Key Methods of Attitude Formation

1. Learning by Association:
o Example: Imagine a student likes their math teacher who is kind and helpful.
Over time, the student might start liking math itself because they associate the
positive feelings they have for the teacher with the subject.
o How It Works: When you connect positive or negative experiences with
something, it influences your attitude towards it. Just like the student
associates their positive feelings for the teacher with the subject, you might
start liking something just because it’s linked with something or someone you
already like.
2. Learning by Rewards and Punishments:
o Example: Suppose a child receives praise for eating vegetables. The praise
acts as a reward, making the child more likely to develop a positive attitude
towards eating vegetables. Conversely, if eating too much candy makes them
feel sick, they might develop a negative attitude towards candy.
o How It Works: When you get rewarded for certain behaviors or attitudes, you
are more likely to keep those attitudes. If you get punished or have bad
experiences because of certain behaviors, you might develop a negative
attitude towards those behaviors.
3. Learning by Observing Others:
o Example: A child sees their parents respecting elders and notices that this
behavior is appreciated. As a result, the child learns to respect elders too.
o How It Works: You learn attitudes by watching others and seeing the
outcomes of their actions. If others are rewarded for certain behaviors or
attitudes, you might imitate those behaviors or adopt those attitudes yourself.
4. Learning Through Group or Cultural Norms:
o Example: In some cultures, people often give gifts or offerings at temples. If
you see this behavior regularly and it’s accepted and expected, you might
develop a positive attitude towards these practices.
o How It Works: Norms are unwritten rules about how to behave in a group or
society. By following these norms, you form attitudes that align with what’s
accepted or expected in your culture. This learning can happen through
association, rewards and punishments, or by observing others.
5. Learning Through Exposure to Information:
o Example: Reading about successful people who emphasize hard work can
make you develop a positive attitude towards hard work as a way to achieve
success.
o How It Works: Even if you’re not interacting with people directly, the
information you get from books, media, and the internet can shape your
attitudes. Positive stories or facts about something can make you view it
positively, while negative information can have the opposite effect.

Factors Influencing Attitude Formation

Attitudes are formed based on various influences from our surroundings and experiences.
Here’s a more detailed, simplified explanation of the key factors that shape our attitudes:

1. Family and School Environment

  Family: Your family is usually the first place where you start forming attitudes. Parents and
siblings influence your views on many things. For instance, if your parents emphasize
honesty, you might develop a strong positive attitude towards being honest. This learning
happens through direct experiences, observing family members, and through rewards and
punishments. For example, if you are praised for telling the truth, you are more likely to
value honesty.
 School: As you grow older, your school environment plays a crucial role. Teachers,
schoolmates, and the overall school culture contribute to forming attitudes. For example, if
your school promotes teamwork and you experience positive interactions in team activities,
you might develop a positive attitude towards working in groups.

2. Reference Groups

 Definition: Reference groups are groups that you look up to or consider important in guiding
your behavior and beliefs. These groups might include friends, social clubs, or any group you
aspire to be part of.
 How They Influence: These groups set norms and expectations for behavior. During
adolescence, you might strongly align your attitudes with those of your reference group
because you want to fit in or be accepted. For example, if your peer group values academic
success, you might adopt a positive attitude towards studying to align with their views.

3. Personal Experiences

 Definition: Personal experiences are direct encounters or events that happen in your life,
influencing how you feel about different things.
 Example: Imagine you survived a life-threatening accident. This experience might lead you
to develop a new attitude towards life, valuing safety and taking fewer risks. Personal
experiences can be powerful and sometimes lead to significant changes in attitudes,
especially if they are impactful or emotional.

4. Media-Related Influences

 Definition: Media includes TV, movies, social media, news, and the internet. It provides vast
amounts of information that can shape your attitudes.
 How They Influence: The media can introduce you to new ideas, reinforce existing attitudes,
or change your views. For instance, watching a documentary about environmental
conservation might make you develop a positive attitude towards recycling and protecting
nature. However, media can also spread misinformation or biased views, leading to the
formation of potentially negative or misguided attitudes.

How Attitudes Can Change

Once attitudes are formed, they can still change over time. Here’s a simplified explanation of
how attitudes might change:

1. Balance Theory (Fritz Heider)

 Concept: Balance theory suggests that attitudes change to maintain a harmonious or

balanced state among different related beliefs.
 Example: Let’s say you like your friend (P), and your friend dislikes a certain activity (X), like
smoking. Initially, you might be neutral or even positive about smoking. To maintain balance,
 you might start disliking smoking too (aligning your attitude with your friend’s). This way,
your positive feeling towards your friend and the negative attitude towards smoking create a
balanced state.

2. Cognitive Dissonance (Leon Festinger)

 Concept: Cognitive dissonance occurs when you hold conflicting thoughts or beliefs, creating
discomfort. To reduce this discomfort, you might change one of the conflicting beliefs.
 Example: If you believe that smoking is bad for health but you smoke, this creates a conflict
(dissonance). To resolve this, you might stop smoking to align your behavior with your belief
that smoking is harmful. Alternatively, you might try to justify your smoking behavior by
downplaying its health risks.

3. Two-Step Process (S.M. Mohsin)

 Concept: This process involves changing attitudes in two steps. First, you identify with
someone you admire (source). Second, you observe their change in behavior and then
imitate it.
 Example: Imagine you admire a celebrity who decides to start a healthy lifestyle by
promoting a specific diet. You first feel a connection with the celebrity and want to be like
them. If the celebrity actually adopts this healthy lifestyle and you see the positive changes it
brings them, you might decide to follow the same diet, changing your attitude towards it.

Factors That Influence Attitude Change

Understanding why and how attitudes change can be complex, but certain factors play a
major role in influencing this process. Here's a simplified breakdown of these factors:

1. Characteristics of the Existing Attitude

 Valence: Whether an attitude is positive or negative. Positive attitudes are generally easier
to change than negative ones.
 Extremeness: Attitudes that are extreme (strongly positive or negative) are harder to change
than moderate ones.
 Simplicity or Complexity: Simple attitudes (focused on a single issue) are easier to change
than complex ones (involving multiple issues).
 Centrality: Attitudes that are central to a person’s values and beliefs are more resistant to
change than peripheral (less important) attitudes.

Types of Attitude Change:

 Congruent Change: The attitude changes in the same direction as the existing one (e.g.,
becoming more positive if already positive).
 Incongruent Change: The attitude changes in the opposite direction (e.g., a positive attitude
becoming negative).

Example: If you have a somewhat positive attitude towards exercise and read an article about
its benefits, your attitude might become more positive (congruent change). Conversely, if you
read about potential risks and start doubting its benefits, your positive attitude might lessen
(incongruent change).
2. Source Characteristics

 Credibility: Messages from credible sources (experts or respected individuals) are more
likely to change attitudes than those from less credible sources. For example, a doctor’s
advice on health issues is more convincing than advice from someone without medical
expertise.
 Attractiveness: Sometimes, a message is more persuasive if delivered by someone attractive
or likable. For instance, a popular celebrity promoting a product might be more persuasive
than a less well-known person.

Example: You might be more persuaded to buy a laptop if the recommendation comes from
a tech expert rather than a random person. Similarly, a celebrity endorsement might sway
your choice, even if the celebrity isn’t an expert in that product.

3. Message Characteristics

 Amount of Information: The effectiveness of a message depends on the right amount of

information—neither too much nor too little. Too much information can be overwhelming,
while too little can be unconvincing.
 Rational vs. Emotional Appeal: Whether a message appeals to logic (rational appeal) or
emotions (emotional appeal) can affect its impact. For example, an ad highlighting the cost-
saving benefits of a product uses a rational appeal, whereas one emphasizing how it
enhances family happiness uses an emotional appeal.
 Mode of Delivery: The way a message is delivered also matters. Face-to-face communication
is usually more effective than indirect methods like letters or mass media. Visual media like
TV and the internet can also be quite effective but might not fully replace personal
interactions.

Example: A campaign promoting Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS) for children might be more
effective if doctors or social workers discuss it directly with parents rather than just
broadcasting it on the radio.

4. Target Characteristics

 Persuasibility: People who are more open and flexible are more likely to change their
attitudes. Advertisers find such individuals easier to influence.
 Prejudices: Strong prejudices make attitude change difficult. People without strong biases
are more open to change.
 Self-Esteem: Those with low self-esteem may change their attitudes more easily, as they
might lack confidence in their current views. Conversely, people with high self-esteem might
resist change but could change willingly if they see logical reasons.
 Intelligence: More intelligent individuals might change their attitudes less frequently but are
open to change when they have enough information to think through the decision.

Example: Advertisers might target more open-minded individuals or those with lower self-
esteem for new products, while those with strong opinions or high self-esteem might require
more convincing arguments.
Attitude-Behaviour Relationship

Attitudes and behavior are generally expected to align, but this isn't always the case. Here are
the conditions under which they are more likely to be consistent:

 Strength and Centrality of Attitude: Strong and central attitudes are more likely to predict
behavior. If someone strongly believes in environmental conservation, they are more likely
to engage in recycling.
 Awareness: If a person is aware of their attitude, they are more likely to act on it. For
example, being aware of a positive attitude towards healthy eating increases the likelihood
of choosing nutritious foods.
 External Pressure: Lack of external pressure or group influence makes it more likely for
behavior to align with personal attitudes. For instance, if there’s no social pressure to drink
alcohol, someone with a negative attitude towards drinking is less likely to do so.
 Observation and Evaluation: When a person’s behavior isn't being watched or judged, they
are more likely to act according to their attitudes. For example, in private, people may act in
line with their attitudes without worrying about social approval.
 Perceived Consequences: If a person believes that their behavior will have a positive
outcome, they are more likely to act in line with their attitude. For example, if recycling is
believed to help the environment, someone with a positive attitude towards recycling is
more likely to do it.

Example: During a study in the U.S., hotels behaved positively towards a Chinese couple,
even though their stated attitudes towards Chinese people were negative. This showed a
discrepancy between attitude and behavior, illustrating that external factors or situational
contexts can influence behavior differently than attitudes would suggest.

Understanding Prejudice: Causes and Solutions

Prejudice refers to negative attitudes or feelings toward a particular group of people. These
attitudes are often based on stereotypes, which are oversimplified ideas about the
characteristics of a group. Let’s break down how prejudice works, its sources, and how it can
be addressed.

What is Prejudice?

 Stereotypes: These are generalizations about a group, suggesting all members share certain
traits. For example, assuming all elderly people are forgetful is a stereotype.
 Affective Component: This involves feelings of dislike or hatred towards a group. For
example, someone might feel animosity towards another race due to stereotypes.
 Behavioral Component: This is how prejudice translates into actions, known as
discrimination. Discrimination means treating people unfairly based on their group
membership, like denying someone a job because of their gender or ethnicity.

Example: During World War II, the Nazis had negative stereotypes about Jewish people,
which led to extreme prejudice, discrimination, and ultimately, the Holocaust.

Causes of Prejudice

1. Learning from Others

 o How Prejudice is Learned: Just like other attitudes, prejudices can be learned
through various means:
 Association: Linking certain groups with negative traits.
 Rewards and Punishments: Children might learn prejudice by observing
rewards for conforming to biased views or punishments for accepting
outgroup members.
 Observation: Watching and mimicking prejudiced behavior from family,
peers, or media.
 Cultural Norms: Societal norms and group beliefs can instill prejudices.

Example: A child might learn to dislike a certain ethnicity if they repeatedly hear
negative comments about that group from their parents.

2. Ingroup Bias and Social Identity

o Social Identity: People who strongly identify with their own group (ingroup) may
develop negative attitudes towards other groups (outgroups) to enhance their own
group’s image.
o Ingroup Bias: Preferring one’s own group and viewing it more favorably than
outgroups.

Example: Sports fans might dislike supporters of a rival team because it boosts their
sense of belonging and pride in their own team.

3. Scapegoating
o What It Is: This is blaming a weaker or smaller group (minority) for broader social or
economic problems faced by the majority.
o Why It Happens: It’s a way for the majority group to vent their frustrations and
avoid facing their own issues.

Example: During economic downturns, immigrants are sometimes unfairly blamed

for taking jobs, even if this isn't the actual cause of unemployment.

4. Kernel of Truth
o The Concept: Even if stereotypes are mostly false, they might persist because people
believe there must be some truth to them.
o How It Works: A few instances where the stereotype seems true can reinforce the
belief in its validity.

Example: If one or two members of a group conform to a stereotype, people might

think the stereotype applies to everyone in that group.

5. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
o How It Works: When people expect others to behave in a certain way based on
stereotypes, they might treat them in ways that actually encourage that behavior.
o Result: The target group behaves in a manner that confirms the stereotype, making
the prejudice seem justified.

Example: If teachers expect less from students of a certain background, those

students might perform poorly because they are not given the same encouragement or
resources.
Addressing and Reducing Prejudice

To reduce prejudice, we need to tackle its sources and manifestations. Here are some
strategies:

1. Education and Information

o What It Does: Educates people about the inaccuracies of stereotypes and promotes
understanding of different groups.
o How It Works: Providing accurate information can correct false beliefs and reduce
bias.

Example: Diversity training programs in workplaces teach employees about the

benefits of inclusivity and the harms of discrimination.

2. Increasing Intergroup Contact

o Direct Communication: Encourages direct interaction between groups to foster
understanding and reduce mistrust.
o Successful Conditions:
 Cooperative Context: Groups should work together towards common goals
rather than compete.
 Close Interactions: Personal, meaningful interactions help groups
understand each other better.
 Equal Status: Groups should interact as equals, not with one group
dominating the other.

Example: Integration programs in schools bring students from different backgrounds

together to work on projects, promoting cooperation and reducing stereotypes.

3. Emphasizing Individual Identity

o Reducing Group Bias: Encouraging people to see others as individuals rather than
just members of a group.
o How It Helps: Weakens the influence of group-based evaluations and reduces the
importance of stereotypes.

Example: In workplaces, emphasizing individual achievements and abilities rather

than focusing on group characteristics (like race or gender) can reduce bias.