Emerging Writers

Volume 3 Article 4

1-10-2021

The Language Surrounding Huckleberry Finn’s Jim

Tristan Quinn

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Quinn, Tristan (2021) "The Language Surrounding Huckleberry Finn’s Jim," Emerging Writers: Vol. 3 ,
Article 4.
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Tristan Quinn

Third-Place Winner

Academic Category

2019-2020 Emerging Writers Contest

The Language Surrounding Huckleberry Finn’s Jim

The n-word is a derogatory word with a history that stretches back to the era of African

American enslavement in the United States. It has been a point of controversy for decades, and

one work that has contributes greatly to this controversy is Mark Twain’s American classic, The

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. In order to illustrate the offensive nature of the word, I have

used the word multiple times, and I have redacted all the following instances with Xs. The story

follows the exploits of a young white boy named Huckleberry Finn, or Huck, and the African

American slave known as Jim, who is just introduced as “Miss Watsons’s big [XXXXXX]”

(Twain 22), as they go up and down the Mississippi River. Over the course of their journey,

Huck begins to accept Jim more as an equal human being rather than just another slave.

The book has long been a center of controversy mainly due to how Twain develops the

character Jim’s identity, particularly concerning Twain’s use of racially offensive language.

Some believe that Twain’s inclusion of stereotypes into Jim’s 19th century African American

slave identity promotes a negative racial perspective, regardless of whether such stereotypes

were intentionally included or done unwittingly. Others claim that Twain presents a historically

accurate depiction of an African American slave during the time despite the established

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prevalence of stereotypes in American society. Over the years, the ethical standards and

understanding of language have since evolved. The views and opinions of modern readers are

significantly different from readers of Twain’s time.

It is commonly understood that one of most characterizing features of Jim’s identity is the

speech that surrounds him. When reading Huckleberry Finn, failing to notice the use of a certain

derogatory word is, in any case, impossible. The word XXXXXX is perhaps one of the most

offensive words in the English language and the reason why Huckleberry Finn remains one of

the most challenged books in the United States, with exactly 211 uses of the word throughout the

book (Sloane 71). Usually intended to reference Jim, the word is considered demeaning not only

towards the novel’s characters, but also towards African American identity as a whole. The

XXXXXX gained widespread use during the 19th century as a result of the African slave trade

(Sloane 71), leading to the word’s association with racial inferiority. In CBS’s transcript of 60

Minutes episode “‘Huckleberry Finn’ and the N-Word Debate,” University of Oregon instructor

David Bradley explains that, “[… XXXXXX] has to do with shame. [XXXXXX] has to do with

calling somebody something. [XXXXXX] was what made slavery possible” (3). The historical

connotations of the XXXXXX causes Huckleberry Finn to be an emotionally challenging read

for descendants of African American slaves, even disturbing those who do not identify as

African American.

One section reader may find disturbing is Huck’s earliest description of Jim’s behavior,

which is a result Tom taking off the sleeping Jim’s hat and moving it to a nearby tree limb as a

prank (Twain 23). According to Huck, Jim became the most revered XXXXXX in the country as

he bragged to the others about being taken away by witches and the five-cent coin given to him

directly from the devil (Twain 24). This description is possibly the most dehumanizing reference

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to African Americans in the book. In a time when Christianity was a necessary part of the

community and witches were considered emissaries of the devil, Twain uses the XXXXXX to

create a link between American Americans and the devil. As all Christians know, the devil is a

representation of all things evil and immoral and something proper human beings would strive to

avoid association with. Jim’s status among the other African Americans and the pride he takes in

his story suggests that African Americans admire the devil. The allusion drawn from Huck’s

description is dangerously damaging to African American identity as it portrays the people as

harboring an innate immorality. While under the care of the Widow Douglas, Huck even

mentions that being civilized involves learning about religion and wanting to go to “the good

place” (Twain 19). So, the open reverence and awe for witches and the devil gives whites

justification for using the XXXXXX to suggest that blacks are an uncivilized and inferior people.

Whether in the modern era or the 19th century, the XXXXXX remains a powerful symbol of the

oppression faced by African Americans such as Jim. However, while uncomfortable, the

language Twain uses to creates Jim’s identity should not solely focus on the XXXXXX.

Identities are formed is through the perceptions and beliefs of others. The way that people

talk about specific groups also becomes a part of identity. This form of identity is felt more

intensely with groups that are heavily stigmatized. An example would be speakers of non-

standard dialects who are attacked with stereotypes resulting from the “out-group homogeneity

effect” (Edwards 26) produced by socially-superior groups. In Huck Finn, Huck meets Tom’s

Aunt Sally who mistakes him for Tom and questions him about the arrival of the river boat. Not

being Tom and not having taken the boat, Huck makes up a story of a riverboat accident that

killed an African American. Aunt Sally responds that it was lucky that no one was hurt (Twain

280). Huck and Aunt Sally refer to the commonly accepted belief that African Americans are

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inherently subhuman, expendable, and stupid, and immoral (Smith 5). In other words, African

Americans are stereotyped and considered outsiders to those that identify as white. But, as seen

with Huck’s narration and interaction with Jim through the story, he does not fully believe in this

idea and is only speaking according to context.

In a similar example where the XXXXXX now refers to Jim, Huck arrives at the Phelps’s

Sawmill and encounters the duke, one of the two conmen Huck and Jim meet during their

journey. Huck claims that the king, the other conman and the duke’s partner, stole the raft and

his “[XXXXXX],” which was his only property that he wants back (Twain 273). Huck’s

language here is a strong example of the relationship between language, identity, and social

context. As explained in chapter 5.4 of Jess K. Alberts’s book, Human Communication in

Society, “[c]ulture impacts verbal communication primarily through its influence on language

and perception (par. 1). One aspect of cultural influence that Albert discusses is the Cocultural

Theory, which describes the influence of power and social hierarchy on language. The theory

explains: the privileged groups of a social hierarchy define social norms, values, and language;

language enforces the power of these groups; expectations are imposed on the language of

specific social groups; and people whose speech does not reflect social values, or not conform to

norms, may be excluded and stereotyped and their progress in society hindered (Albert ch. 5.4,

par. 6-11).

In the example, initially, it seems that Huck has regressed to his original character at the

beginning of the book, where he was very aligned with the identity of Southern whites. Using the

XXXXXX and calling Jim his property also parallels his initial introduction of Jim as Miss

Watson’s property. But, Huck is keeping in mind the social norms of the time while subtly

expressing his concerns for Jim’s safety. The norm being that whites are superior to blacks and

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any black person is, by default, someone’s property. The social expectations of white people are

that their language will enforce these norms. By expressing the norms in his language and

following social expectations, Huck is able to effectively communicate and subtly express his

desire for Jim to return safely while maintaining the duke’s perception of Jim’s identity as a

piece of property the owner wants back. If Huck were to say that the king stole his raft and

abducted his black friend, then the identity of Jim that Huck gives would have conflicted with

the perception of Jim in the duke’s mind. According to Cocultural Theory, Huck would be

stigmatized for opposing norms and his search for Jim inhibited by those around him, likely

resulting in him never seeing Jim again. Therefore, Huck’s seemingly racist statement is actually

expressing concern for Jim’s safety and denying the previously mentioned belief that African

Americans are expendable.

Equally as important as the language directed towards Jim is the language from Jim

himself. From Jim’s dialect it can be seen that Twain is drawing on African American

stereotypes. Given the heavy influence of minstrelsy during the 19th century that introduced

caricatures such as Jim Crow and Dandy Jim (Mahar 284), Twain would have been using the

stereotyped minstrel dialect to enforce negative perceptions of African Americans. The purpose

of minstrel language is to support mocking minstrel characterizations that portrayed African

Americas as intellectually inept and unable to learn the standard English dialect. Some critics

claim that Twain’s frequent visits to minstrel shows has undermined the development of

characters like Jim (Minnick 120). Comparing the dialects used by Jim and other white

characters enforces this. The most evident comparison would be with Jim’s owner, Miss Watson.

Miss Watson is the sister of the Widow Douglas and portrayed as being strict with Huck on his

manners, academic studies, and religion. She is repeatedly quoted by Huck to display her

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displeasure with his behavior. When Huck attempts to throw salt over his shoulder to keep away

bad luck, he quotes her reprimand, “‘Take your hands away, Huckleberry; what a mess you are

always making!’” (Twain 35). Twain expresses Miss Watson’s fluency in the English language

with the proper spelling of all her words, which shows that she has proper pronunciation. On the

other hand, Jim’s speech is the almost complete opposite. After faking his death, Huck startles

Jim with his appearance. Thinking Huck is a ghost, Jim pleads for his life and for Huck’s spirit to

rest peacefully, saying, “‘You go en git in de river agin, whah you b’longs, en doan’ do nuffn to

Ole Jim, ‘at ‘uz awluz yo’ fren’’” (Twain 67). The butchered spelling of most words and

apostrophes inserted into the speech regularly emphasize Jim’s failure to properly pronounce

English words. This butchered form of dialect also makes comprehending Jim’s speech

challenging for new readers. Even Pap, Huck’s father and a town drunk, is able to speak English

more fluently than Jim. When Pap is berating Huck for going to school he states, “None of the

family couldn’t [read or write] before they died. I can’t; and here you’re a-swelling yourself up

like this” (Twain 40).

Despite both characters lack of literacy and formal education and Pap’s perpetual

drinking problem, Twain’s use of language indicates Pap’s ability to almost speak proper

English. There exist no shortened or alternatively spelled words and the structure of his speech is

considerably better than Jim’s. The is strange because while Pap has spent most of his time

drinking, Jim has spent most of his time following the orders of two educated and well-spoken

women. Twain shows a bias in the language of black and white characters that parallels the bias

shown in black minstrelsy and diverges from his statement of precision found in the opening

notes of the book. Therefore, Twain’s implementation of Jim’s dialect is likely meant to show a

Jim’s lack of education and inability to learn the proper English dialect. If Jim’s dialect is related

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to African American Vernacular English (AAVE), then Twain’s ethical shortcoming become

clearer. AAVE is one of the most stigmatized dialects of the English language and racist

perceptions often cause AAVE speakers to be labeled as language deficient and retarded

(Edwards 77). This stigma is similar to the false representations of African American slaves and

just as hurtful towards the African American identity.

The dialect that is used for Jim is indeed further from standard English than the dialects

used for white characters. However, through dialect, Twain is attempting to create an identity for

Jim that accurately represents that era. In Huck Finn, one of the main ways that Twain attempts

to express Jim’s character is through his language. To accomplish this form of characterization,

Twain extensively utilizes eye dialect throughout the novel. Eye dialect is defined as “(The use

of) nonstandard respelling […] to represent dialectal or colloquial pronunciation […], or

standard pronunciation not predictable from regular orthography” (“Eye Dialect”). He states in

the book’s opening explanatory notes that for each form of speech, including the African

American Missouri dialect, “[t]he shadings have not been done in a hap-hazard fashion, or by

guess-work; but pains-takingly, and with the trustworthy guidance and support of personal

familiarity with these several forms of speech” (4). Twain’s intent is to formulate characters with

language patterns that represent an identity as close to reality as possible. His genuine

representation of African American speech is important because it contrasts with the ridiculing

representations of Black English promoted by the widely popular minstrel shows of the era.

These shows grew increasingly stereotypical during the mid-to-late 19th century as comedians

replaced the previously Black English-based stage dialects with a more conventional stage

dialect better suited for a variety of caricatures (Mahar 262-263). The trend led to the more

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familiar image of the minstrel shows being comedies containing simplified and inaccurate

portrayals of African Americans’ behavior and speech in order to showcase inferiority to whites

Twain acknowledges the possible stereotyped views that could emerge from his dialects

when he mentioned that without his explanatory, many would believe the characters to be

consistently failing to communicate in the same dialect (4). Unfortunately, his personal claim is

not enough to determine the possible degree of stereotyping in the African American dialect used

for Jim. To determine the degree of authenticity of Twain’s eye dialect, Lisa Cohen Minnick

identifies what she determined to be the thirty-five most notable grammatical and phonological

features of AAVE speakers in her article, Jim’s language and the issue of race in Huckleberry

Finn (117). She compares the AAVE features to the grammatical and phonological features

found in Jim’s Missouri dialect and concludes that there is enough similarity between Jim’s

direct speech and the selected set of AAVE features that Twain’s claim is defensible (118). For

example, from the list of AAVE grammatical features, Jim frequently uses multiple negation in

sentences like, “I couldn’ get nuffin else.(47)” (qtd. in Minnick 127). And from the list of

phonological features, Jim’s dialect uses “en” for “and” and “doan” for “don’t” (Minnick 123).

Minnick’s research showing that Jim’s dialect is not as stereotypical as it can seem enforces

Twain’s claim that he tried to make Jim’s dialect as accurate as possible. Her research is

supported by the neo-Anglicist Hypothesis of AAVE, that states that African American

communities developed a dialect that diverged from postcolonial British English dialects

(Wolfram 284). The other two hypotheses are the Creole hypothesis, where AAVE developed

from African American creole languages around the state, and the Anglicist Hypothesis, where

AAVE is directly derived from British dialects and identical to rural Southern white speech

(Wolfram 284). The latter two hypotheses are inappropriate because Jim clearly speaks an

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English dialect and his dialect is distinct from the dialects used by the white characters. Due to

Minnick’s supportive research, Jim’s identity becomes a more genuine representation of a 19th

century African American slave.

One of the most essential components of identity is language. The use of language and

communication is how an identity is defined and how an identity is perceived by others. In The

Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, the identity of the character Jim contrasts with African

American stereotypes through the language used by the character himself and through the

language used by other characters to describe him. Twain’s use of language to describe Jim

contributes towards an identity that authentically represents 19th century African American

slaves. And despite frequent challenges and regional bans, his book will remain an outstanding

example of classic American literature showing modern readers the importance of language in

identity.

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Works Cited

Alberts, Jess K. Human Communication in Society. Pearson Education, Inc., 2019, Pearson

Revel, revel-ise.pearson.com.

Edwards, John. Language and Identity: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 2009,

Kindle Cloud Reader, read.amazon.com.

“Eye Dialect: Definition of Eye Dialect by Lexico.” Lexico Dictionaries | English, Oxford

University Press, www.lexico.com/en/definition/eye_dialect. Accessed 6 Nov. 2019.

“‘Huckleberry Finn’ and the N-Word Debate.” 60 Minutes, CBS Interactive, 12 June 2011,

www.cbsnews.com/news/huckleberry-finn-and-the-n-word-debate/3/.

Mahar, William J. “Black English in Early Blackface Minstrelsy: A New Interpretation of the

Sources of Minstrel Show Dialect.” American Quarterly, vol. 37, no. 2, 1985, pp. 260–

285., www.jstor.org/stable/2712901.

Minnick, Lisa Cohen. “Jim's Language and the Issue of Race in Huckleberry Finn.” Language

and Literature, vol. 10, no. 2, 2001, pp. 111–128., doi:10.1177/0963-9470-20011002-02.

Sloane, David E. E. “The N-Word in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Reconsidered.” The Mark

Twain Annual, vol. 12, no. 1, 2014, pp. 70–82. JSTOR,

www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/marktwaij.12.1.0070.

Smith, David L. “Huck, Jim, and American Racial Discourse.” Mark Twain Journal, vol. 22, no.

2, 1984, pp. 4–12. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/41641246.

Twain, Mark. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Library of Congress,

read.gov/books/huckfinn.html. Accessed 13 Oct. 2019.

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Wolfram, Walt. “Reexamining the Development of African American English: Evidence from

Isolated Communities.” Language, vol. 79, no. 2, 2003, pp. 282–316. JSTOR,

www.jstor.org/stable/4489420.

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