222 (1992). https://doi.org/10.14359/9750.

223 [93] G. Sanjayan, L.J. Stocks, Spalling of high-strength silica fume concrete in fire, ACI Mater. J.
224 (1993). https://doi.org/10.14359/4015.

225 [94] M. Saad, S.A. Abo-El-Eneinf, G.B. Hanna, M.F. Kotkata, Effect of temperature on physical and
226 mechanical properties of concrete containing silica fume, Cem. Concr. Res. (1996).
227 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(96)85002-2.

228 [95] R. Felicetti, P.G. Gambarova, Effects of high temperature on the residual compressive strength of
229 high-strength siliceous concretes, ACI Mater. J. 95 (1998) 395–406.

230 [96] E. Yaşar, Y. Erdoğan, Strength and thermal conductivity in lightweight building materials, Bull.
231 Eng. Geol. Environ. 67 (2008) 513–519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-008-0166-x.

232 [97] M. Kurt, M.S. Gül, R. Gül, A.C. Aydin, T. Kotan, The effect of pumice powder on the self-
233 compactability of pumice aggregate lightweight concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. (2016).
234 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.11.043.

235 [98] A.M. Rashad, A short manual on natural pumice as a lightweight aggregate, J. Build. Eng. (2019).
236 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2019.100802.

237 [99] S. Aydin, B. Baradan, Effect of pumice and fly ash incorporation on high temperature resistance of
238 cement based mortars, Cem. Concr. Res. (2007). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.02.005.

44
239 [100] D. Naus, The Effect of Elevated Temperature on Concrete Materials and Structures — A
240 Literature Review, Contract. 6283 (2005) 184. https://doi.org/10.6088/ijcser.00202010079.

241 [101] S. Aydin, Development of a high-temperature-resistant mortar by using slag and pumice, Fire Saf.
242 J. (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2008.02.001.

243 [102] N. Ahn, D.W. Fowler, An Experimental Study On The Guidelines For Using Higher Contents Of
244 Aggregate Microfines In Portland Cement Concrete, Int. Cent. Aggregates Res. (2000).

245 [103] J.G. Stewart, J.K. Norvell, M.C.G. Juenger, D.W. Fowler, Influence of Microfine Aggregate
246 Characteristics on Concrete Performance, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 19 (2007) 957–964.
247 https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0899-1561(2007)19:11(957).

248 [104] P.C. Aitcin, P.K. Mehta, Effect of coarse-aggregate characteristics on mechanical properties of
249 high-strength concrete, ACI Mater. J. (1990).

250 [105] K.R. Wu, B. Chen, W. Yao, D. Zhang, Effect of coarse aggregate type on mechanical properties of
251 high-performance concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-
252 8846(01)00588-9.

253 [106] I. Hager, T. Tracz, J. Śliwiński, K. Krzemień, The influence of aggregate type on the physical and
254 mechanical properties of high-performance concrete subjected to high temperature, Fire Mater.
255 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1002/fam.2318.

256 [107] H. Beushausen, T. Dittmer, The influence of aggregate type on the strength and elastic modulus of
257 high strength concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. (2015).
258 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.08.055.

259 [108] F. Robert, H. Colina, The influence of aggregates on the mechanical characteristics of concrete
260 exposed to fire, Mag. Concr. Res. (2009). https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.2007.00121.

261 [109] Z. Xing, A.L. Beaucour, R. Hebert, A. Noumowe, B. Ledesert, Influence of the nature of
262 aggregates on the behaviour of concrete subjected to elevated temperature, Cem. Concr. Res.
263 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.01.005.

264 [110] R.R. Niry, A.L. Beaucour, R. Hebert, A. Noumowé, B. Ledésert, R. Bodet, Thermal stability of
265 different siliceous and calcareous aggregates subjected to high temperature, in: MATEC Web
266 Conf., 2013. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/20130607001.

267 [111] T.T. Lie, ASCE Manual and Report on Engineering Practice No78. Structural fire protection, 1992.
268 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097239-8.00032-5.

269 [112] N.R. Short, J.A. Purkiss, S.E. Guise, Assessment of fire damaged concrete using colour image
270 analysis, Constr. Build. Mater. (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0950-0618(00)00065-9.

271 [113] C. Meyer-Ottens, The question of spalling of concrete structural elements of standard concrete
272 under fire loading, Tech. Univ. Braunschweig. (1972).

45
273 [114] J.C. Mindeguia, P. Pimienta, H. Carré, C. La Borderie, On the influence of aggregate nature on
274 concrete behaviour at high temperature, Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng. (2012).
275 https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2012.667682.

276 [115] V. Kodur, Effect of Temperature on Thermal Properties of Different Types of High-Strength
277 Concrete, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 23 (2011) 793–801. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-
278 5533.0000225.

279 [116] D.H. Reddy, A. Ramaswamy, Influence of mineral admixtures and aggregates on properties of
280 different concretes under high temperature conditions I: Experimental study, J. Build. Eng. (2017).
281 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2017.09.013.

282 [117] S.R. Sarhat, E.G. Sherwood, Residual mechanical response of recycled aggregate concrete after
283 exposure to elevated temperatures, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. (2013).
284 https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000719.

285 [118] H. Uysal, R. Demirboga, R. Şahin, R. Gül, The effects of different cement dosages, slumps, and
286 pumice aggregate ratios on the thermal conductivity and density of concrete, Cem. Concr. Res.
287 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2003.09.018.

288 [119] R. Demirboǧa, R. Gül, The effects of expanded perlite aggregate, silica fume and fly ash on the
289 thermal conductivity of lightweight concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. (2003).
290 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(02)01032-3.

291 [120] O. Sengul, S. Azizi, F. Karaosmanoglu, M.A. Tasdemir, Effect of expanded perlite on the
292 mechanical properties and thermal conductivity of lightweight concrete, Energy Build. (2011).
293 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.11.008.

294 [121] H. Zhang, Building Materials in Civil Engineering, 2011. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845699567.

295 [122] Kosmatka SH, Panarese WC, Kerkhoff B, Design and Control Design and Control of Concrete
296 Mixtures, 2002.

297 [123] I.B. Topçu, Semi lightweight concretes produced by volcanic slags, Cem. Concr. Res. (1997).
298 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(96)00190-1.

299 [124] A. Kiliç, C.D. Atiş, E. Yaşar, F. Özcan, High-strength lightweight concrete made with scoria
300 aggregate containing mineral admixtures, Cem. Concr. Res. (2003).
301 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(03)00131-5.

302 [125] E. Yaşar, C.D. Atiş, A. Kiliç, High strength lightweight concrete made with ternary mixtures of
303 cement-fly ash-silica fume and scoria as aggregate, Turkish J. Eng. Environ. Sci. (2004).

304 [126] H. Fares, H. Toutanji, K. Pierce, A. Noumowé, Lightweight self-consolidating concrete exposed to
305 elevated temperatures, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. (2015). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-
306 5533.0001285.

307 [127] M. Abou-Zeid, M. Shenouda, Reincarnation of Concrete, Concr. Int. Des. Constr. (2005).
46
308 [128] J. Xiao, C. Zhang, Fire damage and residual strengths of recycled aggregate concrete, in: Key Eng.
309 Mater., 2007. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.348-349.937.

310 [129] J.P.B. Vieira, J.R. Correia, J. De Brito, Post-fire residual mechanical properties of concrete made
311 with recycled concrete coarse aggregates, Cem. Concr. Res. (2011).
312 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.02.002.

313 [130] C.J. Zega, A.A. Di Maio, Recycled concrete made with different natural coarse aggregates
314 exposed to high temperature, Constr. Build. Mater. (2009).
315 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.08.017.

316 [131] C.J. Zega, A.A. Di Maio, Recycled concrete exposed to high temperatures, Mag. Concr. Res.
317 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.2006.58.10.675.

318 [132] B. Bhattacharjee, S. Krishnamoorthy, Permeable Porosity and Thermal Conductivity of

319 Construction Materials, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. (2004). https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0899-
320 1561(2004)16:4(322).

321 [133] P. Morabito, Measurement of the thermal properties of different concretes, High Temp. - High
322 Press. (1989).

323 [134] A.E. Carte, Thermal conductivity and mineral composition of some Transvaal rocks, Am. J. Sci.
324 (2010). https://doi.org/10.2475/ajs.253.8.482.

325 [135] J. Sundberg, P.E. Back, L.O. Ericsson, J. Wrafter, Estimation of thermal conductivity and its
326 spatial variability in igneous rocks from in situ density logging, Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci.
327 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2009.01.010.

328 [136] A. Lanciani, P. Morabito, P. Rossi, F. Barberis, R. Berti, A. Capelli, G.S. Sona, Measurements of
329 the thermophysical properties of structural materials in laboratory and in situ: Methods and
330 instrumentation, High Temp. - High Press. (1989).

331 [137] M.A. Alsayed, S. H., Amjad, Effect of curing conditions on strength, porosity, absorptivity, ans
332 shrinkage of concrete in hot and dry climate, Cem. Concr. Res. (1994).
333 https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(94)90124-4.

334 [138] A.A. Abdou, I.M. Budaiwi, Comparison of Thermal Conductivity Measurements of Building
335 Insulation Materials under Various Operating Temperatures, J. Therm. Envel. Build. Sci. (2005).
336 https://doi.org/10.1177/1744259105056291.

337 [139] W. Zhang, H. Min, X. Gu, Y. Xi, Y. Xing, Mesoscale model for thermal conductivity of concrete,
338 Constr. Build. Mater. (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.08.106.

339 [140] A. Durán-Herrera, J.K. Campos-Dimas, P.L. Valdez-Tamez, D.P. Bentz, Effect of a micro-
340 copolymer addition on the thermal conductivity of fly ash mortars, J. Build. Phys. (2016).
341 https://doi.org/10.1177/1744259115611650.

342 [141] Bureau of Indian Standards, IS 3346 (1980): Method of the determination of thermal conductivity
47
343 of thermal insulation materials (two slab guarded hot plate method), Indian Stand. (1980).

344 [142] Indian Standard, Method of Test for Thermal Conductivity of Thermal Insulation Materials By
345 Means of Heat Flow Meter, (1980).

346 [143] ASTM, C518-15: Standard Test Method for Steady-State Thermal Transmission Properties by
347 Means of the Heat Flow Meter Apparatus, ASTM Int. (2015) 1–15.
348 https://doi.org/10.1520/C0518-10.2.

349 [144] ASTM International, Standard Test Method for Steady-State Heat Flux Measurements and
350 Thermal Transmission Properties by Means of the Guarded-Hot-Plate, ASTM C177. (2013).
351 https://doi.org/10.1520/C0177-13.2.

352 [145] I. Asadi, P. Shafigh, Z.F. Bin Abu Hassan, N.B. Mahyuddin, Thermal conductivity of concrete – A
353 review, J. Build. Eng. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.07.002.

354 [146] M.F. Bažant, Z. P., and Kaplan, Concrete at high temperatures: material properties and
355 mathematical models, Essex, England, 1996.

356 [147] M.G. Van Geem, F.A. E, Thermal properties of masonry materials for passive-solar design: a
357 state-of-the-art review., Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 1983.

358 [148] M.G. Van Geem, J. Gajda, K. Dombrowski, V. Geem, Thermal Properties of Commercially
359 Available High-Strength Concretes, 1997.

360 [149] D.D.L. Chung, Multifunctional Cement-Based Materials, 2003.

361 https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315273235.

362 [150] J.W. Hu, X. F.; Lie, T. T.; Polomark, G. M.; MacLaurin, Thermal properties of building materials
363 at elevated temperatures, Intern. Rep. - 643 , Inst. Res. Constr. Natrional Res. Counc. Canada, 1-
364 54. (1993) 0–21. https://doi.org/10.1039/B910216G.

365 [151] F. Brigaud, G. Vasseur, Mineralogy, porosity and fluid control on thermal conductivity of
366 sedimentary rocks, Geophys. J. Int. (1989). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.1989.tb02287.x.

367 [152] K.H. Kim, S.E. Jeon, J.K. Kim, S. Yang, An experimental study on thermal conductivity of
368 concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(02)00965-1.

369 [153] K. VanGeem, M. G., Gajda, J. W., and Dombrowski, Thermal properties of commercially
370 available high-strength concretes., Cem. Concr. Aggregates. 19(1) (1997) 38–53.

371 [154] G.A. Khoury, Effect of fire on concrete and concrete structures, Prog. Struct. Eng. Mater. (2002).
372 https://doi.org/10.1002/pse.51.

373 [155] X. Li, Y. Bao, L. Wu, Q. Yan, H. Ma, G. Chen, H. Zhang, Thermal and mechanical properties of
374 high-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composites after exposure to high temperatures,
375 Constr. Build. Mater. 157 (2017) 829–838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.09.125.

48
376 [156] S. Real, J.A. Bogas, M. da G. Gomes, B. Ferrer, Thermal conductivity of structural lightweight
377 aggregate concrete, Mag. Concr. Res. (2016). https://doi.org/10.1680/jmacr.15.00424.

378 [157] Y. Wu, J.Y. Wang, P.J.M. Monteiro, M.H. Zhang, Development of ultra-lightweight cement
379 composites with low thermal conductivity and high specific strength for energy efficient buildings,
380 Constr. Build. Mater. (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.04.004.

381 [158] Z. Huang, K. Padmaja, S. Li, J.Y.R. Liew, Mechanical properties and microstructure of ultra-
382 lightweight cement composites with fly ash cenospheres after exposure to high temperatures,
383 Constr. Build. Mater. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.009.

384 [159] N. Narayanan, K. Ramamurthy, Structure and properties of aerated concrete: A review, Cem.
385 Concr. Compos. (2000). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(00)00016-0.

386 [160] R.T. Bynum Jr, Insulation Applications and Comparisons, Insul. Handb. (2001).
387 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.013.

388 [161] P. Cioni, P. Croce, W. Salvatore, Assessing fire damage to r.c. elements, Fire Saf. J. (2001).
389 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0379-7112(00)00050-3.

390 [162] S. Chen, C. Yang, G. Wang, Evolution of thermal damage and permeability of Beishan granite,
391 Appl. Therm. Eng. (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.09.075.

392 [163] W. Zhang, Q. Sun, S. Hao, J. Geng, C. Lv, Experimental study on the variation of physical and
393 mechanical properties of rock after high temperature treatment, Appl. Therm. Eng. (2016).
394 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.01.010.

395 [164] H.D. Vosteen, R. Schellschmidt, Influence of temperature on thermal conductivity, thermal
396 capacity and thermal diffusivity for different types of rock, Phys. Chem. Earth. (2003).
397 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-7065(03)00069-X.

398 [165] L. Phan, Fire Performance of High-Strength Concrete: A Report of the State-of-the-Art, 1996.
399 http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intitle:Fire+Performance+of+High-
400 Strength+Concrete+:+A+Report+of+the+State-of-the-Art#0.

401 [166] T.Z. Harmathy, L.W. Allen, THERMAL PROPERTIES OF SELECTED MASONRY UNIT
402 CONCRETES., J Am Concr. Inst. (1973). https://doi.org/10.14359/11193.

403 [167] V.R. Kodur, M.A. Sultan, Thermal propeties of high strength concrete at elevated temperatures,
404 Am. Concr. Inst. 179 (1998) 467–480. https://doi.org/10.14359/6056.

405 [168] Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1-2: General rules - Structural fire design
406 Eurocode, 2 (2011).

407 [169] K.Y. Shin, S.B. Kim, J.H. Kim, M. Chung, P.S. Jung, Thermo-physical properties and transient
408 heat transfer of concrete at elevated temperatures, Nucl. Eng. Des. 212 (2002) 233–241.
409 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0029-5493(01)00487-3.

49
410 [170] V.K.R. Kodur, M. a. Sultan, Effect of Temperature on Thermal Properties of High-Strength
411 Concrete, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 15 (2003) 101–107. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-
412 1561(2003)15:2(101).

413 [171] ASTM, E831 - 14: Standard Test Method for Linear Expansion of Solid Materials by
414 Thermomechanical Analysis., Am. Soc. Test. Mater. (2014). https://doi.org/10.1520/E0831-14.2.

415 [172] IS 456:, Plain and Reinforced Concrete Code of Practice, 2000.

416 [173] U. Schneider, Concrete at high temperatures - A general review, Fire Saf. J. 13 (1988) 55–68.
417 https://doi.org/10.1016/0379-7112(88)90033-1.

418 [174] M. Ghannam, Proposed models for concrete thermal expansion with different aggregate types and
419 saturation conditions, SN Appl. Sci. 1 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-0452-1.

420 [175] EN 1991-1-2, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures -Part 1-5: General actions - Actions on structures
421 exposed to fire, Eurocode 1. (2002).

422 [176] T.T. Lie, V.K.R. Kodur, Thermal and mechanical properties of steel-fibre-reinforced concrete at
423 elevated temperatures, Can. J. Civ. Eng. 23 (1996) 511–517. https://doi.org/10.1139/l96-055.

424 [177] Q. Li, X. Gao, S. Xu, Y. Peng, Y. Fu, Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of High-
425 toughness Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Compositres after Exposure to Elevated Temperatures,
426 J. Mater. Civ. Eng. (2016). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.

427 [178] R.K. Nanstad, Review of concrete properties for prestressed concrete pressure vesssels, United
428 States, 1976. http://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:08306996.

429 [179] G.A. Khoury, Compressive strength of concrete at high temperatures: A reassessment, Mag.
430 Concr. Res. (1992). https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.1992.44.161.291.

431 [180] U. Diederichs, U.-M. Jumppanen, V. Penttala, Behavior of high strength concrete at high
432 temperatures, 1989.

433 [181] F.P. Cheng, V.K.R. Kodur, T.C. Wang, Stress-strain curves for high strength concrete at elevated
434 temperatures, J. Mater. Civ. Eng. (2004). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-
435 1561(2004)16:1(84).

436 [182] Y.F. Chang, Y.H. Chen, M.S. Sheu, G.C. Yao, Residual stress–strain relationship for concrete
437 after exposure to high temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (2006) 1999–2005.
438 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.05.029.

439 [183] I. Hager, Behaviour of cement concrete at high temperature, Bull. Polish Acad. Sci. Tech. Sci.
440 (2013). https://doi.org/10.2478/bpasts-2013-0013.

441 [184] W. Chan, Y.N., Luo, X., Sun, Compressive strength and pore structure of high-performance
442 concrete after exposure to high temperature up to 800°C, Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (2000) 247–251.
443 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00240-9.
50
444 [185] P. Kalifa, G. Chéné, C. Gallé, High-temperature behaviour of HPC with polypropylene fibres -
445 From spalling to microstructure, Cem. Concr. Res. (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-
446 8846(01)00596-8.

447 [186] C.S. Poon, Z.H. Shui, L. Lam, Compressive behavior of fiber reinforced high-performance
448 concrete subjected to elevated temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. (2004).
449 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.02.011.

450 [187] M. Zeiml, D. Leithner, R. Lackner, H.A. Mang, How do polypropylene fibers improve the spalling
451 behavior of in-situ concrete?, Cem. Concr. Res. (2006).
452 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.12.018.

453 [188] X. Liu, G. Ye, G. De Schutter, Y. Yuan, L. Taerwe, On the mechanism of polypropylene fibres in
454 preventing fire spalling in self-compacting and high-performance cement paste, Cem. Concr. Res.
455 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.11.010.

456 [189] P. Pliya, A.L. Beaucour, A. Noumowé., Contribution of cocktail of polypropylene and steel fibres
457 in improving the behaviour of high strength concrete subjected to high temperature, Constr. Build.
458 Mater. (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.11.064.

459 [190] S. Sanchayan, S.J. Foster, High temperature behaviour of hybrid steel–PVA fibre reinforced
460 reactive powder concrete, Mater. Struct. Constr. (2016). https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-015-0537-
461 2.

462 [191] N. Yermak, P. Pliya, A.L. Beaucour, A. Simon, A. Noumowé, Influence of steel and/or
463 polypropylene fibres on the behaviour of concrete at high temperature: Spalling, transfer and
464 mechanical properties, Constr. Build. Mater. (2017).
465 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.11.120.

466 [192] J. Novák, A. Kohoutková, Fire response of Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Concrete to High
467 Temperature, in: Procedia Eng., 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.02.123.

468 [193] H. Caetano, G. Ferreira, J.P.C. Rodrigues, P. Pimienta, Effect of the high temperatures on the
469 microstructure and compressive strength of high strength fibre concretes, Constr. Build. Mater.
470 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.074.

471 [194] Y. Li, K.H. Tan, E.H. Yang, Synergistic effects of hybrid polypropylene and steel fibers on
472 explosive spalling prevention of ultra-high performance concrete at elevated temperature, Cem.
473 Concr. Compos. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.11.009.

474 [195] J. Eidan, I. Rasoolan, A. Rezaeian, D. Poorveis, Residual mechanical properties of polypropylene
475 fiber-reinforced concrete after heating, Constr. Build. Mater. (2019).
476 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.209.

477 [196] P.C. Hewlett, Lea’s Chemistry of Cement and Concrete, 2003. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-
478 7506-6256-7.X5007-3.

479 [197] Bureau of Indian Standards:10262-2009, Concrete mix proportioning- guidelines, Bur. Indian
51
480 Stand. (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2015.11.077.

481 [198] M.B. Dwaikat, V.K.R. Kodur, Hydrothermal model for predicting fire-induced spalling in
482 concrete structural systems, Fire Saf. J. 44 (2009) 425–434.
483 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2008.09.001.

484 [199] J. Bošnjak, J. Ožbolt, R. Hahn, Permeability measurement on high strength concrete without and
485 with polypropylene fibers at elevated temperatures using a new test setup, Cem. Concr. Res. 53
486 (2013) 104–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2013.06.005.

487 [200] N.K. Lee, K.T. Koh, S.H. Park, G.S. Ryu, Microstructural investigation of calcium aluminate
488 cement-based ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) exposed to high temperatures, Cem.
489 Concr. Res. 102 (2017) 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.09.004.

490 [201] Y. Pei, F. Agostini, F. Skoczylas, The effects of high temperature heating on the gas permeability
491 and porosity of a cementitious material, Cem. Concr. Res. 95 (2017) 141–151.
492 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.01.003.

493 [202] Nrmca, CIP 35 - Testing Compressive Strength of Concrete, Concr. Pract. - What, Why How?
494 (2003).

495 [203] M. Abrams, Compressive strength of concrete at temperatures to 1600F, ACI Spec. Publ. (1971)
496 11 p. https://doi.org/10.14359/17331.

497 [204] L.T. Phan, N.J. Carino, Effects of test conditions and mixture proportions on behavior of high-
498 strength concrete exposed to high temperatures, ACI Mater. J. (2002).

499 [205] C. Castillo, A.J. Durrani, Effect of transient high temperture on high-strength concrete, ACI
500 Mater. J. 87 (1990) 47–53.

501 [206] M. Li, C. Qian, W. Sun, Mechanical properties of high-strength concrete after fire, Cem. Concr.
502 Res. 34 (2004) 1001–1005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2003.11.007.

503 [207] A. Behnood, M. Ghandehari, Comparison of compressive and splitting tensile strength of high-
504 strength concrete with and without polypropylene fibers heated to high temperatures, Fire Saf. J.
505 44 (2009) 1015–1022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2009.07.001.

506 [208] T.K. Erdem, Specimen size effect on the residual properties of engineered cementitious
507 composites subjected to high temperatures, Cem. Concr. Compos. (2014).
508 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2013.09.019.

509 [209] T. Harmathy, Effect of moisture on the fire endurance of building elements, in: Moisture Mater.
510 Relat. to Fire Tests, ASTM International, 1965.

511 [210] Z.P. Bažant, Analysis of pore pressure, thermal stress and fracture in rapidly heated concrete, Nist.
512 (1997).

513 [211] F.J. Ulm, O. Coussy, Z.P. Bažant, The “chunnel” fire. I: Chemoplastic softening in rapidly heated
52
514 concrete, J. Eng. Mech. (1999). https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9399(1999)125:3(272).

515 [212] K.D. Hertz, Limits of spalling of fire-exposed concrete, Fire Saf. J. (2003).
516 https://doi.org/10.1016/S0379-7112(02)00051-6.

517 [213] R.J. Connolly, The spalling of concrete in fires., (1998).

518 [214] M.P. Gillen, B. Keep, M. Sandvik, Spalling of high-strength light-weight aggregate concrete under
519 intense hydrocarbon fire expo-sure, Tech. Sess. Fire Resist. Mater. and/or Members Made with
520 High-Strength Concr. ACI Spring Con-Vention. (1991).

521 [215] K. Hertz, Heat-induced explosion of dense concretes, Inst. Build. Des. Rep. 166 (1984).

522 [216] K.D. Hertz, L.S. Sørensen, Test method for spalling of fire exposed concrete, Fire Saf. J. (2005).
523 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2005.04.001.

524 [217] J. Xiao, G. König, Study on concrete at high temperature in China—an overview, Fire Saf. J. 39
525 (2004) 89–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0379-7112(03)00093-6.

526 [218] W. Khaliq, V. Kodur, Thermal and mechanical properties of fiber reinforced high performance
527 self-consolidating concrete at elevated temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 41 (2011) 1112–1122.
528 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.06.012.

529 [219] Y. Zhai, Z. Deng, N. Li, R. Xu, Study on compressive mechanical capabilities of concrete after
530 high temperature exposure and thermo-damage constitutive model, Constr. Build. Mater. (2014).
531 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.06.052.

532 [220] H. Li, G. Liu, Tensile Properties of Hybrid Fiber-Reinforced Reactive Powder Concrete After
533 Exposure to Elevated Temperatures, Int. J. Concr. Struct. Mater. (2016).
534 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40069-016-0125-z.

535 [221] P. Bamonte, R. Felicetti, High-temperature behaviour of concrete in tension, Struct. Eng. Int. J.
536 Int. Assoc. Bridg. Struct. Eng. 22 (2012) 493–499.
537 https://doi.org/10.2749/101686612X13363929517695.

538 [222] D. Mindess, S., Young, J. F., and Darwin, Concrete, Pearson Education, Inc., New Jersey, USA.,
539 2003.

540 [223] W.K. and V. Kodur, High Temperature Mechanical Properties of High-Strength Fly Ash Concrete
541 with and without Fibers-2012.pdf, Aci Mater. J. 109 (2012) 665–674.

542 [224] G. Ba, J. Miao, W. Zhang, C. Liu, Influence of Cracking on Heat Propagation in Reinforced
543 Concrete Structures, J. Struct. Eng. 142 (2016) 04016035. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)st.1943-
544 541x.0001483.

545 [225] G.G. Carette, K.E. Painter, V.M. Malhotra, Sustained high temperature effect on concretes made
546 with normal portland cement, normal portland cement and slag, or normal portland cement and fly
547 ash, Concr. Int. 4 (1982) 41–51.
53
548 https://www.concrete.org/publications/internationalconcreteabstractsportal.aspx?m=details&ID=9
549 093.

550 [226] B. Chen, J. Liu, Residual strength of hybrid-fiber-reinforced high-strength concrete after exposure
551 to high temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 34 (2004) 1065–1069.
552 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2003.11.010.

553 [227] W. Khaliq, V. Kodur, High temperature mechanical properties of high-strength fly ash concrete
554 with and without fibers, ACI Mater. J. 109 (2012) 665–674.

555 [228] A. Savva, P. Manita, K.K. Sideris, Influence of elevated temperatures on the mechanical
556 properties of blended cement concretes prepared with limestone and siliceous aggregates, Cem.
557 Concr. Compos. (2005). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2004.02.013.

558 [229] Q. Li, Z. Li, G. Yuan, Effects of elevated temperatures on properties of concrete containing
559 ground granulated blast furnace slag as cementitious material, Constr. Build. Mater. (2012).
560 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.04.103.

561 [230] J. Xiao, Z. Li, Q. Xie, L. Shen, Effect of strain rate on compressive behaviour of high-strength
562 concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures, Fire Saf. J. 83 (2016) 25–37.
563 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2016.04.006.

564 [231] W.P.S. Dias, G.A. Khoury, P.J.E. Sullivan, Mechanical properties of hardened cement paste
565 exposed to temperatures up to 700 C (1292 F), ACI Mater. J. 87 (1990) 160–166.

566 [232] S. Masse, G. Vetter, P. Boch, C. Haehnel, Elastic modulus changes in cementitious materials
567 submitted to thermal treatments up to 1000°C, Adv. Cem. Res. (2002).
568 https://doi.org/10.1680/adcr.2002.14.4.169.

569 [233] W. Li, Z.H. Guo, Experimental investigation on strength and deformation of concrete under high
570 temperature, Chin J Build Struct. 14 (1993) 8–16.

571 [234] B.L. Hu, Y.P. Song, G.F. Zhao, Test on strength and deformation of concrete under complex stress
572 at elevated temperature, Build Sci Res Sichuan. 20 (1994) 47–50.

573 [235] M. Yoon, G. Kim, Y. Kim, T. Lee, G. Choe, E. Hwang, J. Nam, Creep Behavior of High-Strength
574 Concrete Subjected to Elevated Temperatures, Mater. (Basel, Switzerland). 10 (2017) 781.
575 https://doi.org/10.3390/ma10070781.

576 [236] J. Mindeguia, P. Pimienta, C. La, Experimental discussion on the mechanisms behind the fire
577 spalling of concrete Experimental discussion on the mechanisms behind the fire spalling of
578 concrete, (2015).

579 [237] A. Noumowe, Mechanical properties and microstructure of high strength concrete containing
580 polypropylene fibres exposed to temperatures up to 200 °c, Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (2005) 2192–
581 2198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2005.03.007.

582 [238] C.S. Poon, S. Azhar, M. Anson, Y.L. Wong, Performance of metakaolin concrete at elevated
54
583 temperatures, Cem. Concr. Compos. (2003). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(01)00061-0.

584 [239] A.N. Noumowe, R. Siddique, G. Debicki, Permeability of high-performance concrete subjected to
585 elevated temperature (600��C), Constr. Build. Mater. 23 (2009) 1855–1861.
586 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.09.023.

587 [240] K. Hertz, Heat-Induced Explosion of Dense Concretes, (1984) 20.

588 [241] L. Phan, Spalling and mechanical properties of high strength concrete at high temperature, in:
589 Concr. Under Sev. Cond. Environ. Load. (CONSEC ’07), 2007: pp. 1595–1608.
590 http://fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/build07/art019.html.

591 [242] N. Toropovs, F. Lo Monte, M. Wyrzykowski, B. Weber, G. Sahmenko, P. Vontobel, R. Felicetti,

592 P. Lura, Real-time measurements of temperature, pressure and moisture profiles in High-
593 Performance Concrete exposed to high temperatures during neutron radiography imaging, Cem.
594 Concr. Res. 68 (2015) 166–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2014.11.003.

595 [243] Y.H.C. Han, K. Kim, Combined fiber technique for spalling protection of concrete column , slab
596 and beam in fire, Mater. Struct. (2015) 3377–3390. https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-014-0406-4.

597 [244] Y. Ding, C. Azevedo, J.B. Aguiar, S. Jalali, Study on residual behaviour and flexural toughness of
598 fibre cocktail reinforced self compacting high performance concrete after exposure to high
599 temperature, Constr. Build. Mater. (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.04.058.

600 [245] M. Kanéma, P. Pliya, A. Noumowé, J.L. Gallias, Spalling, Thermal, and Hydrous Behavior of
601 Ordinary and High-Strength Concrete Subjected to Elevated Temperature, J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
602 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000272.

603 [246] L.T. Phan, Pore pressure and explosive spalling in concrete, Mater. Struct. Constr. (2008).
604 https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-008-9353-2.

605 [247] F.B. Varona, F.J. Baeza, S. Ivorra, D. Bru, Experimental analysis of the loss of bond between
606 rebars and concrete exposed to high temperatures, Dyna. (2015). https://doi.org/10.6036/7184.

607 [248] M. Ozawa, H. Morimoto, Effects of various fibres on high-temperature spalling in high-
608 performance concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. (2014).
609 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.068.

610 [249] G. Debicki, R. Haniche, F. Delhomme, An experimental method for assessing the spalling
611 sensitivity of concrete mixture submitted to high temperature, Cem. Concr. Compos. (2012).
612 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2012.04.002.

613 [250] P.S. Song, S. Hwang, Mechanical properties of high-strength steel fiber-reinforced concrete,
614 Constr. Build. Mater. (2004). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2004.04.027.

615 [251] B. Chen, J. Liu, Residual strength of hybrid-fiber-reinforced high-strength concrete after exposure
616 to high temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 34 (2004) 1065–1069.
617 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2003.11.010.
55
618 [252] A. Lau, M. Anson, Effect of high temperatures on high performance steel fibre reinforced
619 concrete, Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (2006) 1698–1707.
620 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.03.024.

621 [253] V.K.R. Kodur, Innovative strategies for enhancing fire performance of high-strength concrete
622 structures, Adv. Struct. Eng. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1177/1369433218754335.

623 [254] Y. Furumura, F., Abe, T., and Shinohara, Mechanical properties of high strength concrete at high
624 temperatures, in: High Perform. Concr. Mater. Prop. Des. Prodeedings Fourth Weimar Work. High
625 Perform. Concr. Mater. Prop., 1995: pp. 237–254.

626 [255] Y.F. Fu, Y.L. Wong, C.S. Poon, C.A. Tang, Stress-strain behaviour of high-strength concrete at
627 elevated temperatures, Mag. Concr. Res. (2005). https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.2005.57.9.535.

628 [256] H.L. Malhotra, The effect of temperature on the compressive strength of concrete, Mag. Concr.
629 Res. (1956). https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.1956.8.23.85.

630 [257] Y.S. Kim, T.G. Lee, G.Y. Kim, An experimental study on the residual mechanical properties of
631 fiber reinforced concrete with high temperature and load, Mater. Struct. Constr. (2013).
632 https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-012-9918-y.

633 [258] Cracks in Concrete Core Due to Fire or Thermal Heating Shock, ACI Mater. J. (1994).
634 https://doi.org/10.14359/4063.

635 [259] L.T. Phan, N.J. Carino, Review of Mechanical Properties of HSC at Elevated Temperature, J.
636 Mater. Civ. Eng. 10 (1998) 58–65. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(1998)10:1(58).

637 [260] G.-Y. KIM, Y.-S. KIM, T.-G. LEE, Mechanical properties of high-strength concrete subjected to
638 high temperature by stressed test, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China. 19 (2009) s128–s133.
639 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(10)60260-9.

640 [261] G.T.G. Mohamedbhai, Effect of exposure time and rates of heating and cooling on residual
641 strength of heated concrete, Mag. Concr. Res. (1986).
642 https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.1986.38.136.151.

643 [262] U.M. Jumppanen, U. Diederichs, K. Hinrichsmeyer, MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF F-

644 CONCRETE AT HIGH TEMPERATURES., 1986.

645 [263] Hammer TA, High-strength concrete phase 3, compressive strength and e- modulus at elevated
646 temperatures., 1995.

647 [264] T.C. Powers, Physical Properties of Cement Paste, Chem. Cem. Proc. Fourth Int. Symp. (1960).

648 [265] D.R. Lankard, D.L. Birkimer, F.F. Fondriest, M.J. Snyder, Effects of moisture content on
649 structural properties of portland Cement Concrete exposed to temperature up 500 °F, in: Temp.
650 Concr., 1971.

651 [266] C. Ehm, U. Schneider, The high temperature behaviour of concrete under biaxial conditions, Cem.
56
652 Concr. Res. (1985). https://doi.org/10.1016/0008-8846(85)90005-5.

653

57