Cell Structure Cell Membrane Passage

Organelles: Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass directly

• specialized structures in cells that perform through the cell membrane’s phospholipid bilayer.
• specific functions Some substances must pass through transmembrane protein
• Example:nucleus,mitochondria,ribosomes channels, such as Na+ through its channels.
Cytoplasm: The route of transport through the membrane depends on the
• jelly-like substance that holds organelles size, shape, and charge of the substance.
Cell membrane:
• also termed the plasma membrane Cell Membrane Passage
• a structure that encloses the cytoplasm Some substances require carrier molecules to transport them
across the cell membrane, such as glucose.
Functions of the Cell Some substances require a vesicular transport across the
Is the Smallest units of life membrane.
1. Cell metabolism and energy use 2. Synthesis of molecules The vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane for transport.
3. Communication
4. Reproduction and inheritance Active Transport and Passive Transport
Passive membrane transport does not require the cell to
Cell Membrane expend energy.
The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the outermost Active membrane transport does require the cell to expend
component of a cell. energy, usually in the form of ATP.
It forms a boundary between material in inside the cell and
the outside. Active Transport and Passive Transport
Materials inside the cell are intracellular and those outside are Passive membrane transport mechanisms include diffusion,
extracellular. osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
It acts as a selective barrier. Active membrane transport mechanisms include active
transport, secondary active
Cell Membrane Structure Diffusion
The fluid-mosaic model is the model used to describe the cell Diffusion generally involves movement of substances in a
membrane structure. solution down a concentration gradient.
The membrane contains phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, A solution is generally composed of two major parts, solutes
and carbohydrates. and the solvent.
Phospholipids form a bilayer. Solutes are substances dissolved in a predominant liquid or
Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and nonpolar. gas, which is called the solvent.
Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from an
Phospholipid Structure area of higher concentration of a solute to an area of lower
A phospholipid molecule has a polar head region that is concentration of that same solute in solution.
hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail region that is hydrophobic. This movement from high concentration to a low
The polar region is exposed to water around the membrane. concentration is diffusion.
The nonpolar region is facing the interior of the membrane.
Concentration Gradient
Movement through the Cell Membrane A concentration gradient is the difference in the concentration
The cell membrane has selective permeability, which allows of a solute in a solvent between two points divided by the
only certain substances to pass in and out of the cell. distance between the two points.
Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are The concentration gradient is said to be steeper when the
found in higher concentrations inside the cell. concentration difference is large and/or the distance is small.
Substances such as sodium, calcium, and chloride are found
in higher concentrations outside the cell Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a
selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
water concentration to one of lower water concentration. of that substance.
Osmosis exerts a pressure, termed osmotic pressure, which Because movement is with the concentration gradient,
is the force required to prevent movement of water across cell metabolic energy in the form of ATP is not required.
membrane
Active Transport
Osmotic Pressure and the Cell Active transport is a carrier-mediated process, requiring ATP,
Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of solution that moves substances across the cell membrane from
concentrations inside a cell relative to outside the cell. regions of lower concentration to those of higher
A cell may be placed in solutions that are either hypotonic, concentration against a concentration gradient.
isotonic, or hypertonic compared to the cell cytoplasm. Active transport processes accumulate necessary
substances on one side of the cell membrane at
Hypotonic concentrations many times greater than those on the other
A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes and side.
a higher concentration of water relative to the cytoplasm of
the cell. Secondary Active Transport
The solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than the cell. Secondary active transport uses the energy provided by a
Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell. concentration gradient established by the active transport of
If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a process called lysis. one substance, such as Na+ to transport other substances.
No additional energy is required above the energy provided
Isotonic by the initial active transport pump.
A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has the same solute In contra sport, the diffusing substance moves in the same
concentrations inside and outside the cell. direction as the initial active transported substance.
The cell will neither shrink nor swell. In countertransport, the diffusing substance moves in a
direction opposite to that of the initial active transported
Hypertonic substance.
The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic solution has a lower
solute concentration and higher water concentration than the Endocytosis
surrounding solution. Endocytosis is a process that that brings materials into cell
Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the hypertonic using vesicles.
solution, resulting in cell shrinkage, or crenation. Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when a specific
substance binds to the receptor molecule and is transported
Carrier-Mediated Transport into the cell.
Some water-soluble, electrically charged or large sized Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis when solid
particles cannot enter or leave through the cell membrane by particles are ingested.
diffusion. Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles formed, and they
These substances include amino acids, glucose, and some contain liquid rather than solid particles.
polar molecules produced by the cell.
Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell membrane General Cell Structure
involved in carrier-mediated transport. The interior of a cell is composed of the cytoplasm, which a
Carrier-mediated transport mechanisms include facilitated jelly-like fluid that surrounds the organelles.
diffusion and Active transport. Organelles are specialized structures that perform certain
Facilitated diffusion does not require ATP for energy. functions.
Active transport does require ATP for transport.
Cell Nucleus
Facilitated Diffusion The nucleus is a large organelle usually located near the
Facilitated diffusion is a carrier-mediated transport process center of the cell.
that moves substances across the cell membrane from an The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope, which
consists of outer and inner membranes with a narrow space intracellular digestive systems.
between them. Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes in
The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores, through order to breakdown materials in the endocytotic vesicles.
which materials can pass into or out of the nucleus. One example is white blood cells phagocytizing bacteria.
The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes
which consist of DNA and proteins. Peroxisomes
During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes are loosely Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing
coiled and collectively called chromatin. enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino acids, and
When a cell prepares to divide, the chromosomes become hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
tightly coiled and are visible when viewed with a microscope. Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino
Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, which are diffuse bodies with acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell.
no surrounding membrane. that are found within the nucleus The enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen.
There are usually one to several nucleoli within the nucleus.
The subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic organelle, Mitochondria
are formed within a nucleolus. Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are small organelles
These ribosomal components exit the nucleus through responsible for producing considerable amounts of ATP by
nuclear pores. aerobic (with O2) metabolism.
They have inner and outer membranes separated by a space.
Ribosomes The outer membranes have a smooth contour, but the inner
Ribosome components are produced in the nucleolus. membranes have numerous folds, called cristae, which
Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins are produced. project into the interior of the mitochondria.
Ribosomes may be attached to other organelles, such as the The material within the inner membrane is the mitochondrial
endoplasmic reticulum. matrix and contains enzymes and mitochondrial DNA
Ribosomes that are not attached to any other organelle are (mtDNA).
called free ribosomes. Cells with a large energy requirement have more
mitochondria than cells that require less energy.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of membranes The Cytoskeleton
forming sacs and tubules that extends from the outer nuclear The cytoskeleton gives internal framework to the cell.
membrane into the cytoplasm. It consists of protein structures that support the cell, hold
The rough ER is involved in protein synthesis and is rough organelles in place, and enable the cell to change shape.
due to attached ribosomes. These protein structures are microtubules, microfilaments,
The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes and is a site for and intermediate filaments.
lipid synthesis, cellular detoxification, and it stores calcium
ions in skeletal muscle cells. Microtubules
Microtubules are hollow structures formed from protein
Golgi Apparatus subunits.
The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi complex, consists The microtubules perform a variety of roles, including helping
of closely packed stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs. to support the cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell division, and
It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and forming essential components of certain organelles, such as
lipids manufactured by the ER. cilia and flagella.
The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of which are
secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and other vesicles.
Microfilaments
Lysosomes Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from protein subunits
Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the that structurally support the cytoplasm, determining cell
Golgi apparatus. shape.
They contain a variety of enzymes that function as Some microfilaments are involved with cell movement.
Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells to shorten, or information in the nucleus.
contract. Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its cellular
processes.
Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from protein subunits
that are smaller in diameter than microtubules but larger in
diameter than microfilaments.
They provide mechanical support to the cell.
A specific type of intermediate filament is keratin, a protein
associated with skin cells.

Centrioles
The centrosome is a specialized area of cytoplasm close to
the nucleus where microtubule formation occurs.
It contains two centrioles, which are normally oriented
perpendicular to each other.
Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle composed of
microtubules.
The centriole is involved in the process of mitosis.

Cilia
Cilia project from the surface of certain cells.
They are responsible for the movement of materials over the
top of cells, such as mucus.
Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from the cell and
are composed of microtubules.

Flagella
Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia but are much
longer, and they usually occur only one per cell.
Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which propels the
sperm cell.

Microvilli
Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell membrane
that are supported by microfilaments.
They do not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them and they
increase the surface area of those cells.
They are abundant on the surface of cells that line the
intestine, kidney, and other areas in which absorption is an
important function.

Whole Cell Activity

A cell’s characteristics are determine by the type of proteins
produced.
The proteins produced are in turn determined by the genetic
Tissue Stratified epithelium consists of more than one layer of cells,
A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure and function, but only the basal layer attaches the deepest layer to the
plus the extracellular substance surrounding them. basement membrane.
Histology is the study of tissues Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a special type of
simple epithelium, that appears to be falsely stratified.
Types of Tissues It consists of one layer of cells, with all the cells attached to
There are four tissue types in the human body: the basement membrane.
1. Epithelial – a covering or lining tissue Due to variations in the shape of the cells, the epithelia
2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type that makes up appears stratified.
part of every organ in the body
3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or shortens, making Classification of Epithelia
movement possible There are three types of epithelium based on idealized
4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating and controlling shapes of the epithelial cells:
many body activities 1. Squamous cells are flat or scalelike.
2. Cuboidal cells are cube-shaped—about as
Epithelial Tissues wide as they are tall.
Epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers and protects surfaces, 3. Columnar cells tend to be taller than they are wide.
both outside and inside the body.
Included under the classification of epithelial tissue are the Simple Squamous Epithelium
exocrine and endocrine glands. Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of thin, flat cells.
Some substances easily pass through this thin layer of cells,
Epithelial Tissue Characteristics but other substances do not.
1. Mostly composed of cells The lungs, simple squamous epithelium, allows for gas
2. Covers body surfaces exchange.
3. Distinct cell surfaces The kidneys, simple squamous epithelium, helps filter wastes
4. Cell and matrix connections from the blood while keeping blood cells inside the blood
5. Nonvascular vessels
6. Capable of regeneration
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Functions of Epithelial Tissues Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single layer of cube-like cells
1. Protects underlying structures that carry out active transport, facilitated diffusion, or
2. Acts as a barrier secretion.
3. Permits passage of substances They have a greater secretory capacity than simple
4. Secretes substances squamous epithelial cells.
5. Absorption of substances
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Classification of Epithelial Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of tall, thin cells.
Epithelial tissues are classified primarily according to the The large size of these cells enables them to perform
number of cell layers and the shape of the superficial cells. complex functions, such as secretion.
The cell layers can be simple, stratified, or pseudostratified. The simple columnar epithelium of the small intestine
The cell shapes can be squamous, cuboidal, columnar, or a produces and secretes mucus and digestive enzymes.
special transitional shape, that varies with the degree of
stretch. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium secretes mucus, which
Classification of Epithelia covers its free surface.
Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells, with each Cilia in the airways move the mucus and accumulated debris
cell extending from the basement membrane to the free toward the throat, where it is swallowed.
surface.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium forms a thick epithelium Glands
because it consists of several layers of cells. Glands are secretory organs that secrete substances onto a
Though the deepest cells are cuboidal or columnar and are surface, into a cavity, or into the bloodstream.
capable of dividing and producing new cells, the naming is Glands are composed primarily of epithelium, with a
based on the shape of the surface cells. supporting network of connective tissue.
There are two types of stratified squamous epithelia: Glands with ducts are called exocrine glands.
keratinized stratified squamous and nonkeratinized stratified Both the gland and its ducts is lined with epithelium.
squamous epithelia. Endocrine glands are ductless glands; they secrete their
products (termed hormones) into the bloodstream.
Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
The outer layer of the skin is comprised of a keratinized Glands
squamous epithelium. Most exocrine glands are multicellular, comprised of many
The keratin reduces the loss of water from the body. cells.
Some exocrine glands are composed of a single cell, like
Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium goblet cells, that secrete mucus.
Stratified squamous epithelium of the mouth is a moist Multicellular exocrine glands can be classified according to
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium. the structure of their ducts and secretory regions.
This nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium provides Simple glands have a single, non-branched duct, some have
protection against abrasion and acts as a mechanical barrier. branched ducts.
Water, however, can move across it more readily than across
the skin (keratinized stratified squamous). Glands
Compound exocrine glands have multiple, branched ducts.
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium Glands with secretory regions shaped as tubules (small tubes)
Stratified cuboidal epithelium consists of more than one layer are called tubular, whereas those shaped in saclike structures
of cuboidal epithelial cells. are called acinar or alveolar.
This epithelial type is relatively rare and is found in sweat Tubular glands can be straight or coiled.
gland ducts, ovarian follicular cells, and the salivary glands. Glands with a combination of the two are called tubuloacinar
It functions in absorption, secretion, and protection. or tubuloalveolar.
Exocrine glands can also be classified according to how
Stratified Columnar Epithelium products leave the cell.
Stratified columnar epithelium consists of more than one layer Merocrine secretion involves the release of secretory
of epithelial cells; the surface cells are columnar but the products by exocytosis.
deeper cells are irregular or cuboidal in shape. Apocrine secretion involves the release of secretory products
Like stratified cuboidal epithelium, stratified columnar as pinched-off fragments of the gland cells.
epithelium is relatively rare, found in the mammary gland Holocrine secretion involves the shedding of entire cells.
ducts, the larynx, and a portion of the male urethra.
This epithelium carries out secretion, protection, and some Connective Tissue
absorption. Connective tissue is a diverse primary tissue type that makes
up part of every organ in the body.
Transitional Epithelium Connective tissue differs from the other three tissue types in
Transitional epithelium is a special type of stratified epithelium that it consists of cells separated from each other by
that can be greatly stretched. abundant extracellular matrix.
The shape of the cells change as the epithelium is stretched. Connective tissue is diverse in both structure and function.
Transitional epithelium lines cavities that can expand greatly, Connective tissue is comprised of cells, protein fibers, and an
such as the urinary bladder. extracellular matrix.
It also protects underlying structures, like the urinary bladder,
from the caustic effects of urine.
Functions of Connective Tissue 2. Matrix Ground Substance
1. Enclose and separate other tissues The ground substance consists of non-fibrous molecules and
2. Connecting tissues to one another is shapeless. .
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body 4. Storing It consists of proteoglycans, which are large molecules that
compounds consist of a protein core attached to many long
5. Cushioning and insulating polysaccharides.
6. Transporting Proteoglycans trap large quantities of water between the
7. Protecting polysaccharides, which allows them to return to their original
shape when compressed or deformed.
Connective Tissue Cells
The specialized cells of the various connective tissues Types of Connective Tissues
produce the extracellular matrix. The two main types of connective tissue are embryonic and
The name of the cell identifies the cell functions. adult connective tissue.
Osteoblasts form bone, osteocytes maintain it, and By eight weeks of development, most of the embryonic
osteoclasts break it down. connective tissue has become specialized to form the types
Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous connective tissue, and of connective tissue seen in adults.
fibrocytes maintain it.
Chondroblasts form cartilage and chondrocytes maintain it. Types of Connective Tissues
1. Loose connective tissue consists of relatively few protein
Connective Tissue Cells fibers that form a lacy network, with numerous spaces filled
Found in connective tissue are cells associated with the with ground substance and fluid.
immune system, such as white blood cells. Three subdivisions of loose connective tissue are
Macrophages are large cells that are capable of moving about areolar, adipose, and reticular.
and ingesting foreign substances, including microorganisms a. Areolar connective tissue primarily consists of collagen
in the connective tissue. fibers and a few elastic fibers.
Mast cells are nonmotile cells that release chemicals, such as The most common cells in loose connective tissue are the
histamine, that promote inflammation. fibroblasts.

Extracellular Matrix Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, or fat cells, which

The extracellular matrix of connective tissue has three major contain large amounts of lipid for energy storage.
components: protein fibers, ground substance, and fluid. Adipose tissue pads and protects parts of the body and acts
1. Ground substance consists of non-fibrous protein and other as a thermal insulator.
molecules. Reticular tissue forms the framework of lymphatic tissue,
The structure of the matrix is responsible for the functional such as in the spleen and lymph nodes, as well as in bone
characteristics of connective tissues— for example, they marrow and the liver.
enable bones and cartilage to bear weight.
Dense connective tissue has a relatively large number of
1. Matrix Protein Fibers protein fibers that form thick bundles and fill nearly all of the
Three types of protein fibers—collagen, reticular, and extracellular space.
elastic—help form most connective tissues. There are two major subcategories of dense connective
a. Collagen fibers, which resemble microscopic ropes, are tissue: collagenous and elastic.
very flexible but resist stretching.
b. Reticular fibers are very fine, short collagen fibers that Dense collagenous connective tissue has an extracellular
branch to form a supporting network. matrix consisting mostly of collagen fibers.
c. Elastic fibers have the ability to return to their original Dense collagenous connective tissue having the collagen
shape after being stretched or compressed, giving tissue an fibers oriented in the same direction is termed dense regular.
elastic quality. Examples of dense regular are tendons and ligaments.
Dense collagenous connective tissue having the collagen
fibers oriented in the multiple directions is termed dense
irregular. Bone
Examples of dense irregular are in the dermis of the skin and Spongy bone has spaces between trabeculae or plates, of
in organ capsules. bone and therefore resembles a sponge.
Compact bone is more solid, with almost no space between
Cartilage many thin layers of mineralized matrix.
Cartilage is composed of chondrocytes, located in spaces
called lacunae within an extensive matrix. Blood
Collagen in the matrix gives cartilage flexibility and strength. Blood is a liquid connective tissue
Cartilage is resilient because the proteoglycans of the matrix It contains a liquid matrix, termed the plasma, along with
trap water. formed elements.
Cartilage provides support, but if bent or slightly compressed, The formed elements are erythrocytes, leukocytes, and
it resumes its original shape platelets.
It functions in transport of food, oxygen, waste, hormones,
Cartilage and other substances.
There are three types of cartilage: hyaline, fibrocartilage, and
elastic cartilage. Muscle
Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type of cartilage and The main function of muscle tissue is to contract, or shorten,
has many functions, such as covering the ends of bones, making movement possible.
where they form joints. Muscle contraction results from contractile proteins located
Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does hyaline cartilage within the muscle cells.
and is able to withstand compression and resist tearing or The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and
pulling. smooth.
Fibrocartilage is found in the intervertebral disks.
Muscle
Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does hyaline cartilage Skeletal muscle attaches to the skeleton and enables the
and is able to withstand compression and resist tearing or body to move.
pulling. Skeletal muscle cells are striated, or banded, because of the
Fibrocartilage is found in the disks between the vertebrae arrangement of contractile proteins within the cells.
(bones of the back) and in some joints, such as the knee and
temporomandibular (jaw) joints. Muscle
Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart; it is responsible for
Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers in addition to collagen pumping blood.
and proteoglycans. Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical but much shorter than
The elastic fibers appear as coiled fibers among bundles of skeletal muscle cells.
collagen fibers. Cardiac muscle cells are striated and usually have one
Elastic cartilage is able to recoil to its original shape when nucleus per cell.
bent. They are often branched and connected to one another by
The external ear, epiglottis, and auditory tube contain elastic intercalated disks.
cartilage.
Muscle
Bone is a hard connective tissue that consists of living cells Smooth muscle forms the walls of hollow organs; it is also
and a mineralized matrix. Osteocytes are located within found in the skin and the eyes.
lacunae. Smooth muscle is responsible for a number of functions, such
The strength and rigidity of the mineralized matrix enables as moving food through the digestive tract and emptying the
bones to support and protect other tissues and organs. urinary bladder.
Two types of bone tissue exist: spongy bone and compact Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each end, have a single
bone. nucleus, and are not striated.
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many body
activities.
Nervous tissue consists of neurons and support cells, termed
glial cells.
The neuron is responsible for conducting action potentials.
It is composed of three parts: a cell body, dendrites, and an
axon.
Integumentary System Composed of 25 or more layers of dead squamous cells
The integumentary system consists of the skin and accessory joined by desmosomes.
structures, such as hair, glands, and nails. As new cells form, they push older cells to the surface, where
Integument means covering. they slough, or flake off.
The appearance of the integumentary system can indicate
physiological imbalances in the body. Excessive sloughing of stratum corneum cells from the
surface of the scalp is called dandruff.
Integumentary System Functions In skin subjected to friction, the number of layers in the
1. Protection. The skin provides protection against abrasion stratum corneum greatly increases, producing a thickened
and ultraviolet light. area called a callus.
2. Sensation. The integumentary system has sensory Over a bony prominence, the stratum corneum can thicken to
receptors that can detect heat, cold, touch, pressure, and form a cone-shaped structure called a corn.
pain.
3. Vitamin D production. When exposed to ultraviolet light, the Dermis
skin produces a molecule that can be transformed into The dermis is composed of dense collagenous connective
vitamin D. tissue containing fibroblasts, adipocytes, and macrophages.
4. Temperature regulation. The amount of blood flow beneath Nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscles, glands, and lymphatic
the skin’s surface and the activity of sweat glands in the skin vessels extend into the dermis.
both help regulate body temperature. Collagen fibers, oriented in many directions, and elastic fibers
5. Excretion. Small amounts of waste products are lost are responsible for the structural strength of the dermis and
through the skin and in gland secretions. resistance to stretch.

Skin Some collagen fibers are oriented more directions than others,
The skin is made up of two major tissue layers: the epidermis forming cleavage lines.
and the dermis. Cleavage lines, or tension lines, in the skin, are more
The epidermis is the most superficial layer of skin. It is a layer resistant to stretch.
of epithelial tissue that rests on the dermis. An incision made parallel with these lines tends to gap less
The dermis is a layer of dense connective tissue. The skin and produce less scar tissue.
rests on the subcutaneous tissue, which is a layer of If the skin is overstretched for any reason, the dermis can be
connective tissue. damaged, leaving stretch marks.
The subcutaneous tissue is not part of the skin.
Dermal papillae are projections toward the epidermis found in
Epidermis the upper part of the dermis.
The epidermis prevents water loss and resists abrasion. The dermal papillae contain many blood vessels.
The epidermis, known as the cutaneous membrane, is a The dermal papillae in the palms of the hands, the soles of
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. the feet, and the tips of the digits are arranged in parallel,
The epidermis is composed of distinct layers called strata. curving ridges that shape the overlying epidermis into
fingerprints and footprints.
The deepest stratum, stratum basale consists of cuboidal or
columnar cells that undergo mitotic division about every 19 Skin Color
days. Factors that determine skin color include pigments in the skin,
One daughter cell becomes a new stratum basale cell and blood circulating through the skin, and the thickness of the
can divide again. stratum corneum.
The other daughter cell is pushed toward the surface, a The two primary pigments are melanin and carotene.
journey that takes about 40-56 days. Melanin is the group of pigments primarily responsible for skin,
The stratum corneum, the most superficial stratum of the hair, and eye color.
epidermis, consists of dead squamous cells filled with keratin. Carotene is a yellow pigment found in plants such as squash
Keratin gives the stratum corneum its structural strength. and carrots. (lipid soluble)
 It is loose connective tissue, including adipose tissue that
Skin Color contains about half the body’s stored lipids.
Most melanin molecules are brown to black pigments, but
some are yellowish or reddish. The amount and location of adipose tissue vary with age, sex,
Melanin provides protection against ultraviolet light from the and diet.
sun. Adipose tissue in the subcutaneous tissue functions as
Melanin is produced by melanocytes and the melanin is padding and insulation.
packaged into vesicles called melanosomes, which move into The subcutaneous tissue can be used to estimate total body
the cell processes of melanocytes. fat.
Epithelial cells phagocytize the tips of the melanocyte cell The acceptable percentage of body fat varies from 21% to
processes, thereby acquiring melanosomes. 30% for females and from 13% to 25% for males.
Large amounts of melanin form freckles or moles in some
regions of the skin. Hair
Melanin production is determined by genetic factors, In humans, hair is found everywhere on the skin, except on
exposure to light, and hormones. the palms, soles, lips, nipples, parts of the genitalia, and the
Genetic factors are responsible for the amounts of melanin distal segments of the fingers and toes.
produced in different races. Each hair arises from a hair follicle, an invagination of the
Since all races have about the same number of melanocytes, epidermis that extends deep into the dermis.
racial variations in skin color are determined by the amount, A hair shaft protrudes above the surface of the skin; the root
kind, and distribution of melanin. is below the surface and the hair bulb is the expanded base of
the root
Exposure to ultraviolet light—for example, in sunlight—
stimulates melanocytes to increase melanin production. The A hair has a hard cortex, which surrounds a softer center, the
result is a suntan. medulla.
Although many genes are responsible for skin color, a single The cortex is covered by the cuticle, a single layer of
mutation can prevent the production of melanin and cause overlapping cells that holds the hair in the hair follicle.
albinism. Hair is produced in the hair bulb, which rests on the hair
papilla.
Carotene is lipid-soluble; when consumed, it accumulates in The hair papilla is an extension of the dermis that protrudes
the lipids of the stratum corneum and in the adipocytes of the into the hair bulb and contains blood vessels.
dermis and subcutaneous tissue.
If large amounts of carotene are consumed, the skin can Hair is produced in cycles, with a growth stage and resting
become quite yellowish. stage.
During the growth stage, hair is formed by mitosis of epithelial
The color of blood in the dermis contributes to skin color. cells within the hair bulb; these cells divide and undergo
A decrease in blood flow, as occurs in shock, can make the keratinization.
skin appear pale. During the resting stage, growth stops and the hair is held in
A decrease in the blood O2 content produces a bluish color of the hair follicle.
the skin, called cyanosis. When the next growth stage begins, a new hair is formed and
the old hair falls out.
Subcutaneous Tissue
The skin (cutaneous membrane) rests on the subcutaneous The duration of each stage depends on the individual hair.
tissue. Eyelashes grow for about 30 days and rest for 105 days,
The subcutaneous tissue, which is not part of the skin, is whereas scalp hairs grow for 3 years and rest for 1 to 2 years.
sometimes called hypodermis. The loss of hair normally means that the hair is being
The subcutaneous tissue attaches the skin to underlying replaced because the old hair falls out of the hair follicle when
bone and muscle and supplies it with blood vessels and the new hair begins to grow.
nerves.
Hair color is determined by varying amounts and types of onto the nail body and the nail root extends distally from the
melanin. nail matrix.
With age, the amount of melanin in hair can decrease,
causing the hair color to become faded, or the hair can The nail also attaches to the underlying nail bed, which is
contain no melanin and be white. located distal to the nail matrix.
Each hair follicle is attached to smooth muscle cells called the The nail matrix and bed are epithelial tissue with a stratum
arrector pili muscle, which can contract and cause the hair to basale that gives rise to the cells that form the nail.
become perpendicular to the skin’s surface. A small part of the nail matrix, the lunula, can be seen through
the nail body as a whitish, crescent- shaped area at the base
Glands of the nail.
The major glands of the skin are the sebaceous glands and Cell production within the nail matrix causes the nail to grow
the sweat glands. continuously.
Sebaceous glands are simple, branched acinar glands, with
most being connected by a duct to the superficial part of a Integumentary System Protection
hair follicle. The integumentary system performs many protective
They produce sebum, an oily, white substance rich in lipids. functions:
The sebum is released by holocrine secretion and lubricates 1. Reduction in body water loss
the hair and the surface of the skin, which prevents drying 2. Acts as a barrier that prevents microorganisms and other
and protects against some bacteria. foreign substances from entering the body
3. Protects underlying structures against abrasion
There are two kinds of sweat glands: eccrine and apocrine. 4. Melanin absorbs ultraviolet light and protects underlying
Eccrine sweat glands are simple, coiled, tubular glands and structures from its damaging effects
release sweat by merocrine secretion. 5. Hair protection: The hair on the head acts as a heat
Eccrine glands are located in almost every part of the skin but insulator, eyebrows keep sweat out of the eyes, eyelashes
most numerous in the palms and soles. protect the eyes from foreign objects, and hair in the nose and
They produce a secretion that is mostly water with a few salts. ears prevents the entry of dust and other materials.
6. The nails protect the ends of the fingers and toes from
Eccrine sweat glands have ducts that open onto the surface damage and can be used in defense.
of the skin through sweat pores and are for thermal
regulation. Sensory Receptor
Sweat can also be released in the palms, soles, armpits, and Many sensory receptors are associated with the skin.
other places because of emotional stress. Receptors in the epidermis and dermis can detect pain, heat,
cold, and pressure.
Apocrine sweat glands are simple, coiled, tubular glands that Although hair does not have a nerve supply, sensory
produce a thick secretion rich in organic substances. receptors around the hair follicle can detect the movement of
The glands open into hair follicles in the armpits and genitalia. a hair.
Apocrine sweat glands become active at puberty because of
the influence of sex hormones. Vitamin D Production
The secretion generally is odorless, but when released 1. UV light causes the skin to produce a precursor molecule of
quickly breaks down by bacterial action giving body odor. vitamin D.
2. The precursor molecule is carried by the blood to the liver
where it is enzymatically converted.
Nails 3. The enzymatically converted molecule is carried by the
The nail is a thin plate, consisting of layers of dead stratum blood to the kidneys where it is converted again to the active
corneum cells that contain a very hard type of keratin. form of vitamin D.
The visible part of the nail is the nail body, and the part of the 4. Vitamin D stimulates the small intestine to absorb calcium
nail covered by skin is the nail root. and phosphate for many body functions.
The cuticle, or eponychium, is stratum corneum that extends
Skeletal system functions membranes is called intramembranous ossification.
 Support Bone formation that occurs inside hyaline cartilage is called
 Protect endochondral ossification.
 Movement Both types of bone formation result in compact and spongy
 Storage bone.
 Blood cell production
Intramembranous Ossification
Extracellular Matrix Intramembranous ossification occurs when osteoblasts begin
 Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of the skeletal to produce bone within connective tissue.
system are all connective tissues. This occurs primarily in the bones of the skull.
 Their characteristics are largely determined by the Osteoblasts line up on the surface of connective tissue fibers
composition of their extracellular matrix. and begin depositing bone matrix to form trabeculae.
 The matrix always contains collagen, ground substance,
and other organic molecules, as well as water and minerals. The process begins in areas called ossification centers and
the trabeculae radiate out from the centers.
Collagen Usually, two or more ossification centers exist in each flat
 is a tough, ropelike protein. skull bone and mature skull bones result from fusion of these
Proteoglycans centers as they enlarge.
 are large molecules consisting of many polysaccharides The trabeculae are constantly remodeled and they may
attaching to and encircling core proteins. enlarge or be replaced by compact bone.
 form large aggregates and attract water.
Endochondral Ossification
Tendons and Ligaments Endochondral bone formation is bone formation within a
 Their extracellular matrix contains large amounts of cartilage model.
collagen fibers, making these structures very tough, like The cartilage model is replaced by bone.
ropes or cables. Initially formed is a primary ossification center, which is bone
formation in the diaphysis of a long bone.
Cartilage Extracellular Matrix A secondary ossification center is bone formation in the
 contains collagen and proteoglycans. epiphysis.
 Collagen makes cartilage tough, whereas the water-filled
proteoglycans make it smooth and resilient. Steps in Endochondral Ossification
 As a result, cartilage is relatively rigid, but it springs back to 1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the chondroblasts
its original shape after being bent or slightly compressed. become chondrocytes.
 an excellent shock absorber. 2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens).
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage and a primary
Bone Extracellular Matrix ossification center forms diaphysis.
 contains collagen and minerals, including calcium and 4. Secondary ossification centers form epiphysis.
phosphate. 5. Original cartilage model is almost completely ossified and
 The ropelike collagen fibers lend flexible strength to the remaining cartilage is articular cartilage.
bone.
 The mineral component gives bone compression Bone Growth in Width
(weight-bearing) strength. Bone growth occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae
 Most of the mineral in bone is in the form of calcium onto existing bone or other connective tissue.
phosphate crystals called hydroxyapatite. As osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on the surface of
bones between the periosteum and the existing bone matrix,
Bone Formation the bone increases in width, or diameter.
Ossification is the formation of bone by osteoblasts. This process is called appositional growth.
Bone formation that occurs within connective tissue
Bone Growth in Length
Growth in the length of a bone, which is the major source of
increased height in an individual, occurs in the epiphyseal
plate.
This type of bone growth occurs through endochondral
ossification.
Chondrocytes increase in number on the epiphyseal side of
the epiphyseal plate.

Then the chondrocytes enlarge and die.

The cartilage matrix becomes calcified.
Much of the cartilage that forms around the enlarged cells is
removed by osteoclasts, and the dying chondrocytes are
replaced by osteoblasts.

Bone Growth in Length

The osteoblasts start forming bone by depositing bone
lamellae on the surface of the calcified cartilage.
This process produces bone on the diaphyseal side of the
epiphyseal plate.

Bone Remodeling
Bone remodeling involves:
• removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and
• deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
• occursinallbones
• responsible for changes in bone shape, bone
• repair, adjustment of bone to stress, and
• calciumionregulation

Bone Repair
1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a blood clot forms.
2. Callus forms which is a fibrous network between 2
fragments.
3. Cartilage model forms first then, osteoblasts enter the
callus and form cancellous bone this continues for 4-6 weeks
after injury.
4. Cancellous bone is slowly remodeled to form compact and
cancellous bone.

Bone and Calcium Homeostasis

Bone is a major storage site for calcium
Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps determine
blood levels of calcium
Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build new bone
Calcium move out of bone as osteoclasts break down bone
Calcium homeostasis is maintained by
parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin